Mahmood 014921162

MOMENT-ROTATION CHARACTERISTICS
OF REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS NEAR JOINTS
ODO
KHALID MAHMOOD
ODO
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the J

[ requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of New South Wales, Australia.
July 197~
0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Professor A. S. Hall and
Dr. G. C. Lacey, the supervisors of this thesis, for their valuable

guidance. Thanks are also extended to Associate Professors
F. E. Archer and R. F. Warner, who supervised the work in earlier
stages, for their advice and encouragement.
The author is grateful for the assistance given to him
by the members of the staff of the Structural Laboratories and
School Workshop.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to the
Australian Government in providing an award under the Commonwealth
Scholarship and Fellowship Plan and the Government of Pakistan, in
nominating him for it.
Finally, the author would like to thank Mrs. L. Forbes
for typing the manuscript and Mr. N. Dickson for tracing the
diagrams.
ODO
ABSTRACT
An investigation is reported of the general behaviour,
crack pattern and moment-rotation characteristics of beam members near
knee joints.
Tests were carried out on simply supported beams and knee
joint specimens (with and without shear reinforcement in the joint
block) subjected to bending moment closing the right angle. It is
demonstrated that the moment-rotation characteristics of the hinging
regions of beams near joints are different from those of simply
supported beams. The percentage of tension reinforcement and size
of the joint block influence the post-yield behaviour and a part of
the plastic hinge may spread into the joint block.
When there is no shear reinforcement in the joint block,
shear and bond may cause the joint block failure before the beam
member develops its ultimate flexural strength. However, by proper
detailing and designing of reinforcement in the joint block, the
beam member may reach its ultimate ~oment and a hinge with predictable
characteristics may form there.
A method is also developed for theoretical evaluation of
moment-rotation characteristics. The suitability of the method is
demonstrated by its application to the test specimens.

000
CONTENTS
Page No.
NOTATION vi
ABBREVIATIONS xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General 1
1.2 The Aim s
CHAPTER 2 MOMENT-ROTATION CHARCTERISTICS

OF REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Moment-Curvature and Moment-

Rotation Concepts 11
2.3 A Survey of the Present State

of Knowledge 18
i
ii
Page No.
2.3.1 Methods for Evaluating Moment-

Rotation Characteristics 18
2.3.2 Factors Affecting the Moment-

Rotation Characteristics 33
CHAPTER 3 JOINTS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
3.1 Continuity of Reinforced Concrete
Structures 46
3.2 Types of Joints 47
3.3 A Survey of the Present State of

Knowledge of the Behaviour of Joints
and the Members Framing into Them 49
3.4 Conclusions 60
CHAPTER 4 PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS
4.1 Layout of the Experimental Programme 62
4.2 Materials and Fabrication 63
4.3 Instrumentation 69
4.3.1 Strain Gauges 70
4.3.2 Rotation Gauges 73
4.3.3 Deflection Gauges 75
4.3.4 Load Measurement 78
4.4 Reduction of Test Data 78

iii
Page No.
CHAPTER 5 DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF TESTS

ON SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS (SERIES 'A')
5.1 Object and Scope 79
5.2 Design of Test Specimens 80
5.3 Test Set-Up and Procedure 83
5.4 General Behaviour 86
5.5 Analysis of Test Data 90
5.6 Effect of Method of Testing 92
5.7 Segments Behaviour 96
5.8 Central Moment-(Total) Rotation Curves 100
5.9 Compression Strain Distribution 103
5.10 Theoretical Evaluation of Moment-

Rotation Characteristics of Beam
Specimens Using Existing Methods 106
,.r.-.

ON KNEE JOINTS (SERIES 1 8 1 )
6.1 Object and Scope 114
6.2 Properties of the Specimens 115
6.3 Theoretical Moment Capacity of

Beam Members 118
6.4 Test Set-Up and Procedure 118
6.6 Deformations in the Joint Block and

the Beam Member Near the Joint 128
6.7 Analysis of Stresses in the Joint

Block 139
iv
Page No.
6.8 Influence of Gauge Length on

Measured Curvatures or Rotations 142
6.9 Analysis of Test Data 144
6.10 Moment-Rotation Characteristics 147
6.11 Discussion 153

WITH REINFORCED JOINTS (SERIES 'C')
7.1 Object 157

7.2 Design of Joint Reinforcement 158
7.3 Properties of the Specimens and
Test Procedure 163
7.5 Deformations in the Joint Block and
the Beam Member Near the Joint 168
/
7.6 Moment-Rotation Characteristics 172
CHAPTER 8 PROPOSED METHOD FOR THEORETICAL EVALUATION

OF MOMENT-ROTATION CHARACTERISTICS
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Idealization of M-0 Curve 176
8.3 Hinge Models 176
8.4 Development of a Hinge Model 180

V
Page No.
8.5 Analysis of a Hinge Model 181
8.5.1 Analysis of Flexural Crack Hinge 182
8.5.2 Analysis of Shear Crack Hinge 187
8.6 Hinges Near Joints (Corner Hinges) 191
8.7 Application of Proposed Method to

the Test Specimens 194
8.7.1 Stress-Strain Relationship for

Concrete 195
8.7.2 Stress-Strain Relationship for

Steel 197
8.7.3 Method of Solution for a Flexural

Crack Element 198
8.7.4 Presentation of the Theoretical

Results 200
8.8 Comparison with Experimental Results 209
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS
9.1 Conclusions 215
9.2 Suggestions for Further Research 218
APPENDIX 'A' REFERENCES 219

NOTATION
A depth of the neutral axis from the compression face

n
A area of tension reinforcement

s
A. area of one tie in the joint block

VJ
b width of rectangular section
C standard cube strength of concrete

u
D diameter of the reinforcing bar

d effective depth or depth of tension steel from
extreme compression fibre
E modulus of elasticity
E modulus of elasticity of concrete
C
E modulus of elasticity of steel

s
strain hardening modulus of steel
vi
'
vii.
ec E /E"'; concrete strain ratio

C C
es E /E
s sy ; steel strain ratio
F E.I; flexural rigidity
f concrete stress
C
f"' cylinder strength of cor1crete

C
fct modulus of rupture of concrete
f steel stress
s
f sy' f steel stress at yield point

y
h horizontal projection of inclined crack
I moment of inertia
j lever arm factor
K constant depending on type of reinforcement [Eq. 2 .12]
k"' ratio of strength of concrete in flexure to standard

cylinder strength
k1 parameter for influence of type of tension steel

(Baker's methods)
k2 parameter for influen.ce of axial load (Baker's methods)
k3 parameter for influence of grade of concrete (Baker's

methods)
R, length of ~ember
R,B beam length
R, column length
C
R,
g gauge length over which strain is measured
viii
i plastic length on one side of critical section

p
M bending moment
.
MX bending moment at a distance 'x' from a fixed
point (e.g. beam support)
M bending moment corresponding to yielding of the steel

y
M ultimate bending moment
u
n number of elements in the hinging length
nu, n2 ratio of neutral axis depth to effective depth at

limit L2 (Baker's methods)
A
s
p bd x 100; percentage of tension steel
p~ percentage of binding steel (volume ratio)
R radius of curvature
save average crack spacing
s f /k,f,; concrete stress ratio

C C C
s f /f ; steel stress ratio

s s sy
force carried by tension reinforcement
T force carried by stirrups transversing the inclined

w crack
t thickness of concrete cover measured from centre of

reinforcing bar closest to concrete surface [Eq. 2.12]
V shear force
ix
V ultimate shear capacity of unreinforced section

C
external shear force at distance 'x' from a fixed

point (e.g. beam support)
nominal shear stress at which flexural-shear

cracks appear
V . ultimate nominal shear stress of concrete in the

UJ joint block ~
z shear span
parameters defining the stress-strain characteristics

of concrete and steel
0 deflection at a point
£ longitudinal strain
concrete strain
compression concrete strain corresponding to maximum

stress
compression concrete strain at Limit L1 = 0.002

or actual value corresponding to steel yielding
(Baker I s method)
£ compression concrete strain at Limit L2

cu
£ limiting compression strain in bound concrete given by

C2
Eq. 2.9 (Baker and Amarakone's method)
£ steel strain
s
£sh steel strain at the onset of strain-hardening
£ steel strain corresponding to first yielding of the

sy' £y
steel
£ maximum compression strain in concrete given by

u
Eq. 2.10 (Carley's method)
X
member length over which inelastic curvature is

assumed (Ernst's method)
curvature at a section
curvature corresponding to yield moment
curvature corresponding to ultimate moment
a rotation over a length of a member
beam+ joint block rotation
ae. .
rotation o f 1. th h.inge e 1emen t
1
joint block rotation
ap permissible hinge rotation (inelastic rotation) on

one side of critical section Eqs. 2.5, 2.6 and 2.8
(Baker's methods)
total rotation of the hinging segment, obtained by

summing the rotations of 'n' hinge elements
total rotation of the hinging segment at first

yielding of steel
total rotation of the hinging segment at ultimate

or failure moment
Note: Symbols are defined when they first appear in the text.
In the literature survey (Chapters 2 and 3) the notation
used by the original authors is, as far as possible,
retained. The following notation adopted by Corley
(Ref. 1.9) conf~icts with the general usage adopted else-
where and, therefore, is stated separately.
curvature at commencement of yield of the tension

reinforcement
curvature at ultimate
xi
rotation occurring in a length of beam equal to d/2

at commencement of yield of tension reinforcement
~u rotation in length d/2 at ultimate
inelastic rotation at ultimate, occurring within a

length d/2 to one side of the section of maximum moment
total inelastic rotation at ultimate, occurring between

the section of maximum moment and an adjacent section
of zero moment
ABBREVIATIONS
ACI American Concrete Institute.

(J-ACI - Journal of American Concrete Institute).
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers.
C &CA Cement and Concrete Association (London).
C.E.B. Comite Europeen du Beton.
ETH Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule (ZUrich).
IABSE International Association for Bridge and Structural
Engineering.
ISFMRC International Symposium on Flexural Mechanics of
Reinforced Concrete.
(Miami, November 1964).
in. Inch
k Kips
k-in Kip-inches
xii
xiii
ksi, k.s.i. Kips per square inch
lbs. Pounds
psi Pounds per square inch

rad. Radians
\If" Wide flange
REINFORCEMENT SIZES
No. 3 or# 3 3/8 in. dia.

No. 4 or# 4 1/2 in. dia.
No. 5 or# 5 5/8 in. dia.
No. 6 or# 6 3/4 in. dia.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
In recent years, considerable improvements have taken place
in our llllderstanding of steel and concrete structures. The "Limit
Design" or "Plastic Design" methods of steel structures have been
fully developed and most of the design codes have included them
as one of the recognised methods of design and analysis.
Methods of "Ultimate Load Design" or "Limit Design" of
concrete structures have also been presented (Ref. 1.1 - 1.6)
which take into accollllt the redistribution of internal actions at
high loads at various points of the structure. These methods are
not yet fully developed. ·
1
2
A Limit Design solution should satisfy the following
conditions of structural analysis (Ref. 1.7):
(i) Limit equilibrium.
(ii) Rotation compatibility.
(iii) Serviceability.
Limi~ equilibrium requires the equilibrium of the structure
at "Limit" or "Ultimate" loads and the validity of hinging conditions
at proper points defining the mode of failure.
The condition of rotation compatibility which is not
important for simple plastic design of steel structures, implies
that for the successful transformation of a structure to a mechanism,
the inelastic rotation of every region should be within its rotation
capacity. This means that the process of formation of "plastic
hinges" towards a mechanism may have to be abandoned if at any stage
during the load increase the rotation capacity of any one of the
"hinges" is exceeded.
A check on condition of serviceability ensures efficient-
and trouble-free behaviour (limited cracking, deflection etc.) of
the structure at service load.
From the above discussion, it follows that the successful
application of "Limit Design" methods to concrete structures requires
a knowledge of the deformational behaviour of those regions of a

3
structure which will transform it into a mechanism. Those regions
have often been termed "plastic hinges". Plastic hinges may form
near the centre of a member or near the joints of two or more
members. The deformational behaviour of a section and a member
as a whole can be best examined by the moment-curvature and moment-
rotation characteristics respectively.
Experimental work (Ref. 1.8 - 1.14) has previously been
carried out in an attempt to study the moment-curvature and moment-
rotation characteristics of reinforced concrete members and the

'
rotation capacity of the hinging regions. Mathematical expressions
based on experimental work have been presented (Ref.· 1. 2, 1. 8, 1. 9)
for calculating the yield and ultimate moments and inelastic
rotations.
Moment-curvature and moment-rotation characteristics
are influenced by many variables, yet only a few have been studied
directly. The effect of some of the parameters is known
qualitatively but not quant~tatively. Individual investigators
seem to differ even on basic definitions like hinging length and·
the inelastic rotation capacity.
Most of the e:,g,erimental work has been carried out on
simply supported beams with single or two point loadings. Loading
conditions of a simply supported beam with a central load are

4
similar to those of an interior support of a continuous beam,
between two points of contraflexure. These conditions are quite
different near the joints of a multi-storey frame where two or more
members join together. In a recent investigation for finding
suitable model to study the interior span beam-column joints,
Burnett and Jajoo (Ref. 1.12) have shown that the presence of
column and column load have considerable effect on the behaviour
of hinging regions near joints. The validity of simply supported
experimental model is therefore questionable for conditions near

'
joints of reinforced concrete frames.
In the case of two or more members joining together,
additional deformations take place in the region common to all
the members, often referred to as the joint block. Very little
is known about the behaviour of this joint block and the influence
of different variables on its behaviour. Magni tud_e of deformations
in this block can affect the load carrying capacity and overall
behaviour of the members framing into it.
In the analysis of concrete structures based on elastic
or classical methods, these joint blocks are often assumed to be
rigid with the flexible l.engths of the members taken as the clear
distance between the blocks. This assumption under-estimates the

5
frame flexibility (Ref. 1. 15) Alternatively, the flexible le_ngth
is taken as the centre line distance of the members and this,
obviously, over-estimates the frame flexibility.
The formulae so far presented for calculating the in-
elastic rotations of hinging regions make no distinction between
the hinges forming at the middle of the span or near the joint.
Therefore, these methods do not take into account the effect of
block deformations on the rotation capacity of the member or include
these deformations in the total inelastic~rotation of the hinging
region.
The above discussion shows that the field of the behaviour
of the members near joints and the joint block itself requires a
considerable study.
1. 2 The Aim
The purpose of this investigation was to obtain a better
understanding of the behaviour of the reinforced concrete members
near joints. This behaviour has been studied with respect to the
moment-rotation characteristics of the members and the joint block.
Many types of joints are possible in reinforced concrete
frames. In this investigation, only one type of joint, the knee
joint, has been examined. The study was further restricted to the
examination of the performance of the beam member as influenced

6
by the proximity of the column member of the knee joint. Variables
affecting the behaviour of members and joint block are too many
and it was not possible to cover all of them. Steel percentage,
column dimensions and the joint block reinforcement were the main
variables considered. Again, it was not possible to examine fully
these variables.
The study began with experimental work on simply supported
beam specimens. This set of experiments was designed with the
following objectives: ~
1. To examine the behaviour of the beam specimens under
increasing loads up to maximum.
2. To obtain fundamental information on the factors
influencing the moment-rotation characteristics of
reinforced concrete members, and
3. To compare the experimental results with values of
moments, curvatur.es and rotations obtained from different
existing expressions.
A beam test was performed to provide a basis for
comparison of the behaviour of the same member under different
loading and restraining conditions.
The second and third set of experiments were carried

7
out on knee joints with the following objectives:
1. To examine the behaviour (moment-rotation character-
istics) of the joints and the members framing into them
up to maximum loads.
2. To evaluate the effect of column dimensions on the moment-
rotation relationship of the beam member.
3. To determine the influence of the strength and stiffness
of the joint block on the mom~nt-rotation character-
istics of the beam member.
These two series of experiments led to a comparison with
and a study of the results obtained from the first series.
The deformations and crack formation were examined in
the joint block for designing and proper detailing of any extra
reinforcement required in this region.
In addition to experimental work, a theoretical study·
was made to determine the moment-rotation characteristics of re-
inforced concrete members taking into account different variables
affecting this relationship.

CHAPTER 2
MOMENT-ROTATION CHARACTERISTICS
OF REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS
2.1 Introduction
If a short segment of reinforced concrete beam or a
steel \!If' beam is subjected to a bending moment 'M', the two faces
of the segment will rotate through an angle 1 8 1 with respect to
one another. For all values of 'M' a moment-rotation relationship
can be established for the segment.
In the case of a steel beam, this moment-rotation relation-
ship can be idealized by two straight lines as shown in Fig. 2.1
(Ref. 2.1). After the elastic limit is reached, the curve approaches
rapidly to a horizontal line 'AB' corresponding to the plastic
moment of the section. The segment acts as a "moment-resisting"
8
9
IDEALIZED
PLASTIC HINGE ( M =Mp)
B
MP
My
.
.
Fl I
....z
w
~
0 I I
~
w
UNIT
LENGTf.t
REA.L HINGE ( M = Q,)
0
UNIT ROTATION
FIG. 2.1 TYPICAL M-8 RELATIONSHIP

FOR VF BEAM.
10
hinge in a structure, possessing indefinite rotation. These "moment-
resisting" hinges are called plastic hinges. The plastic hinge.
concept is the basis of plastic design of steel structures and
limit design of concrete structures.
In reinforced concrete structures, a plastic hinge is
defined (Ref. 2.2 and 2.3) as a region where inelastic deformations
occur due to crushing of concrete and yielding of tension reinforce-
ment, or both. At such a hinge, a relatively large increase in
rotation is obtained with a small change in moment. Unlike the
plastic hinges in steel, the plastic hinges in reinforced concrete
possess a limited inelastic rotation or rotation capacity. The
shape of moment-rotation curve and rotation capacity of the hinging
regions in reinforced concrete members are very much influenced by
the properties and proportioning of constituent materials (Ref. 2.4).
This makes the application of simple plastic theory unacceptable ·
for design of concrete structures: The importance of moment-rotation
characteristics of hin~ing regions is, therefore, increased while
considering redistribution of internal actions in concrete structures.
Different limit design theories even differ on the shape of the
idealized moment-rotation curves for reinforced concrete members
(Ref. 2.4). Elastic-plastic, elastic-hardening and elastic-hardening-

11
softening curves have been assumed for the behaviour of reinforced
concrete members (Fig. 2.2).
Moreover, inelastic action in reinforced concrete is
accompanied by visible cracking, spalling and crushing of concrete,
whereas yielding in steel structures can hardly be detected (Ref. 2.5).
Therefore, in order to ensure a "crack free" structure at service
loads, the behaviour of reinforced concrete members must be known
in the working range. Hence, a complete determination of moment-
rotation characteristics becomes a prime factor in any limit design
method of concrete structures.
2.2 Moment-Curvature and Moment-Rotation Concepts
In the theory of plane bending, the element deformations

determine the curvature of the member at a section (Ref. 2.6):
1 d0 ...•. 2 .1
= R = dx
where dx = length of the elemental slice.
d0 = angle between the two faces of the element. The
faces are assumed to be parallel before deformation.
R = radius of curvature, and
cf> = curvat.ure at that point.
The total rotation, et over the member length (i.e. the

12
·Mu
FAILURE
I-
z
w
~
0
~
ROTATION
(c) ELASTIC - PLASTIC

~
Mu
FAILURE
My
I-
z
w
2:
0
~
.
ROTATION
(b) ELASTIC -HARDENING
Mu -- ------ --- --- -- --- --
FAILURE
' 1-
z
l&.I
:l:
0
:J:
ROTATION
(c) ELASTIC-HARDENING-SOFTENING
FIG. 2.2 ASSUMED M-8 RELATIONSHIPS FOR

•
CONCRETE MEMBERS. c REF. 2.4 >
. .
13
change of slope) is given by:
= .t;_4>.dx ..... 2. 2
where = length of the member.
Therefore, curvature defines the deformational behaviour
at a section whereas rotation defines the deformation behaviour

of the member over a length. Moreover, the rotation of a member
is the area under the curve defining the curvature distribution
along the length for any particular load stage.
Just like the moment-rotation relationship for the member

segment, the behaviour of a particular section cart be described
by moment-curvature relationship. For linear elastic behaviour,
the relationship between curvature and bending moment is:
M
4> =
EI •.... 2. 3
The product EI = F is also called the "flexural rigidity",
.. 4> =
M
F
.•... 2. 3a
and ...•• 2. 4
14
i.e. when E~ (= ~) is known at each point, the rotation (and de-

flection) can be obtained by integration.
In the past few years much work has been done experiment-
ally as well as theoretically, to establish moment-curvature (M-~)
relationships for reinforced concrete sections. No single relation-
ship is yet available for universal application to all the cases.
More recent research has been directed towards the establishment of
moment-rotation (M-0) characteristics for reinforced concrete members.
According to Burnett (Ref. 2.7), reinforced concrete

members, except in the uncracked range, exhibit a non-linear moment-
curvature relationship, which varies from section to section.
The moment-curvature relationship for the mid-span section
cannot be used to determine the curvature distribution along the
member length and the total rotation. Similarly, this moment-
curvature relation cannot be used to determine the curvature
for any identical cross-section in any different structural system.
The moment-curvature relationship, which is a member section
property, not only depends on section parameters, but also on many
other factors, such as the load distribution, rate of loading and
position of the section in the structural system. Therefore, Burnett
recommends the use of a moment-rotation relationship, which is the

15
characteristic of the member as a whole or that of a length of
member (hinging length) and not the property of an individual section.
Burnett and Yu (Ref. 2.8) are of the view that in the
case of a member having different moment-curvature relationships,
the application of the moment-curvature concept to any design method
would require the knowledge of this relationship at every section.
According to Burnett and Yu, in the case of under-
reinforced members with mild-steel reinforcement, it is practically
impossible to determine the moment-curvature relationship at the
critical section after yielding of the steel (Ref. 2.7 and 2.8). The
moment-rotation relationship gives a better picture of the member
behaviour.
British Standards Institution Council for Codes of
Practice (Ref. 2.9) is of the view that the moment-curvature relation-
ship for a member section can be predicted up to the first crushi_ng
of concrete on the compression face. The behaviour beyond this point
is more complex and cannot be predicted by the stress-strain relations
of constituent materials.
Beyond the point of first crushing, rotations occur in
a short length of the member. It is considered convenient, therefore,
to use the moment-rotation (M-0) behaviour of such regions rather
than the moment-curvature behaviour of the critical sections. The

16
rotation beyond the first concrete crushing depends on the degree
of lateral restraint provided to the compression face, the amount
of this rotation capacity being calculated from the available
experiemental data.
,
Rosenblueth and de Cossio (Ref. 2.10) consider the case
of a member whose moment-curvature relation has a descending branch.
According to their approach, a certain "contaminated" length of the
member near the region of maximum moment controls the behaviour
of the member as a whole. After this length reaches the peak
value of its moment-curvature relation it undergoes further deformation
with decreasing moment. If the member is statically determinate,
the moment will decrease thro_ughout and except within the "contaminated"
length the curvature will also decrease. In the descending branch
of M-<1> curve for the "contaminated" length, the curvature increases
at a faster rate and an increased total rotation is obtained with a
decreasing moment. A similar approach for dealing with the deform-
ational behaviour of reinforced concrete members was presented by
Barnard (Ref. 2.11) in the same symposium in which Rosenblueth and
de Cossio presented their paper. Barnard calls the "contaminated"
regions as the "discontinuity" le_ngths.
This interesting phenomenon was observed experimentally

by Somes (Ref. 1.13) during tests on prestressed concrete rectangular
beams. Referring to his beam no. 21, the regions developing concrete
crushing followed the descending branch of their moment-measured

17
curvature curve, while the other regions followed the unloading
branch under decreasing moment (Fig. 38 in Ref. 1.13). The moment-
total rotation curve showed increased rotation with decreasing moment.
According to Thomas and Sozen (Ref. 2.12), the moment-
curvature approach was abandoned in favour of a moment-(direct)
rotation approach due to the reason that it was difficult to agree
on a realistic "spread length" over which inelastic curvature occurs
for all cases of plastic hingi_ng.
It is the author's opinion that during the experiments
on test beams the curvature is calculated by considering the deform-
ations taking place over a finite. gauge length

. 'ig '· In fact, it
is not the curvature that is being measured, but the rotation 1 81
occurring in length 'i '. The curvature 1 0/i ' is then calculated
. . g g
on the assumption of uniform distribution of curvature in length
Ii f
g
In reinforced concrete members cracking plays an important
part. The cracks cause discontinuities in the "curvature"
distribution along the length of the member. Therefore, the measured
"curvature" will very much depend on the gauge length over which
it is measured. This will naturally introduce a scatter in the
experimental results and will create a difficulty in co-relating
experimental results with theoretical moment-curvature relationship.

18
The moment-rotation approach seems to be superior from an experi-
mental point of view.
As mentioned earlier, the limit design of concrete
structures requires a check on the rotation capacity of the hinging
regions. Hence the efforts should be made to establish the moment-
rotation relationships for such regions.
In the author's view, the moment-curvature and the moment-
rotation concepts are very much inter-related. A complete moment-
curvature relationship for a member section can be obtained if the
stress-strain characteristics of constituent materials are known
at all stages of loading. From the synthesis of moment-curvature
relationships for different sections along the length of the member,
the moment-rotation relationship can be established.
Due consideration should be given to moment-curvature
characteristics of the "control" element or "contaminated" region
(or "discontinuity" length) in order to obtain the descending branch
of the moment-rotation relationship.
2.3 A Survey of the Present State of Knowledge
In this section, moment-rotation characteristics of
reinforced concrete members will be discussed in the light of
previous experimental and theoretical investigations.
2.3.1 Methods for Evaluating Moment-Rotation Characteristics.

Most of the methods (Refs. 1:8, 1.9, 2.2, 2.13) suggested
19
for calculating inelastic rotations assume these rotations to be
a product of inelastic curvature at the section of maximum moment
and a certain length of the member over which the inelastic curv-
ature occurs. Expressions have been proposed for calculating
inelastic curvature and the "spread" length (or plastic lengtn)
so that the theoretical results conform to experimental values.
In 1956, Baker presented an ultimate load theory for
analysis of reinforced and prestressed concrete frames (Refs. 1.1,
1.2, 2.2, 2.14, 2.15).
Accordi_ng to his theory, an indeterminate frame of n th
order is transformed into a determinate frame by means of suitably
positioned 'n' plastic hinges. The load corresponding to n th hinge
is taken as the ultimate load. An elastic-plastic moment-rotation
relationship (Fig. 2.3) is assumed for each hinge. A check is made
to ensure that the rotation capacity of no hinge exceeds its limit.
The elastic-plastic moment-rotation relationship is ob-
tained from a moment-curvature relationship of the same shape for
the critical section in the region. rwo methods (old and new)
have been suggested for obtaining the points L1 and L2 of the curve
(M-0 or M-<j>) and the inelastic rotation ep (see Fig.

. 2. 3) •
Old Method: Baker (Ref. 1.2, 2.2).
In the old method, the limit 'L1' is said to be reached
when either the reinforcing steel attains a strain of 0.001 (strain

.20
t-
z
11J
::t
0
::t
--- ACTUAL
- IDEALIZED
ROTATION
FIG. 2.3 MOMENT-ROTATION RELATIONSHIP

AFTER BAKER. ( REF. 1.2)
21
at the beginning of yielding) or concrete attains a compressive

strain of e:
ce
The limit 'L2' is assumed to be attained when either
the steel attains a strain of 0.01 or concrete reaches a compressive

strain e: (defined below).
cu .
The inelastic rotation 0 is given by the formula:
p
e: - e:
0 =
cu ce. 1p ••••• 2. S
p n d
u
when tension occurs at a critical section, or
e:cu - e: ce_
0 = 1 •••.. 2. 6
p d p
when no tension occurs across the section; '1' is the plastic

p
length and is given by the formula:
1 = ..... 2. 7
p
The recommended values are:
e:
ce = 0.002 or actual value corresponding to limit
L1 of steel.
22
E = 0.0035 for unbound concrete

cu
= 0.012 for well-bound concrete.
= 0.7 for mild steel, and
= 0.9 for cold worked steel.
ks = 0.6 when cu = 6000 psi, and

= 0.9 when c = 2000 psi.
u
C
u
= cube strength of concrete.
k2 relates to the ratio axial load/bending moment

and is unity for flexural members.
New Method: Baker and Amarakone (Ref. 1.2).

According to the new method presented by Baker and
Amarakone, the revised formula for inelastic rotation ap is:
= ..... 2. 8
where E is the limiting compressive strain in bound concrete and

C2
is given by the formula:

23
< 0.01 ...•. 2. 9
p" is the percentage of binding steel (vol. ratio).

n 2 defines the position of neutral exis at the limit L2.
= 0.002 or the actual value if steel attains
the limit L1.
Experimental Verification of Baker's Method:
Baker and Amarakone (Ref. 1.2) used the idealized moment-
rotation relationship employing the old and new method for a comparison
with the experimental curves obtained at different laboratories under
C.E.B. programme (Ref. 2.16). They made the following main conclusions:
(i) The uncertain value of concrete compressive strain is
the main parameter influen<::ing the inelastic rotation.

(ii) The old method for calculating 8 gives low results when
p
n 2 is about 0 ..5. The new method gives reasonable results
for any value of n 2 for any ratio of axial load/bending

moment and for various percentages of binding steel.
(iii) The calculated permissible rotations
. 0p show that it is
unwise to analyse concrete structures by simple plastic
theory without checking the hinge rotations.
24
Cranston (Ref. 2.17) and Cracknell (Ref. 2.18) carried
out tests on portal frames with pinned feet (Ref. 2.17) and fixed
feet (Ref. 2.18). The behaviour of the frames was studied up to
and beyond the maximum loads when sufficient hinges have formed to
transform the structure into a mechanism. The hinges formed near
the mid-span of the beam member as well as near the corners in
pinned frames and additional hinges formed near the feet in columns
in the case of fixed feet portal frames. From this experimental
work, they concluded (Ref. 2.18) that reinforced concrete frames
can be designed on the basis of mechanism behaviour at collapse.
This conclusion is contrary to Baker's theory (Ref. 2.2) in which
the design is based on the state of frame when sufficient hinges
have formed to make it statically determinate.
Cranston and Cracknell used Baker's old and the new methods
of constructing theoretical moment-rotation curves for the hinging
regions as suggested by Baker and Amarakone (Ref. 1.2, 2.2). The
theoretical curves were compared with the experimental results
obtained from tests on portal frames (Ref. 2.17, 2.18). Cranston
(Ref. 2.17) observed that the two methods (old and new) show a
considerable difference ~n calculated rotations, the new method
always giving larger rotations. Cranston and Cracknell (Ref. 2.18)

concluded that the new method generally under-estimated the hinge
25
rotations and therefore offered a safe lower bound only. Most
of the observed moment-rotation curves showed a descending branch
also, which was not taken into account by this method. The experi-
mental maximtml moments also exceeded the calculated values in most
of the cases.
Somes (Ref. 1. 13) tested seven prestressed concrete beams
to find out their moment-rotation characteristics and used the new
method of Baker and Amarakone (Ref. 1.2) for comparison with experi-
mental results (Ref. 2.19). He concluded that the method over-

1
estimates the hinge rotation if the descending branch of observed
moment-rotation curve is not considered. The method gives a "safe"
estimate if the rotations corresponding

.
to 0.95 Mu on the descending
branch of M-8 curve are considered for comparison with the theoretical
values.
It may be emphasised here that the safe rotation in all
these conclusions meant a lower bound to the inelastic rotation.
In almost all cases, there was considerable rotation after the
point of first crushing (limit asstmled in the method) as well as
in the descending branch of the M-8 curve. From the above discussion,
it can be concluded that .the method suggested by Baker and Amarakone
for evaluating the moment-rotation characteristics of reinforced
concrete members may give a simple idealization for plastic theory

26
but certainly does not represent the actual behaviour of the members.
Ernst also suggested an elastic-plastic moment-curvature
relationship for reinforced concrete sections in his limit design
theory (Ref. 1.6). The inelastic curvature is assumed to be
concentrated over a length "A". The curvature is calculated from
the concrete and steel strains.
Mattock (Ref. 1.8) and Corley (Ref. 1.9) conducted a
considerable amount of experimental work in two series of tests on
simply supported beams to study their behaviour with respect to
moment-curvature and moment-rotation characteristics.
They also developed a theoretical analysis to determine
the moment-curvature relationship at the section of maximum moment.
A bi-linear elastic-hardening curve was assumed instead of an elastic-
plastic curve used by Baker and by Ernst. The curvatures were
calculated from stress-strain relationships for steel and concrete.
The strain hardening of reinforcing steei was included in the stress-
strain relationship for steel and this provided a better estimate
of ultimate moment and neutral axis (Ref. 1.9). The curvature
varies inversely with the neutral axis depth and directly with
maximum concrete strain. Hence, a better estimate of curvature is
obtained with a better value of neutral axis depth.
On the evidence of test data, Mattock (Ref. 1.8) suggested
semi-emplrical expressions for maximum compressive concrete strain

27
and the rotation capacity of hinging regions. After the availability
of further test data, Corley (Ref. 1.9) modified these expressions.
Only modified expressions are mentioned here.
The ultimate point on the moment-curvature diagram is
said to be reached (Ref. 1.9) when maximum strain in concrete attains
a limiting value given by:
£
u
= 0.003 + 0.02
b
(""f)
p
Z + 20
y 2
.•... 2. 10
where b = width of compressive face of member.

//
p = ratio of volume of binding steel.
f
y
= yield point stress of tension reinforcement
in psi.
The curvature at the section of maximum moment is assumed

d
to be occurring over a length 2 to one side of the section of maximum
moment. Therefore, the curvature multiplied by length~ gives the
rotation on one side of critical section. During the experiments,
it was noticed that some inelastic rotations occur outside the

d
length 2 and to include them, the following relation was suggested
by Corley (Ref. 1,9):
9 tu 0.4 Z
1 + -
a-= - + d ••••• 2 .11
u ~
28
d
where = inelastic rotation occurring within length 2
to one side of section of maximum moment.
= inelastic rotation at ultimate moment, occurring
between sections of maximum moment and adjacent
section of zero moment (i.e. length Z).
d = distance from extreme compressive fibre to
centroid of tension reinforcement.
Although the investigations conducted by Mattock and
Corley included the study of many variables such as beam size and
proportion, concrete strength, reinforcement yield point and percent-
age of tension and transverse reinforcement, the suggested expressions
[Eq. 2.10 & 2.11] cannot be used for all cases of loadings. For
example, Eq. 2.10 can only be used at the situations where effects
of concentrated loads or reactions predominate. Corley (Ref. 1.9)
has therefore emphasised the need for further work on specimens
carrying uniformly distributed loads and also on specimens trans-
ferring load through columns. Corley observed that several beams
during the testing developed diagonal cracks and horizontal dis-.
placements occurred along the diagonal cracks. The appearance of
these di_agonal cracks modifies the behaviour of the beams and increases
the spread of yielding on tension side. This important phenomenon
which can always occur in situations like simply supported beams
with concentrated central load, was not included in the theoretical

29
analysis. Moreover, as noticed by Corley, the theoretical expressions
over-estimate the rotations for the beams where premature failure
occurs due to shear.

In a proposed method for "two failure stages" design
of statically indeterminate concrete frames, Sawyer (Ref. 1.5, 2.20)
has suggested the use of a bi-linear moment-curvature di_agram
similar to one used by Mattock and Corley. The inelastic curvatures
are defined in terms of "plasticity factors". He has suggested
the use of modified moment-area principles including the inelastic
curvatures for calculating inelastic rotations or angle changes.
The provisions of Building Code AC! 318-63 are recommended for
calculating ultimate moments. Formulae are also proposed for calcul-
ating the "plasticity factors".

AC! - ASCE Committee 428, with A.H. Mattock as Chairman,
has prepared "model Clauses" (Ref. 2.13) for Limit Design of concrete
structures. A. L. L. Baker, H. A. Sawyer, W. G. Corley and other
investigators are members of this committee. The committee's approach
is similar to that suggested by most of the individual members
in their own investigations (Baker, Mattock, Corley, Sawyer). A
bi-linear moment-curvature relationship combined with "plastic
length" concept is used to calculate inelastic rotations. An
idealized "elastic-hardening", maximum moment-maximum curvature

(i.e. M-~ curve for critical section) curve is constructed by
30
specifying the conditions at "elastic limit" and "ultimate limit".
The elastic limit values (i.e. moment and curvature) are obtained
from cracked transformed section. The "ultimate limit" values are
obtained by using the ultimate strength provision of the Building
Code AC! 318-63, except that for calculating ultimate curvature
an expression similar to one proposed by Corley (Ref. 1.9)
[Eq. 2.10] is used for ultimate compressive strain in concrete.
Expressions have also been suggested for calculating the plastic
length, taking into accotmt the shear span, depth of section and
relative values of elastic and ultimate moments.
Bachmann and Thlirlimann (Ref. 2.21) carried out tests on
two span continuous reinforced concrete beams and concluded that
two types of hinges can form in concrete structures (Ref. 2.22):
(i) Flexural crack hinge.
(ii) Shear crack hinge.
A flexural crack hinge occurs in a beam subjected mainly
to moment, while a shear crack hinge occurs when there is consider-
able shear force in addition to moment. In the latter case, due
to the formation of flexural-~hear cracks the rotational behaviour
of the member is considerably improved.
Using the equations suggested by Corley (Ref. 1.9) and
AC! - ASCE Committee 428 (Ref. 2.13), Bachmann (Ref. 2.23) calcul-
ated the inelastic rotations for the hinging regions of test

31
specimens (Ref. 2.21). He stated that this approach over-estimates
the rotations for flexural hinges and under-estimates the rotations
for shear hinges.
Bachmann (Ref. 2.38, 2.23) has suggested a method for
describing the behaviour of hinging regions. Depending on the
crack pattern, a hinge model is defined. In reinforced concrete,
lumped deformations occur at the cracks and this method gives
due importance to this aspect. Hinge rotation is taken as the sum
of the rotations occurring over individual cracks. The importance
of bond is also considered in the analysis by defining bond-slip

curves for the reinforcement. He has demonstrated the usefulness of
this method (Ref. 2.23) by comparing the theoretical results with
the experimental results obtained from continuous beams (Ref. 2.21).
Bachmann's approach is a rational step towards our under-
standing of the moment-rotation characteristics of reinforced concrete
members. The usual moment-curvature concept has been abandoned in
favour of moment-rotation relationships for hinge elements and for
the hinging length itself. This method certainly has some advant_ages
when a descending branch of the moment-rotation curve is also needed.
The concepts of "contaminatedr' region (Ref. 2 .10) or "discontinuity"
length (Ref. 2.11) as discussed in the previous section can be
described by the "contaminated" or "discontinuous" hinge element.
This "contaminated" element will be the first hinge element to

32
enter the descending branch of its (element's) moment-rotation
relationship and will thus cause unloading of other elements. This

element, therefore, can also be called "primary" element or "control"
element.
Jones (Ref. 2.14) used an approach similar to Bachmann's
to study the characteristics of plastic hinges in reinforced concrete.
The length of a member undergoing inelastic deformation is defined
as "hinge segment" and is analysed by dividing into "hinge elements"
each comprising of a short length of the member centred over a
flexural crack.
The proposed method for calculation of moment-rotation
curve for the hinging length consists of two parts:
(i) Determination of moment-rotation characteristics of
"hinge element" from the compression and tension block
parameters, and
(ii) Synthesis of moment-rotation curve for the hinge segment
from the moment-rotation curve for the hinge element.
Compression block parameters were detennined from eccentric
compression tests on concrete prisms with an initial crack on one
side and were defined as a fur.ction of rotation instead of usual
extreme compressive strain. The tension parameters were determined
by "steel hinge" tests and were expressed as a function of crack
width.
The agreement between synthesised and experimental moment-
rotation curves was complete for two simply supported beam specimens
33
up to a rotation of 0.02 radians (approximately 4 times the rotation
at first "yielding"). At larger rotations, the calculated moment
was 12% below the observed value. It has been pointed out that this
difference might be decreased by considering the effect on compression
block parameters of the restraint introduced by transverse loading
at the hinge section.

More experimental work is required to study the effect
of transverse reinforcement, transverse restraint, axial force and
different reinforcing steel on Jones' compression and tension
parameters.
2.3.2 Factors Affecting the Moment-Rotation Characteristics.
Cohn and Ghosh (Ref. 2.24) have given a list of at least
sixteen factors which affect the moment-curvature behaviour of re-
inforced concrete sections. Concrete quality, amount and grade of
tension, compression and transverse reinforcement, bond between
steel and concrete and the loading variables are some of the factors
affecting the behaviour. When moment-rotation characteristics
are to be studied, then more factors, such as shear force, the
position of the hinging region in the structure, crack pattern and
length of the hinging reg~on also need to be considered. Not all.
of these factors have been investigated with reference to moment-

rotation and moment-curvature relations.
34
(a) Compression Block Behaviour.
The theory of reinforced concrete is based on the stress-
strain relationships and strength properties of the constituent
materials (Ref. 2.25). The compression zone behaviour of concrete
depends not only on its compressive strength but also on the rate of
loading, the duratio~ of loading and the shape of the zone (Ref. 2.26).
In most cases, the rotation capacity of reinforced concrete
members is governed by the "ductility" of concrete. The "ductility" of
concrete can be improved by the confinement of the compression zone
by transverse reinforcement (Ref. 2.27). Naw•y, Danesi and Grosko
(Ref. 2.28) studied the effect of rectangular spiral binding on the
rotation capacity of reinforced concrete beams and concluded that the
rotation capacity can be considerably increased by their use. They
also showed that the effectiveness of binders is possible only up to
a certain percentage, beyond which the efficiency of confinement
decreases rapidly. It is shown by Shah and Rangan (Ref. 2.29) that
addition of stirrups and compression reinforcement increases the
ductility of over-reinforced concrete beams. Shah and Rangan

(Ref. 2.29) and Roy and Sozen (Ref. 2.27) have shown by tests on
concrete prisms that although the load carrying capacity is not
appreciably improved by the use of ties, the ductility is consider-

ably improved. Fig. 2.4 shows typical results obtained from the prism
tests by Shah and Rangan.

35 .
4000
VOLUME 1•1.
vi . 3000 SPACING 112"

a:
o. 5 .,.
l/)
lll 2 000
1''
L1J 0•25•4
er !"
I-
ll) 0 •1. (PLAIN CONCRETE J
1 000
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
STRAIN MICROINCH/ INCH.
FIG. 2.4 STRESS-STRAIN CURVES FOR CONCRETE

REINFORCED WITH STIRRUPS. cREF. 2.24 >
36.
According to Somes (Ref. 1.13) enhancement of compressive
strength in flexure occurs at continuous beam supports, beam-column
intersections and under concentrated loads. This is due to confine-
ment of concrete compression zone by transverse loading which improves
the strength and deformational behaviour of concrete at that point.
Yamashiro and Siess (Ref. 2.30) observed that due to concrete con-
finement at beam-column connections, the crushing occurred not at a
section of maximum moment but at a distance away from this section.
In the case of members loaded through a plate, the strains beneath
the plate were frequently observed to be greater than the strain
where crushing occurred (Ref. 2.31, 2.32).
(b) Concrete and Steel Strengths.
Cohn and Ghosh (Ref. 2.24) carried out "computer" tests
on some 1700 specimens to study the effect of many variables on
moment-curvature characteristics of reinforced concrete sections.
They observed that irrespective of the reinforcement percentage
"p", the section ductility (ratio 4> /4>) increases with increase in
u y
concrete strength and decrease in tension reinforcement yield strengths.
(c) Effect of Bond.
The problem of bond has not been conclusively solved,
especially with respect to deformational behaviour of the members
reinforced with modern deformed bars.
According to Cohn and Ghosh (Ref. 2.24), the maximum
section ductility is obtained when full bond exists between steel

37
and concrete. Bachmann (Ref. 2.23) is of the view that ultimate
rotations decrease with better bond between steel and concrete.
He carried out a theoretical analysis (Ref. 2.3, 2.23) of hinges
and incorporated the bond properties by including bond-slip relation-
ship of the reinforcement. A comparison of theoretical values of
rotations with the experimental results showed that the experimental
values are 35 to 84 per cent greater than the theoretical values.
One reason that he gave for this difference was the possible
separation between steel and concrete occurring over cracks which was
not included in the analysis.
This separation destroys bond over a certain length,
thus increasing the steel stress and strain over that length (Fig. 2.5).
The process results in overall increase of deformations.
The destruction of bond over a certain length adjacent to
cracks was also observed by Lutz et al (Ref. 2.33, 2.34) from an
axisymmetric finite element analysis to study bond and slip mechanism
for deformed bars. Under the increasing load, the concrete deforms
in the manner shown in Fig. 2.6 (a &b). The outer concrete surface
remains unstrained while the concrete adjacent to bar is highly
strained. The analysis shows that after the appearance of a crack
if perfect bond is assumed throughout the length, then high radial
stress must exist at the steel-concrete surface at transverse crack.
These stresses are much higher than the available bond or adhesion
resistance and therefore slip and separation occur in the vicinity

38
PERFECT BOND
a , AT FIRST APPEARANCE OF CRACKS
DESTRUCTION
OF BOND
b, AFT~R DESTRUCTION OF BOND
FIG. 2.5 DISTRIBUT10N OF STRESS ALONG A BAR

SEGMENT BETWEEN TWO TENSION
CRACKS.
. '
39
---------
INTERNAL BAR-CONCRETE
CRACK
------ ~-- REINFORCING BAR

OF DIAMETER' o'
-------~--- ---:-
~ - - MAGNIFIED
DEFORMATION
OF CONCRETE
ORIGINAL
POSITION OF
CYLINDER
SECTION A A
FIG. 2.6(a) DEFORMATION OF 6Dx 60· DIA.

CYLINDER WITH SEPARATION
FOR 1·5D (REF. 2.34)
.
- -.
. , . ..
~~
• • ... • Ill •
,.
4
- CONCRETE ·
-..
Ill ••
. . . . . ..
. :- ._-.,.
..
: . 1 . .. - .., .... ." ,.,·-...
. ..
•• • . •
. . - : .
. -.
. . . . . . . . . : . . . .. . . . .
• • • •
• • .. •, ~
•
f •
.. ..
•
.
• ••
,I
.
..
I • •
. . - -
. . ~.
. .
•
. ". . . . . .
7 I • II •
. . ,.
.,
. . -.... .·.. . .. . . . ·. . -! . ..
• 4 • : -
. . . . . .
SEPARATION BETWEEN BAR

ANO CONCRETE
~ OF REINFORCING BAR
FIG.2.6(b) SECTION THROUGH REINFORCIN~ BAR &

CONCRETE SHOWING· SEPARATION THAT
OCCURS NEAR A PRIMARY CRACK .(REF 2.35)
. ..
40
of a crack (Ref. 2.33).
Ruiz and Winter (Ref. 2.36) carried out tests on simply
supported beams under repeated loads and found out that the cyclic
loading increases the total deformation of the beam. They observed
that the incremental deformation through cycles of loads was due to
gradual loss of bond and secondary internal cracks at the

reinforcement level.
lbr deformed bars, if a final failure occurs due to bond,
it is usually in the form of concrete splitting (Ref. 2.25). In
the absence of stirrups splitting is sudden, as the split rlllls through
to the end of the bar (Ref. 2.37).
(d) Crack Spacing and Crack Pattern.
It was pointed out in 2.3.1 that lumped deformations
occur over cracks and therefore, crack spacing and crack pattern
have a strong influence on deformational behaviour of reinforced
concrete members. The ultimate rotations decrease with greater
crack spacing (Ref. 2.23).
Investigations have been carried out to study the mechan-
ism of cracking in flexural members (Ref. 2.38, 2.39). Concrete
cover, size and type of reinforcement and bond between concrete
and steel seem to be important factors with respect to crack spacing
and width. The average crack spacing increases with increasing
side cover and decreasing bond resistance (Ref. 2.39).

41
Incorporating the slip and separation mechanism between
reinforcement and concrete, Welch and Janjua (Ref. 2.38) gave the
following equation for average crack spacing in tension and flexural
members:
s ave = 1.St + KD
l
..... 2. 12
where s ave = average crack spacing.
t = thickness of concrete cover measured from centre
of reinforcing bar closest to concrete surface.
D = diameter of reinforcing bar; in case of different
sizes of reinforcement, average diameter of all
bars.
= constant depending on type of reinforcement
= 5 for plain bars
= 3 for deformed bars.
Separation between steel and concrete is assumed to occur
over a length of O.SK1D on either side of the flexural crack. For
deformed bars, this separation length works out to be 1. SD. A
similar figure was given by Lutz et al (Ref. 2.33) for separation
length in the case of axially loaded cylindrical specimens (Fig. 2.6a).

(e) Effect of Shear.
The presence of shearing force in flexural members modifies
the crack pattern as well as the strength of the reinforced concrete
members (Ref. 2.40). Depending on the relative magnitude of shearing

42
force and bending moment (and other factors) "flexural cracks"
change to "flexural-shear cracks" or separate "web-shear cracks"
appear on the member. Besides a sudden change in tension steel stress
(usually an increase) the inclined crack also causes separation between
steel and concrete and splitting of concrete due to dowel force in
reinforcement thus producing overall increase in deformations.
The appearance of inclined cracks and the beam behaviour
after their appearance depend on the shear span and percentage of
reinforcement (Ref. 2.41). As the shear span to depth ratio Z/d
is decreased, keeping other variables constant, the failure pattern
changes from flexure to shear tension or shear compression (Ref. 2.40).
The influence of shearing force on the rotation capacity
of hinging regions is not fully investigated. Many formulae
(Ref. 1.2, 1.8, 1.9) for inelastic rotations include the shear span
Z as a parameter, but the actual interaction between bond, shear,
moment and rotation is rarely acknowledged.
Cranston and Reynolds (Ref. 2.42) conducted tests on
reinforced concrete beams with different shear spans and concluded
that shearing force does not have an appreciable effect on rotation
capacity, provided the members are designed according to the provisions
of the draft British Code· for the structural use of concrete (Ref. 2.9).
As mentioned earlier in 2.3.1, Bachmann (Ref. 2.3, 2.22,
2.23) concluded from the tests on continuous two span beams

43
(Ref. 2.21) that the presence of shearing force improves the rotational
behaviour of hinging regions. The plastic deformations occur over
a much wider zone and he called such hinges the "shear crack hinges".
He further observed that stresses in the stirrups are not affected
by the hinge rotation. The stresses in the stirrups in the shear
crack hinge region remain a function of external shear force and
therefore, do not depend on the deformation produced by rotation.
Bachmann (Ref. 2.3, 2.23) further concluded that the
ultimate rotation generally depends on the nominal shear stress.
Fig. 2.7 shows this conclusion "qualitatively".

Fig. 2.7 can be studied by considering a simply supported
reinforced concrete beam subjected to central load. For long shear
span, Z, the nominal shear stress (at ultimate moment) is small
(< vk) and therefore, a flexural hinge forms. The length of this
flexural hinge decreases with increase in nominal shear stress
(decrease in span length) and corresponding hinge rotation 0 also

u
decreases. If the shear stress is increased (further decrease in
shear span so that v :::_ vk) then flexural-shear cracks appear and a
sudden increase in plastic zone length occurs which increases 0.

u
As shown in Fig. 2.7, with further increase in shear stress the
rotation decreases again.
(f) Influence of Span Length and Method of Load Application.
Rao et al (Ref. 2.43) carried out tests on nine

44
FLEXURAL
CRACK
SHEAR CRACK HINGE
~ ..
z
0
I-
<(
l-
o
a::
CONCRETE
FAILURE
IN WEB
VK =- NOMINAL SHEAR STRESS AT

WHICH FLEXUR_A L-SHEAR
CRACKS APPEAR.
NOMINAL SHEAR STRESS
FIG. 2.7 GENERAL DEPENDENCE OF

ULTIMATE ROTATION ON THE
NOMINAL SHEAR STRESS.
( REF. 2.3 & 2.23)
45
simply supported beruns with different spans and centrally loaded
through steel plate, column stub or transverse arms. They have
concluded that the span length and method of application of load
considerably affect the post-yield behaviour of the members. The
specimens loaded with steel plate developed the greatest rotation
capacities while the specimens loaded through transverse arms gave
least values of rotation.
The behaviour of a member in a structural system is also
affected by the proximity of joints. This will be surveyed in
Chapter 3 and conclusions from both chapters will be drawn at the
end of Chapter 3.
CHAPTER 3
JOINTS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
3.1 Continuity of Reinforced Concrete Structures
The construction techniques employed for reinforced concrete
make it possible to erect monolithic and continuous structures.
Likewise, the analysis and design of concrete structures is carried
out on the assumption of continuous or "rigid" structures.
Joints play an important role in the behaviour of continuous
structures. It is through joints that the moments and shears of
one member are transferred to the others and thus continuity is main-
tained. In the case of inelastic behaviour of structures, most of
-the plastic hinges form near the joints. Due to proximity of joints,
the behaviour of these hinges may be different from mid-span hinges.
For any limit design procedure, therefore, the true characteristics
of all hinges must be known for a correct redistribution of moments.
46
47
Even for the elastic analysis of reinforced concrete structures,
the distribution of moments in a member is very much affected by
the choice of restraint assumed at the joints. This restraint at
a joint is influenced by the properties of the members framing
into that joint (Ref. 2.25). The study of the behaviour of the
members near joints and their influence on other members framing
into the joint is, therefore, important for all stages of loading.
3.2 Types of Joints
Various types of joints can be encountered in reinforced
concrete structures. Fig. 3.1 shows the following types of joints:
1. Corner joint or knee joint (No. 1).
2. Exterior beam-column joint (No. 2 & 3).
3. Interior beam-column joint (No. 4).
Moreover, beam-to-girder joints and slab-column joints
are also possible. The behaviour of any individual joint or of the
members framing into it will depend on the types of external loadings
to which it is subjected. Combinations of moment, shear, axial
force, torsion are possible at a joint.
In this thesis, corner joints as they occur in plane
frames have been considered and, therefore, most of the further
discussion is restricted to this type of joint. The region which
is common to the beam and the column is referred to as the joint

block (Fig. 3.2).
2
. 48
TYPE 1. HAS BEEN CONSIDERED

IN THIS INVESTIGATION.
FIG.3.1 TYPES OF JOINTS IN A

MULTI-STOREY FRAME.·
JOINT BLOCK
~ .
BEAM MEMBER
B
I
I
I
I
I
C -------- _I _ _ _ _ _ _..,.
A
-,..-COLUMN MEMBER
f •
FIG. 3.2 KNEE JOINT OR CORNER JOINT

(TYPE 1. FIG. 3.1)
49
3.3 A Survey of the Present State of Knowledge of the Behaviour of

Joints and the Members Framing into Them
A joint should be designed in such a way that it will
develop the ultimate moment of the member or weaker of the two
members joining there.
In the case of plane or three-dimensional bearn-colunm
joints, the following types of failures can occur (Ref. 3.1):
1. Anchorage failure.
2. Shear failure.
3. Compression failure.
Anchorage failure can occur at the exterior joints such
as knee joints when sufficient length of bar, beyond point of maximum
moment is not available to develop the bar stress.
ACI Committee 408 (Ref. 3.2) has emphasised the need for
study of end anchorage, joint detail, splitting failures and confine-
ment by transverse reinforcement with respect to joint deformations
and strength. The committee has also pointed out the need for
evaluating the effects of tensile stresses in joints.
If the shear capacity of the joint block is less than the
shearing force produced by th0 force couples of the adjoining beam
moments, then a diagonal crack can occur in the block (Fig. 3.3)
and cause shear failure. Compression failure can occur in the joint
block if the compressive strength of the concrete in the block is
less than that of the columns above and below the joint block (Ref. 3.1).
so
----- • T
SHEAR ~i i=---
C
) M
CRACK -----
FIG. 3.3 SHEAR IN JOINT BLOCK.

( REF. 3.3 )
51
Bearing failure of concrete mder the tension bars can
also occur in the joint block. This type of failure was observed
by Cranston in the portal frames (Ref. 2.17). Cranston also observed
that the detailing of reinforcement in the joint block plays an
important role in resisting flexure at the corners of the frames.
Tests carried out by Cranston (Ref. 2.17) and Cracknell
(Ref. 2.18) on portal frames were reported in section 2.3. Hinges
formed near the corners and middle of beam members under increasing
loads. In most of the test frames used in these investigations
(Ref. 2.17, 2.18), the sectional properties (percentage of rein-
forcement and overall dimensions) of the corner hinges and mid-
span hinges were the same. But they were subjected to different
values of axial loads and, therefore, a real comparison is not
possible between the experimental moment-rotation characteristics of
the two types of hinges. Fig. 3.4 shows the experimental moment-
rotation curves for the mid-span hinge "Fi" and corner hinge "K1"
for the frame FPS (Ref. 2.18). For this frame, both hinges were
subjected to nearly the same values of axial loads and had the
same values of calculated ultimate moments for the sections. Fig. 3.4
shows that .the behaviour of the corner hinge is different from that
of the mid-span hinge. The mid-span hinge reached its calculated
ultimate moment and then followed the descending branch of moment-

52
200-------------""T"""-----.,....------
w,,,2 6
Pl
...
0
X
z I
I
u.: I
m 100
..J
I
, I \ M
F,
AGAINST ROTATION BETWEEN
I \ STATIONS 4 & 5•
:l: I
I \
\
I \
''
~
\
\
50
I
I
' \
I ''
I ''
I ' , MK AGAINST ROTATION BETWEEN
'- I
', ...STATIONS
... ... 6&7
o-------'---------------------- 0-os 0-10, o-1s 0-20
ROTATION - RAD.
FIG.3.4 MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR HINGES

AT POSTIONS F, & K 1 IN TEST FRAME
F. P. 5 . . ( REF. 2. 18 )
53
rotation curve. The corner hinge entered the descending branch without
reaching the ultimate moment. In Fig. 3.4, the theoretical moment-
rotation curves obtained by Baker and Amarakone's method (Ref. 1.2)
have also been superimposed. The experimental and theoretical
curves present good agreement in the ascending branch for the mid-
span hinge (F1) but the results for the corner hinge (K1) show a
marked discrepancy.
Tests were carried out by Swann (Ref. 3.4) on corner
joints of reinforced concrete portal frames to study their flexural
behaviour. Different layout details were used for the reinforcement
in the joint block. He concluded that the reinforcement details
have a significant influence on the strength, stiffness and crack
pattern of the region. Some specimens were subjected to bending
moment closing the right-angle of the knee joint while the others
were subjected to bending moments opening the right-angle. Fig. 3.5
shows typical moment-rotation curves obtained for different specimens
subjected to moments closing the right-angle. In all the specimens,
the beam section and span were kept constant. He calculated the
rotations at ½Mu (half the ultimate moment) and compared it with
rotations expected from the normal flexural behaviour of the members
joining there. He observed that the measured rotations were often
greater than those which were expected and, therefore, concluded that
additional rotations occurred due to presence of joint.

100-----------r-----,-----.----~r-----,-----,
::c
t-
U)
z
UJ
0::
I-
..
V)
..,
~
::::,
X
UJ
__,
u.
;t so I ? I },' I ¥ , I ~
;- I I I I I
Aw)
LI.I
I-
~ B
u.
0
~-
~
z
UJ
u
~
UJ
Q.
o.....____ _,.L_ _ _ _....L.._ _ _ _.....__ _ ___.__ _ _ __,___ _ ___._ _ _ __
103 104 106 109 110
SPECIMEN NUMBER
ANGLE OF ROTATION BE TWEEN FACES A A & BB. (I DIVISION • 0·03 RAD.)
FIG.3.5 MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR CORNER JOINTS WITH

DIFFERENT REINFORCEMENT DETAILS -BE.NDING
V1
MOMENT CLOSING ANGLE. (REF. 3.4) .i:..
55 ·
According to Swann (Ref. 3.5)
= ..... 3. 1
where 0M = measured rotation.
0F = rotation due to normal flexure behaviour of the
adjoining member.
eJ = addition rotation due to joint effect.
It was assumed that 03 is produced by an equivalent
additional length of the member "R,". From experimental results,
Swann calculated the values of this length for all the members.
He has shown that even for the same reinforcement detail, different
values of equivalent length were obtained for moments opening the
angle and moments closing the angle. On the basis of calculated
values of 11 .ll. 11 for specimens subjected to moments opening the angle,
he concluded that "the assumption of 'centre-to-centre' length of
members in analyses is tmlikely to cause significant errors" (Ref. 3.4).
Mayfield et al (Ref. 3.5) carried out tests on lightweight
concrete corner joints and studied the influence of reinforcement
details on ultimate strength, stiffness and crack pattern. They
concluded that the detailing of reinforcement can have considerable
effect on the joint behaviour. They further concluded that the
detailing effect was more pronotmced in the case of specimens
subjected to moments opening the angle (positive moment) than for the
56
moments closing the angles (negative moment).
In all the investigations carried out so far on the
behaviour of corner joints, the section properties of the joining
members were essentially the same. To the author's knowledge,
no test results are available on the behaviour of reinforced concrete
corner joints having dissimilar members. Moreover, the effect of
different percentages of steel on the same type of corner detail is
also not available. Tests reported by Swann (Ref. 3.4) and Mayfield
et al (Ref. 3.5) were carried out only up to the first yielding of
the tension steel. Therefore, no information is available on the
post-yielding behaviour of the joints.
Investigations (Ref. 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 3.6) have been
reported on the behaviour of reinforced concrete members near
interior joints of structures (joint No. 4, Fig. 3.1) with respect
to plastic hinging.
Burnett and Jajoo (Ref. 1.12) made a comparative study of
different experimental models for the behaviour near interior joints
of framed structures. Fig. 3.6 shows the different model systems
considered in their investigation. They have concluded that the
behaviour of the critical region or hinge with respect to strength
and deformation near an interior support is entirely different from
that of a simply supported beam. The simply supported model grossly
over-estimates the rotation capacity of such regions.
Burns and Siess (Ref. 1.10) and Ernst (Ref. 1.11) used the
~
~
- ·s1
(0) SIMPLEST
EXPERIMENTAL l K
I
I
MODEL OF BEAM
1
SUPPORT SECTION.
(b) IMPROVED
SIMULATION OF
COLUMN.
l J ,. .
(c} INTRODUCTION
OF COLUMN STUB.
I
I
i
(d)
l
SIMPLEST STATICALLY
JNDETERMINATE MODEL.
1 *
J
(e} INTRODUCTION OF
COLUMN STUB.
( f} INTRODUCTION OF
COLUMN LOAD.
FIG. 3.6 MODEL SYSTEMS FOR INTERIOR SPAN'

BEAM·-coLUMN CONNECTION. CREF.1.12>.
. ..
58
model system "c" (Fig. 3.6) in their investigations.
Burns and Siess (Ref. 1.10) studied the effect of tension
steel ratio, compression steel ratio, concrete strength, transverse
reinforcement, depth of the beam and rate of loading. The dimensions
of column stub were kept constant in all cases. They concluded
from these tests that any desired degree of ductility can be obtained
by prope~ detailing of reinforcement at the points where plastic
hinging would occur (at the intersection of beam and column in this
case). Close spaced stirrups and compression steel play an important
part in increasing this ductility.
Ernst (Ref. 1.11) included tension steel percentage,
concrete strength, widths of column stub and rate of loading as the
main variables in his investigation. He concluded that the percentage
of reinforcement and the width of the column stub are important
variables with respect to the inelastic rotations occurring at the
beam-column joint. Increasing the steel percentage decreases the
value of inelastic rotations and increasing the column width increases
the value of inelastic rotation. He also reported that the spread
of steel yielding into the column stub depends on the steel ratio
in the beam member.
Ernst and Burns have not presented any expressions for
evaluating moment-rotation characteristics which take into account
joint block dimensions and deformations.
Burnett and Jajoo (Ref. 1.12) and Burnett and Trenberth

59
(Ref. 3. 6) used model system "f'' (Fig. 3. 6) in their investigations.
They have shown that the presence of a column and the column load
have considerable influence on post-yield behaviour of critical
regions.
The position of critical regions or sections depends on
the nature of the model system. "For systems with columns, neither
the critical section at flexural yield nor the critical section at
maximum moment are necessarily located at the beam-column interface.
Cracking patterns suggest that the critical yield section may be
within the joint, while there can be no doubt that shell-core
separation, buckling of compression reinforcement and core destruction
occur outside the joint." (Ref. 1.12).
The presence of the column load decreases the inelastic
ductility of the critical region near joints (Ref. 3.6).
Burnett and Trenberth (Ref. 3.6) have also shown that the
expressions given by Baker and Amarakone (Ref. 1.2), Mattock (Ref. 1.8)
and Corley (Ref. 1.9) do not give a realistic estimate of inelastic
rotations near joints.
The conditions near exterior joints of frames are different
fromthoseof interior joints. As stated earlier, force couples of
the adjacent beam moment can cause shear failure in the joint block
(Fig. 3.4). Therefore, there is a need for separate studies of the
behaviour of exterior joints such as knee connections.

60
3.4 Conclusions
From a review of the state of knowledge of the behaviour
of joints in this chapter and the moment-rotation characteristics
of reinforced concrete members in Chapter 2, the following conclusions
can be drawn about the moment-rotation characteristics of reinforced
concrete members near joints:
1. The joint block in a reinforced concrete structure is not
a rigid block. Deformations occur in the joint block
which depend on the dimensions of the block and joining
members and the percentage and layout of the reinforcement
in the joint block.
2. Elastic and limit state analyses of reinforced concrete
. structures should properly take into account these joint
deformat_ions for a realistic prediction of its behaviour.
3. The joint block deformations can be included into the
deformations of the joining members and, therefore, the
moment-rotation characteristics of the members near the
joints can be defined.
4. Theoretical methods presented in Chapter 2 for evaluating
the moment-rotation characteristics of reinforced concrete
hinge segments are semi-ernperical, and are based on
experimental work carried out on simply supported beams.
These methods need to be checked for corner hinges where
additional 'rotations occur in the joint block. If the

61
existing methods do not fit well, then a rational and
simple method should be proposed which could be used for
all types of hinges.
5. Lumped deformations (rotations) occur at every crack and,
therefore, a rational method for the evaluation of moment-
rotation characteristics of hinging regions should be
based on the crack pattern of that region.
6. Bond and anchorage are not only important from the strength
point of view, but are also important for the deformational
analyses of the members and should be included in any
method for evaluating the moment-rotation characteristics.
7. Test results are not available for corner joints at which
dissimilar members join together. Tests should be carried
out on this type of specimen to study the effect of one
member on the other member.
8. For the similar cross-sectional properties of the beam
members, tests should be carried out on simply supported
beams and corner joints for a comparative study of the
mid-span hi~ges and corner hinges.

CHAPTER 4
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS
4.1 Layout of the Experimental Programme
Tests were carried out on 20 reinforced concrete specimens.
The testing programme comprised three series, A, Band C. Series 'A'
consisted of tests on 8 simply supported beams (A.l - A.8). Series

1 B1 and 'C' consisted of tests on 12 beam-column corner joints
(9 specimens B.1 - B.9 in series 1 B1 and 3 specimens C.7 - C.9 in
series 'C'). The following are the main variables considered in the
investigation:
1. Percentage of tension reinforcement in the beam cross-section.
62
63-
2. Width of the column member at the corner joint, i.e. the
dimensions of the joint block.
3. Arrangement of reinforcement in the joint block.
Table 4.1 gives a layout of the experimental programme.
The specimens are grouped according to the reinforcement percentage.
The beam sections were under-reinforced and, therefore,
did not require any compression reinforcement from the design point
of view. However, a nominal amount of compression reinforcement
(2 # 3 bars) was added for the following reasons:
(i) Near joints, prototype flexural members contain compression
(bottom) as well as tension (top) reinforcement and any
experimental model used for their study should be as close
to the actual conditions as possible.
(ii) To facilitate the positioning and tieing of transverse
reinforcement.
Both beams and columns also contained transverse
reinforcement.
4.2 Materials and Fabrication
The specimens were divided into the following batches
with respect to casting:
Batch 1: Series A. Specimens A.l - A.8
Batch 2: B.4, B.S, B.6
Batch 3: B.1, B.2, B.3
Batch 4: B.7, B.8, B.9
Batch 5: C.7, C.8, C.9

64
TABLE 4. 1: LAYOUT OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
BEAM 2#4 2#5 2#6

REINFORCEMENT
LOADING
ARRANGEMENT D D D
2#3 2#3 2#3
'[ A. 7 A.8
A. l
'[ . j
A.2 A.3
l
I
,• A.4 t A.5 t A.6 t
f
I B.1 B.4 B.7
5 2 .•
- I
10" ~!In!>
- - C. 7 *
l I
J
I B.2 s:s B.8
52
. I
I
20
.. , ,,
- - C. 8 * I
I
II
• I B.3 B.6 B.9 l
52" I. I·'
30" , ,, .,
- - C.9 *
t Specimens· subjected to constant deflection increments.

All other specimens subjected to constant load increments.
* Joint blocks having additional reinforcement
.
65 ·
All the specimens in the three series were manufactured
from the same type of concrete mix and reinforcement. As far as
possible, the specimens were subjected to a similar method of casting
and curing.
The concrete was obtained from a local ready-mixed concrete
firm by supplying the following information:
28 days cylinder strength = 5500 psi
Slump = 3 in.
Maximum aggregate size = 3/4 in.
Cement = Normal Portland
The concrete had the following mix proportions in conform-
ation with the above-mentioned requirements:
Water-cement ratio = 0.45
Aggregate-cement ratio = 4.5
Coarse aggregates crushed river gravel
Fine aggregates combination of Nepean sand
and Cronulla sand
The compressive strength of the concrete at the time of
testing was determined from standard cylinder tests. Two 6 in. by

12 in. control cylinders were employed for each specimen cast. These
cylinders were cast and cured in the same manner and tested at the
same time as the specimen to which they referred.
The tension reinforcement us·ed in the specimens consisted
of No. 4, No. 5 or No. 6 structural grade deformed bars having an

66
average yield point of 41.8 ksi. The deformations on the bars
conformed with the Australian Standard AS 97 (Ref. 4.1). No hooks
were provided on the tension reinforcement.
The mechanical properties of the reinforcement were deter-
mined from the tension test on bar specimens cut from the same
reinforcement lengths. The stress-strain curves were obtained from
the autographic recorder of Shimadzu Testing Machine as well as from
2 in. gauge length extensometer fitted on the bar specimen. Fig. 4.1
shows typical stress-strain curve for the tension reinforcement and
table 4.2 gives the values of yield stress, modulus of elasticity
and strain-hardening modulus for each group of specimens.
The compression reinforcement and the transverse rein-
forcement consisted of No. 3 structural grade plain bars having a
yield stress of 45.00 ksi. The stress-strain characteristics of

this reinforcement were determined from tension tests on the assumption
that the reinforcement possesses the same characteristics in compression
as in tension.
The stirrups and ties were wired to the longitudinal

bars to form the reinforcement cage.
The beam specimens of series 'A' were cast in steel
moulds. Timber formwork was used for knee joint specimens of series
'B'. A set of three timber forms was prepared to fabricate three
specimens with different column widths (10 in., 20 in., and 30 in.) at
70
.. ,
60
COMPLETE CURVE
so
-;
401 rT I
PARTIAL CURVE
TO LARGER SCALE
U'I
::a.:
30
U'I
U'I
II.I
...a:
U'I
20
10
0
__ ________________________________________________
..__
0
o.os 0.10 0 .,s
0.03
0.20
0.01 0.02 0.04
STRAIN IN./IN.
Q\
-.J
FIG. 4.1 TYPICAL STRESS-STRA!N CURVE FOR TENSION RE~NFOR~EMENT•

•
68
TABLE 4.2: TENSION REINFORCEMENT PROPERTIES
Average Average
Specimen Bar Bar Yield Point Modulus .of
No. No. Diameter Area Stress Elasticity
In. Sq.In. f ksi E ksi
y s
A. l 4 1/2 0.196 42.00 30600.00
A.4
A.7
B.1 4 1/2 0.196 41. 80 30600.00

B.2
B.3
A.2 5 5/8 0.31 42.6 29000.00

A.5
A.8
B.4 5 5/8 0.31 40.1 29000.00

B.5 -·
B.6
A.3 6 3/4 0.442 42.5 29000.00

A.6
B.7 6 3/4 0.442 42.0 29000.00

B.8
B.9
C.7
C.8
C.9
Note: For all bars
1. £s h/£ y = 7.0
2. Es i(E s = 0.018
3. f
SU
=· 66.0 ksi
69.
a time. Minor changes were made in this formwork to cast the three
specimens of series 'C'. The formwork for series 1 B1 and 'C' was
manufactured in a way that facilitated the casting of specimens
in a horizontal plane.
Steel as well as timber formwork maintained the required
cross-sectional dimensions of the specimens with a tolerance of
1/32 in.
The specimens of series 'A' were cast with the tension
reinforcement at the bottom. The specimens of series 1 8 1 and 'C'
were cast horizontally.
Steel bar chairs were used to provide proper concrete
cover to the reinforcement on the sides as well as the bottom.
For each casting batch, the slump was checked and recorded
before pouring. High frequency internal vibrators were used to
vibrate the concrete in the moulds.
The specimens and cylinders were stripped two days after
casting and were moist cured with wet hession and soaker hose under
plastic cheets. One week after casting, the specimens were moved
to the fog room and kept the~e two weeks for curing.
4.3 Instrumentation
Before testing, all the specimens were white-washed for
proper detection of surface cracks. The propagation and extension
of cracks at each load increment were recorded on the specimens.
Photographs of crack patterns were also taken at suitable intervals.

70
The details of different instruments used for measuring strains,
rotations and deflections are given below.
4.3.1 Strain Gauges.

Mechanical demountable strain gauges (Huggenberger
Tensotasts) were used to measure the surface strains at various
points on the specimens. Longitudinal strains in the beams of
series 'A' were measured over a length of 24 in. on either side of
the mid-span section at two levels 'E' and 'F' (Fig. 4.2). A gauge
length of 4 in. (100 mm) was used for measuring these strains.
Therefore, it was possible to provide six continuous gauge lengths
at each level ('E' and 'F') on either side of the mid-span, dividing
the 24 in. length of the beam into six segments.
For the knee joint specimens of series 'B' and 'C' the
longitudinal strains were measured at two levels for the beam member
and the column member (Fig. 4.3). Additional gauge lengths were
provided at other levels (see Fig. 4.3) in the joint block along the
beam and the column axes. Continuous gauge lengths at levels 'E'
and 'F' (Fig. 4.3) divided the 22 in. length of the beam member into
S½ segments. In Fig. 4.2 and 4.3, the gauge lengths are numbered
according to the sequence in which Tensotast readings were taken.
The Huggenberger Tensotast has a least count of 0.001 mm
and a range of!__ 2.0 mm. This range was thought to be sufficient
for compressive deformation but insufficient for the deformations

on tension side. In order to extend the range of the gauge for
71
,. 24"
•
2i' ,
-
,:
1~4., G2 G3
l
·• 1 , "
,, ,. 11
•• ~ u t
,.
-
C)
a . • d. .
, ... •• n 2.4
' '° F
I
I
s:-1:1,2'". '1
I
I .
~ CENTRAL''"/
LOAD
TWO POINT
,, LOAD 24,• APART
1..,
24 LENGTH OF BEAM
DIVIDED INTO 6 SEGMENTS
..,
DEFLECTION GAUGES : G1 " G 2 , 6 3
FIG. 4.2 POSITION OF THE DEFLECTION GAUGES

& THE TENSOTAST GAUGE POINTS FOR
BEAMS IN SERIES 'A'
72
·, - - - - -- ---- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- ....
• E , ... • ,a......
' ~
t s 5 11
....
10
,{
ADDITIONAL G.AUGF. SETS
·.
.. ;$
PROVIDED AT THIS LEVEL
',. •0...
. ?" IS~ HI a,
'N
,.., 14 :3 . ... ., ,I
ON SPECIMENS C.7, C .9 & C.9.
. . •
.. hl.
15
I F 8 ~t a2
•t
.
1
z-.., N
~
;;; ... 0
~
22 of beam length
divided mto S'yz sagments
....., .
.,
•
.. z
' .. "
"4~
,.
~~
I'
• 10 .,
(a) SPECIMENS 8.1, 8.4,B.7 & C.7.
.
_i_ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·-'--- ADDITIONAL CONCRETE
....
-
·T E
• . ,, ,. . ' t COVER PROVIDED IN
I ~ ~ 7 II - 17 2,0
...• 2.T ... SPECIMENS c.1,c.a
N
- ...
14
,,
11
..
.,.
IS
,.
u
-..
2.'4 :n
.
...
: & C,9.
(TOTAL BEAM DEPTH•11 ")
;::-L
r
F 2
' • 10
.., . u
.,., 1.S 2.•
.,.
,.,
.....
J
..,•
GA UGE SETS. 12 14 & 15
0 MITTED FOR SPECIMENS
13 .4 & B.5 . ·z G
1
.. A
y .
(b) SPECIMENS s.2, 8-5, a.a & C.8.
j_ -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- - - - - - ________ ::!_

=T .... .... . t
i. ·u.
... I J
'
T
' ,
II - 17 a.o 2.\ :t.6
?. ' .'H'...
-
~
...
..
IS
•• ~
.• 24 2T
.. .... '.H 36 l
.,
1,1
~ t:!...-
. ,t N
..L • l'i 2,( " ~
-
2 6 10 19 21 aa a, S4 _ 31
......
~
~
st ...... i ...
~
_;:.N ;
"' ' ::
~7--~__l·--=-=-3;~__.1._9___f
:E C,
1 . ..
J
y " 'y
(C) SPECIMENS 8.3,B.6,B.9 & C.9.
FIG. 4 .3 POSITION OF THE TENSOTAST GAUGE POINTS FOR

' I ' • •
SPECIMENS IN SERIES B & C
73 ·
measuring extensions, two more Huggenberger Tensotasts were employed
with lengths of the changeable arms (Fig. 4.4) increased by 2 mm
and 4 mm respectively, as compared with the standard arm. Before
switching over from one set of Tensotast to the other at a particular
gauge length, the readings were taken immediately with both the sets.
In this way, it was possible to measure surface deformations for
a fairly wide range after yielding of the tension steel.
To prepare the surface of the concrete for fixing the
gauge points or targets, the white-wash was removed at each point
with a portable electric grinder and the area was cleaned with
acetone. The metallic targets were then mounted using a quick
drying adhesive. In all cases, the targets were fixed in position
at least 24 hours before testing the specimen. On most of the
specimens, the targets were fixed only on one face.
At the beginning and end of each set of observations,
the readings of the Tensotast with standard arm were taken on the
'standard bar' provided by the manufacturer. While taking the
observations with Tensotasts, care was taken to apply the same amount
of pressure every time.
4.3.2 Rotation Gauges.
Electrical rotation gauges were used for specimens in
series '8' and 'C' (except for 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6) to measure rotations
between different sections of the specimens. These rotation gauges

, .I
FIG. 4. 4 THE HUGGENBERGER TENSOTAST AND CHANGEABLE FIG . 4.5 A ROTATION GAUGE I N POSITION
ARMS OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS .
--'
4>-
75
have been successfully used on steel structures (Ref. 4.2). Fig. 4.5
shows a photograph of a rotation gauge in position on a specimen,
while Fig. 4.6 shows the general set-up of the gauge and its working
principle. As the specimen rotates, the weight tends to attain a
vertical position thus inducing bending strains in the steel strip
(Fig. 4.6b). These bending strains measured by the electric strain
gauges are in proportion to the rotation produced.
The bending strip was made of tool steel and 3 mm electric
resistance gauges were fixed in position at a distance of¼ in.
from the edge of round bar on both sides of the strip. The attached
weight was approximately 8 lbs. A separate set-up was used for
calibrating each gauge. An indicator reading of 100 µ in./in.
corresponded to a rotation of approximately 0.00345 radian. The
gauges were found to be linear over a range of 0.1 radian.
Three such rotation gauges were used for each specimen
at different locations.
4.3.3 Deflection Gauges.
Deflection readings were taken at various points of the
specimens. Mechanical dial gauges having an accuracy of 0.001 in.
and a range of 2 in. were used for this purpose. In some specimens
re-setting of the deflection gauges during testing was also required
to measure further deflections. Fig. 4.2 shows the position of
deflection gauges in series 'A'. Fig. 4.7 shows the position of

.
1 DIA. ROD
BRACKET
WELDED TO
76
fW:__~~
3" STIRRUP OF
SPECIMl:N
STRAIN GAUGES
TO BE MOUN TED
BEFORE FIXIN6 0
THE STRIP.
1" 3" ,,,

4->c -x -
2 4 32
. TOOL STEEL STRIP
WEIGHT ~8LBS
{a) GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
BENDING STRAINS
MEASURED BV
STRAIN GAUGES
I
I
I
I
I
4
I 3
WEIGHT I
I
I
I
I
I
I (C) STRAIN GAUGE ARRANGEMENT
I
INITIAL
POSITION
w
( b) WORKING PRINCIPLE
FIG. 4.6 ELECTRICAL ROTATION GAUGE.

·2,,2~ r ,o . . LOAD
N"
I
I
~v
I
I
i '
[Q]
I
I
--- --~-----
Qi X
...'
N
M
DEFLECTION GAUGES : M, N
ROTATION GAUGES : X, V , i
---1
FIG. 4-7 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE POSITION OF DEFLECTION ,. I '\ I
---1
& ROTATION GAUGES FOR SPECIMENS IN SERIES 8 & C

78·
deflection gauges as well as electrical rotation gauges for series

1 B1 and 'C'.
4.3.4 Load Measurement.
Load was applied to the specimens through a Mohr and
Federhaff precision hydraulic jack. The load was measured by means
of the jack pressure on the pumping unit, the maximum capacity
of the jack being 20 tons.
4.4 Reduction of Test Data
The large number of Tensotast readings, rotation gauge
and deflection gauge readings and the hydraulic pressure readings
were processed by computer programmes to find out surface strains,
curvatures, rotations and bending moments for each specimen at each
load increment.
CHAPTER 5
DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF TESTS

ON SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS (SERIES 'A')
5.1 Object and Scope
The main object of series 'A' was to obtain information
about the behaviour of simply supported beams which could form a
basis for comparison with beam behaviour near joints.
Eight beams were tested in this series and their behaviour

was examined with respect to crack patterns and moment-rotation
characteristics. Another object of this series was to compare
the experimental results from these tests with the theoretical
moment-rotation relations obtained by the existing expressions
(Ref. 1. 2, 1. 8 , 1. 9).
The main variable considered in this series was the amount
79
80
of tension reinforcement. Two No. 4, No. 5 or No. 6 deformed bars
were used in each beam to provide a steel percentage(:~ x 100)

of 0.86, 1.38 or 1.96 respectively.
Six specimens, A.1 - A.6, were tested as simply supported
beams subjected to point load at the centre. The other two specimens,
A.7 and A.8, were tested as simple beams with two equal concentrated
loads acting 24 in. apart and symmetrical with respect to mid-span
section. The span under test in each beam was 8 ft.
In the case of beams having central load, three specimens,
A.l - A.3, were subjected to load increments whereas the other three,
A.4 - A.6, were subjected to (central) deflection increments. In
this way, it was possible to study the effect of mode of testing on
the moment-rotation characteristics and also to select a testing
procedure for knee joint specimens (series 1 B1 and 'C'). The descend-
ing branch of moment-rotation curve can only be obtained if the
specimen is subjected to strain (deflection) increments.

5.2 Design of Test Specimens
All the beams in series 'A' were rectangular in cross-
section 5 in. wide, 10 in. deep and 10 ft. long. Table 5.1 gives
the cross-sectional details of individual specimens and Fig. 5.1
shows the reinforcement layout.
For each beam, the section properties (tension reinforcement,
compression reinforcement, effective depth, width of section) being

TABLE 5.1: PROPERTIES OF TEST SPECIMENS - SERIES 'A'
Tension Tension Percentage Compression Compression Concrete Loading

Specimen Overall Reinforce- Reinforce- of Tension Reinforce- Reinforce- Stirrup Cylinder Arrange-
No. 1 Depth 4 Span ment Bars ment Area Reinforcement ment Bars ment Area Spacing 2 Strength 3 ment
in. in. sq.in. sq.in. in. ksi
A. l 10 96 2#4 0.392 0.87 2#3 0.22 5 6.20 a
A.4 10 96 2#4 0. 392 0.87 2#3 0.22 5 5.95 b
.A. 7 10 96 2#4 0.392 0.87 2#3 0.22 5 6.41 C
A. 2 10 96 2#5 0.62 1. 38 2#3 0.22 5 6.40 a

A.5 10 96 2#5 0.62 1. 38 2#3 0.22 5 6.40 b
A. 8 10 96 2#5 0.62 1. 38 2#3 0.22 5 6.50 C
A.3 10 96 2#6 0.884 1.96 2#3 0.22 5 6.45 a

A.6 10 96 2#6 0.884 1.96 2#3 0.22 5 6.40 b
1. See Fig. 5.1 for details of reinforcement layout.

2. Stirrup size= #3 plain bar.
3. For reinforcement properties, see Table 4.2.

4. Effective depth= overall depth - ½ (bar diameter) - clear concrete cover.
Clear concrete cover= 3/4 in.
a. Single load at mid-span; beam subjected to load increments. ....
00
·b,. Single load at mid-span; beam subjected to central deflection increments .
. c. Two equal loads 24 in. apart; beam subjected to load increments.

r--A
i---------1... ~,--
s"
_.,.
#3 STIRRUPS AT 5 "cRs.
,. ..
. --- II
·o
... # 3 STIRRUPS
~ ~
,.
10-0
f
l..A
7_i_2
VCLEAR COV£R .•,;
AS: 2# 4 FOR BEAMS A•1,A•.&, A•7.
2 # 5 FOR BEAMS A•2,A•S, A•8.

SECTION A-A
2# 6 FOR BEAMS A•3 1 A•6.
' ,
FIG. 5.1 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR SPECIMENS IN SERIES A
00
N
83
fixed, the moment capacity was calculated using the "Ultimate Strength
Design" procedure of Building Code ACI 318-63.

The 'ultimate' load to be carried by each specimen was
determined from the theoretical moment capacity and appropriate
loading diagram. This value of 'ultimate' load was used to design
the shear reinforcement according to "Ultimate Strength Design"
provisions of the code.
To provide the same amount of concrete confinement
from the transverse reinforcement, No. 3 plain bars were used as
stirrups at 5 in. c/c in all the specimens. The stirrups were also
provided in constant moment region (zero shear force) of specimens

A. 7 and A. 8.
The material details and method of fabrication of the
specimens were given in Chapter 4.
5.3 Test Set-Up and Procedure

The experiment was set up on the reaction floor of the
Structural Research Laboratories. A typical arrangement for two-
point loading is shown in Fig. 5.2. The two steel supports 8 ft.
apart and fixed to the floor provided the necessary reactions to the
beam specimen tmder upward acting load. The load was applied to the
specimen by a hydraulic jack at two points through a 4 in. x 4 in. x ½ in.

stiffened I-section. The distance between the two load points was
24 in. Free rollers were provided at the two supports to produce

simple beam conditions. Fig. 5.2 also shows the position of deflection
84
FI G. 5. 2 TEST SET- UP FOR BEAM A. 8 SUBJECTED TO TWO-POINT LOADING
FIG. 5 , 3 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN A. 7
FIG. 5 . 4 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN A. 4

85
gauges and gauge points for Tensotast.
For specimens A.l - A.6, subjected to central load, the
stiffened I-section was replaced by a 5 in. x 4 in. x ½ in. thick
steel plate placed on the hydraulic jack cross-head.
This loading set-~p helped in detecting and marking the
tension cracks effectively as the tension side was directly exposed
to visual inspection.
"No applied load" readings were taken in the following
way.
The piston of the hydraulic jack was raised until it was
just touching the compression face of the beam specimen. The
hydraulic pressure was then applied and at a pressure equivalent
to the weight of the beam, the jack started to lift the beam upwards.
This jack pressure was between 83 to 87 psi (piston area= 6.0607 sq.in.)
for all the beams. At this stage, the jack was supporting the beam
at the centre with two equal overhangs on either side. The Tensotast
readings were taken corresponding to zero load. It was not possible
to take deflection gauge readings for zero applied load. The first
deflection gauge readings were taken after the application of first
load increment, when the beam was firmly touching against the two
supports and was in a stable level position.
In the case of specimens A.1, A.2 and A.3, 60 per cent
of the calculated ultimate load was applied in four increments.

The load (hydraulic pressure) was kept constant for each increment
86.
while the deflection gauge and Tensotast readings were recorded.
The deflection gauge readings were taken in the beginning and the
end of each set of readings at each load increment. After the first
four increments, the load was increased in increments of 5 per cent
of calculated ultimate load. Subsequent to cracking the initial and the
final deflection gauge readings indicated considerable difference
for the same load increment.
For specimens A.4, A.Sand A.6, the hydraulic jack was
raised until a particular value of central deflection was reached
and was then kept constant while other readings were taken. In
this case, the jack pressure was observed in the beginning and the
end of each deflection increment. After the appearance of tension
cracks, the two readings at the same deflection increment always
showed a drop in the jack pressure. The deflection increments were
nearly equal to those obtained from similar specimens under 'constant
load' procedure. Larger deflection increments were applied after
the yielding of the tension reinforcement.
'Constant load' increments were used for specimens A.7
and A.8 subjected to two-point loading.
For all the specimens the instrument readings were taken
in the same sequence for each increment within a time period of
6 to 8 minutes.
5.4 General Behaviour
In all the beams, three stages of a typical 'llllder-

87
reinforced' member were distinguishable. The three stages were
pre-cracking, post-cracking and post-yielding.

The flexural cracks were first visible at 25 to 40 per cent
of the load corresponding to first yielding of the tension reinforce-
ment.
The maximum moment in the span at first yielding of the
reinforcement was approximately equal to the 'ultimate' moment
capacity of the beam section calculated by the AC! Building Code.
Yielding of the tension steel was visible in the form of relative
opening of one or more cracks in the region of maximum moment.
Yielding of the reinforcement did not limit the load
carrying capacity of the beam and further increase in load caused
opening of more cracks along the span (post-yielding stage).
In the post-yield stage, the first sign of distress in
the compression zone was visible in the form of surface spalling.
For the beams subjected to central load, this spalling started near
the point of maximum moment. For the two-point loading, the spalling
was not present throughout the constant moment region but was visible
at one or two points only.
The beams were deemed to have attained their ultimate
moment when the surface spalling increased with further crushing
of concrete and cracks widened at a rapid rate without appreciable
increase in load. At ultimate load, the damage on the tension side
was relatively more than the damage to the concrete compression

88
zone.
Although the three stages were visible in all the specimens,
the behaviour was different with respect to the crack patterns
developed in different cases.
Specimen A.7 carried 2 H 4 bars and was subjected to two
point loading. Fig. 5.3 shows that the cracks were approximately
equally spaced and were perpendicular to the neutral plane in the
constant moment region as well as outside this region. Outside the
constant moment region, the external shear was small in magnitude
(less than ultimate shear capacity of the section) at ultimate
load and therefore, no inclined cracks appeared. The average spacing
of main cracks (relatively deep and wide open) was 3.2 in. in the
yielding region (M > M ).

-- y
Specimens A.land A.4 were similar to specimen A.7 with
respect to cross-sectional properties (2 H 4 bars) but were subjected
to central loads. These two specimens also developed flexural cracks
only. Fig. 5.4 shows the crack pattern for specimen A.4. The secondary
cracks after their first appearance joined the main flexural cracks.
Specimens A.8, A.2 and A.5 carried 2 H 5 bars. The calculated
ultimate shear capacity of the section was nearly equal to the maximwn
shear force reached during the tests on these specimens. The flexural
cracks started to take an inclined direction and converged towards the

point of maximum moment as the specimen reached its ultimate moment
capacity. Fig. 5.5 shows the crack pattern for specimen A.8 subjected
89
~"'
. ....
FIG . 5 . 6 CRACK PATTLR FOR SPECIMEN A. 5
FIG . '.) . 7 CRACK PATTERIJ FOR SPECIMEN A . 6

90
to two-point loading. The cracks remained parallel in the constant
moment region and their average spacing was 4 in. Fig. 5.6 shows
the crack pattern for specimen A.5 subjected to central load.
Specimens A.3 and A.6 contained 2 H 6 bars and were subjected
to central load arrangement. In this case, the shear force at ultimate
load was higher than the ultimate shear capacity of the section and
therefore, the flexural cracks changed to flexural-shear cracks in the
later stages of loading. No shear failure occurred, because the
specimens were adequately reinforced with closed stirrups. Fig. 5.7
shows the crack pattern for specimen A.6.
5.5 Analysis of Test Data
The average curvature over each 4 in. segment of beam was
calculated from the Tensotast readings. From these curvatures the
rotation over each segment was computed and hence by summation, the total
rotation over the 24 inches on either side of the mid-span section was
obtained. The average of the values obtained from the two half-
spans was taken as the value of the half-span rotation.
Since the Tensotast readings could not usually be taken
near ultimate load, the rotations at advanced loads were derived from
central deflections by the procedure indicated in Fig. 5.8.
While calculating the bending moment, the additional moment
due to self weight of beam was neglected. In specimens A.l - A.6, the
central load was applied through a 4 in. x 5 in. steel plate and the
moment was assumed to be constant under the plate.

<h · o 0 91
p
~=~·+
1- ~ Elastic Plastic
Z Component Component
Total
Deflection.
0 I 0e I 0P
M
l
e
I
I
M1 ------
0 I
M I
I
y I
I
.µ .µ I
i::
Q)
i:: I
Q)
s s I
0 0
:E: :E: I
I
I
I
8B1 0B
Central Deflection Rotation
At moment M1 > M
y
8B1 = 0 +
e
ap
ae M1
= 0y·tr
y
and -1
0
p = tan (o /Z)
p z = 48 in. for all beams
where 0 = 01 - 0
p e
M1
and 0
e = 0
y "M
y
FIG. 5.8: .CALCULATION OF ROTATION FROM MEASURED MID-SPAN

DEFLECTION IN THE INELASTIC RANGE
. . .
92 ·
5.6 Effect of Method of Testing
Fig. 5.9 shows the central moment-deflection curves for
beams A.land A.4 which have the same cross-sectional properties
(2 # 4 bars). Beam A.l was subjected to constant load increments_
while beam A.4 was tested by constant deflection increments.
In the case of A.1, an increase of deflection took place
while the load was kept constant after each increment. These hori-
zontal steps in the graph (Fig. 5.9) were negligible until after
yielding.
Similarly in the case of A.4, a decrease of load took place
while the deflection was kept constant after each increment. These
vertical steps in the graph were in general negligible until after
yielding.
Although the dotted curves (Fig. 5.9) in the two cases
were therefore different, the curves obtained by joining the peaks
were in general almost the same.
The central moment-deflection curves for specimens A.2,
A.5 (Fig. 5.10) and A.3, A.6 (Fig. 5.11) also give a similar conclusion.
One interesting aspect of constant deflection increments
was that at first yielding there occurred a short falling branch in
the central moment-deflection curves. This seems to be due to stress-
strain characteristics of the reinforcing steel, which show fluctu-
ations and drop in stress during yielding (Fig. 4.1).

400
300
-
z
I
:ill:
.....
A•1 CONSTANT LOAD INCREMENTS
,~,
I-
z
\
...,--____ ~-... --- -
LI.I
....... -· .- -l
~ 200
0 \
:I:
--- -.... --
..J
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a:
I- ~--• - r- --
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~, .,
N'
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--
~-
!""""'"" , ' .. I
~-- . ~
,,,-- : ,,
., ........ ,
I ti
I~
z "'-.A.4 CONSTANT DEFLECTION INCREMENTS
UI /
u
100
/I I .
I 0.2 IN.
I
0
CENTRAL DEFLECTION (.IN.)
!.O
FIG. 5.9 CENTRAL MOMENT- DEFLECTION CURVES FOR SPECIMENS A.1 & A.4 1,,,1
94
\
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{"Nl->1) lN3HOH WHlN3::>
400
A.3 CONSTANT LOAD INCREMENTS

., ., -- ~
.,
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'
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-...
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.....
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300
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~" v' v A•6 CONSTANT DEFLECTIO'N INCREMENTS
I
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I.LI 200
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100
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0•2 IN.
-
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CENTRAL DEFLECTION ( IN.)
5.•11 CENTRAL MOMENT-DEFLECTIQN CURVES FOR SPECIMENS A .3 & A .6 . \0

l/1
•
96
This falling branch was most noticeable in specimen A.4

(minimum reinforcement) and was non-existent in specimen A.6 (maximum
percentage of tension reinforcement - approximately 2 per cent).
Except for this 'kink' in the M-o curves at yielding of
steel, the method of testing does not seem to affect the behaviour
or the shape of the M-o curves of the beam specimens used in this
investigation.
5.7 Segments Behaviour
Figs. 5.12 and 5.13 show the typical curvature distributions
in different segments along the length of the beams A.4 and A.8
respectively. The curvature distribution for each specimen is shown
for two load levels: just before yielding of the steel (shown in
broken lines) and near the ultimate load (shown in solid lines).
In Fig. 5.12, the segments 6 and 7 are symmetrical with respect
to the bending moment diagram, but segment 6 showed a measured curvature

of 3 times the curvature in segment 7. The crack pattern for specimen
A.4 (Fig. 5.4) indicates that most of flexural cracking took place in
segment 6, thus increasing the deformations in this segment. A similar
reasoning applies to symmetrical segments 5 and 8 or 4 and 9 in
specimen A.4 and segments 4 - 9 in specimen A.8 which were subjected
to the same moment and should theoretically show equal curvatures

at each load level.
In view of the scatter in experimental results and the
intensity of cracking within a particular segment, the study of the

8· 00 ®©®® 000 ®®@-D
~ ~
.... CD@@©©©®®®@®@ . -
-- -
-·r
. .
T· -,-
0 ---~---=
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"----_,_.,--r·-~--~-,--r-'
10 ' ~
10
- -
20 20
- -
...--
30
....•z--
30
-
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. ....-- ,o ..-... 40
7 '
L
lo
- 'o
IC IC
w 50 w 50
Ill: (X
:::, :::,
....,c( ....<(
~ 60 > 60
0:
:::, ---BEFORE STEEL :, ----BEFORE STEEL YIELDING.
u YIELDING. u ~NEAR ULT, LOAD,
-NEAR ULT. LOAD
70 70
so 80
-
90 90
1,0
FIG. 5.12 DISTRIBUTION OF CURVATURE FIG. 5 .13 DIST RI BU Tl ON OF CURVATURE -...J
ALONG BEAM .A. 4 ALONG BEAM A.8

98·
moment-(average)curvature or moment-rotation (M - 0) characteristics

e e
for individual segments was abandoned in favour of central moment-
rotation characteristics of the member (over a certain length).
Nevertheless, the test data of beam A.4 was used to examine the concept
of "contaminated" length or "discontinuity" segment (section 2.2).
Fig. 5.14 shows the partial curves of moment-rotation for
segments 5 and 6 in specimen A.4. Segment 6 is nearer the mid-span
than segment 5. (In Fig. 5.14 letters A, B ....... E with suffix 6
correspond to segment 6 and with suffix 5 correspond to segment 5
at the same deflection increments, but different moment values due to
the position of the two segments.) Yielding occurred first in segment 6
and the external load dropped off (BG - CG), decreasing the bending
moment along the span. The measured curvatures indicate that due to
this decrease in moment, the other segments (1 - 5 and 7 - 12) which
had not reached their 'elastic' or 'yield' limits followed the unloading
paths of their M - 0 curves. B5 - Cs (Fig. 5.14) for segment 5

e e
is a typical unloading curve.
Segment 6 was acting as a "discontinuity" segment and con-

trolled the behaviour of the member as a whole. The increase in
rotation at first yielding in segment 6 was greater than total decrease
in rotation in other segments due to their unloading and therefore,
the central deflection (and member rotation) showed a 'net' increase.
With further increase in deflection segment 6 again entered

1sa.-----------------.----------------:r-----------------.----------------,,--------,
Er,
SEGMENT &
100 I M.•:
-: IN SEGMENT S ( I OTHER SEGMENTS)

!: DUE TO FALLING BRANCH OF M.- 8a IN SEGMENT 6
I
~
...z
"'::E
0
::E
so------------------------------------------------
0 · 0.001 0.002 0.003 0•004,

SEGMENT ROTATION (RAD.)
\0
FIG. 5 .14 MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR SEGMENTS S & 6 IN BEAM A.4 \0
100·
the ascending branch of its M - 0 curve (Cs - Es) and the other
e e
segments followed their reloading curves (Cs - Es for segment 5).
When segment 5 entered the inelastic phase of its
M - 0 curve (not shown in Fig. 5.14) no drop in moment occurred~

e .e
This is because segment 6 was in the ascending branch of its
M - 0 curve and was controlling the beam behaviour as a whole.

e e
Therefore, segment 5 (and subsequently other segments) jumped over the
'kink' or the short falling branch of its M - 0 curve and directly

e e
entered its ascending branch.
5.8 Central Moment-(Total)Rotation Curves
Central moment-rotation curves for specimens A.1 - A.6
are shown in Fig. 5.15, while Fig. 5.16 shows central moment-rotation
curves for specimens A.7 and A.8. The 'central moment' is the mid-span
moment at each increment of load and (total) rotation is calculated
as explained in section S.S.
The shape of these moment-rotation curves is similar to the
central moment-deflection curves (Fig. 5.9 - 5.11) of same specimens.
Until the appearance of the first cracks, rotations increased linearly
with load. The first break in the M-0 and M-o curves was visible at
the appearance of flexural crack. This break was more pronounced in
beams with less reinforcement (specimens A.1, A.4, A.7) and was nearly
non-existent for specimens with highest percentage of tension steel
(specimens A.3, A.6; ~ 2% steel).
Beyond this point, the rotations again continued to increase

(00
l_.---- -
A,6 _
--
L---:: ---- -- ---~ r-A,
~.
~
---- --
3
L---:-:::--::
--- -
t-- - -
~
300
~----
z
. I - -- -- ---
--
A,2 .._
~
- - -- --- --- --- - --
~
-
.
/; ~ ------~
I r--A,S
::i;:
A ,1 ~
I- zoo -
z
-- - - ~---
-
l&J
::t:
0
::t:
_,
if ------
~
~ --- ...
i"A.4.
c:(
~
1-
z
l&J
u
0)7 - '
100I
f CENTRAL LOAD
- - - - ·CONSTANT LOAD INCREMENTS
. - CONSTANT DEFLECTION INCREMENTS
-
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 o.os. o.o&
(TOT AJ.) ROTATION (RAD.)
. ,-
FIG. 5.15 CENTRAL MOMENT-{TOTAL) ROTATION CURVES FOR SPECIMENS A.1 TO A-6 8
400
300
-. -
z
I
....
).:
....
z 20 0
~ - ' A•8
I
la.I
:I:
0
:I:
\A
..I
-< - 07
II
i----
a:
....z
la.I
u
'f
. 100 TWO POINT LOADING
'
(CONSTANT LOAD INCREMENTS)
0 0.01 o.o 2 0°03 o.o' 0,05 o. 06

O:..0TAL) ROTATION (RAD.)
. . .....
FIG.S.16 CENTRAL MOMENT-(TOTAL) ROTATION CURVES FOR SPECIMENS A.7 & A.8 ~
--- ----- ------·

103
approximately linearly with moment up to first yielding of the tension
reinforcement. A sharp break was observed in M-8 and M-o curves as the
steel started to yield. However, at this point specimens A.4 and A.S,
subjected to central deflection increments showed a behaviour different
from identical specimens A.1 and A.2 subjected to load increments.
Specimens A·. 4 and A. 5 showed a drop in moment under increasing rotation
or central deflection. This short descending branch was followed by
an ascending branch of M-8 curve. The influence of this drop in moment
on the beam behaviour was discussed in the light of moment-segment
rotation curves for specimen A.4 (Fig. 5.14).
Except for this 'kink' in moment-rotation curves for A.4
and A.5, all the specimens (A.1 - A.8) showed an approximately linear
increase in rotation after yielding of the steel.
The method of testing had some influence on ultimate rotations
also. Specimens A.4 and A.5 developed greater rotations as compared
to specimens A.1 and A.2 respectively. Specimen A.6 also showed slight
increase in ultimate moment as well as rotation as compared to A.3.
5.9 Compression Strain Distribution
Fig. 5.17 and 5.18 show typical distributions of strains
in concrete near the compression face for specimens A.6 and A.8
respectively. These strains were obtained from the Tensotast readings
at level 'F' (Fig. 4.2). For each specimen, the strain distribution
is shown for two load levels; before yielding of the tension steel and
8- ~<pcpcp~~q>~~~~~ -~
T
a- C?C?q>cp~~~~~~~~ -o
t t
0 8
0.001
~~
BEFORE YIELDING
~ --- V
/
~
=
0,00 I
-"'
I'-. I'... J .........
"',
~
-
./
0,002:
\ I 0.002'
\
V BEFORE YIELDING /
~
.........
zo.003 1 z
......_ 0,003I
' - \ I ~
I
\I 'V
\\II
:i
z / NEAR .JLT, LOAD
~ 0.004 ~ ~004
...
Ir
u, I ~
...Ir
V,
NEAR ULT,
LOAD
UJ 0•005' UJ0~05
~ ~
V, V,
V, V,
UJ UJ
•
~ 0-006
%
f
~
~006
0 0
u u
0,007' 0.001'
0.008 0.008
' I
0.009 o.00g ....
0
FIG. 5 .17 COMPRESSIVE STRAIN DISTRIBUTION FIG. 5.18 COMPRESSIVE STRAIN DISTRIBUTION . .i:.
ALONG THE SPAN FOR SPECIMEN A.6 ALONG THE SPAN FOR SPECIMEN A.8
105.
near the ultimate load. The significant change in the shape of the
strain distribution after yielding of the tension steel was noticeable
in all the specimens.

Fig. 5.17 and simil~r curves for other specimens suggest
that a concentration of compressive strain in concrete occurs in the
region of maximum bending moment. This seems to be due to two
reasons: 1. Confinement of concrete compression zone by transverse
loading. 2. Convergence of flexural-shear cracks in the region of
maximum moment.
Because of the position and spacing of the gauge points, it
was not possible to measure the concrete strains directly W'lder the
steel plate only. Gauge points for segments 6 and 7 in specimens

A.l - A.6 measure the deformations over a distance of 2 in. under the
plate plus another distance of 2 in. adjacent to this region. It is
quite possible that the strains directly under the plate (over 2 in.
gauge length) may be still higher than those shown in Fig. 5.17.
Fig. 5.7 shows that concrete spalling started in segment 5
of specimen A.6, while Fig. 5.17 shows that the highest value of
strain was in segment 6. A similar observation for specimen A.8
suggests that while the concrete crushing occurred in the constant
moment zone (Fig. 5.5) the highest value of compressive strain occurred
in the gauge lengths under the point loads.
As stated in Chapter 2, several other investigators

(Ref. 2.31, 2.32) have also observed this behaviour of the concrete
106
compression zone near the concentrated loads.
From these limited results, it can be concluded that the
deformability (or ductility) of concrete region is considerably
improved by the effect of concentrated load.
Fig. 5.19 shows the moment-concrete compressive strain
(in segment 6) curves for specimens A.4 - A.6.
These curves indicate that for the same concrete cross-
section with different percentages of tension steel, the compressive
strains increase linearly with moment, but a sharp break occurs in the
curve at first yielding of the steel.
5.10 Theoretical Evaluation of Moment-Rotation Characteristics of
Beam Specimens Using Existing Methods
Detailed calculations are carried out in Tables 5.2, 5.3
and 5.4 for specimens A.l - A.3 to predict their moment-rotation
characteristics using the methods suggested by Baker and Amarakone
(Ref. 1.2), Corley (Ref. 1.9) and ACI - ASCE Committee 428 (Ref. 2.13)
respectively. Fig. 5.20 shows the theoretical moment-rotation curves
superimposed on the experimental curves for the three beams.
Using the methods of Corley and Committee 428, moments
and rotations can be calculated at the beginning and the end of the
inelastic range. In Fig. 5.20, the intennediate points are assumed
to lie on a straight line.
The following deductions can be made regarding the application
of these methods to the test specimens:

,oo
. '
~
. __.,,- A,6
300
r
.I -
)_ -...- A, S
z 200
~ "
)! /--------- -
I
--
"
¥
A.4
t-.
z
r
UJ
l:
. 0 :
l:
.
100
r .
:
0 ' .
0•001 0.002
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN
0.003
( IN./IN.)
0,004
. .
0.005
....
0
-..J
FIG. 5.19 CENTRAL MOMENT- COMPRESSIVE STRAIN CURVES FOR SEGMENT 6
( TENS OT AST PO S 1T I ON 1 2 ) IN SPEC IM E N S A • 4 .....:. A • 6
TABLE 5,2: BAKER AND AMARAKONE 1 S METHOD TO EVALUATE M-8 RELATIONSHIPS (Ref. 1.2)
Beam d z f"' f E
s1
E n1d n2d cC E M1 M2 <Pl 81 8
p 82
No.
C s1 C1 C2
in. in. ksi ksi in. in. ksi kin kin Xl0-3 rad. rad. rad.
A.1 9.00 48.00 6.2 42.0 0.00137 0.0005 2.43 0.6 6.20 0.01 136.00 143.00 0.205 0.0037 0.0202 0.0239
A.2 8.94 48.00 5.95 42.6 0.00147 0.0007 2.88 0.9 S.95 0.01 211. 00 224.00 0.243 0.0044 0.0200 0.0244
. A.3 8.88 48.00 6.41 42.5 0.00145 0.00085 3.25 1.17 6.41 0.01 292.00 312.00 0.261 0.0047 0.0198 0.0245
1. Where E is less than 200Xl0- 5 • it is the concrete strain when E is reached.

c1 s1
·2. cc = f"' (O. 8 + O' 1) < . f"'

C n2 = C
. 1
3. E = 0.0015 1 + 1.5p + (0.7 - O.lp )- < 0.01.
C2 n2
4. p = Volume of stirrups XlOO/total volume of concrete.
5. 8 = 0.8 (E - E )k1k3.d.
z
p C2 Cl
6. k1k3 = 0.5.
....
0
00
TABLE 5.3: CORLEY'S METHOD TO EVALUATE M-8 RELATIONSHIP (Ref. 1.9)
M 8tu
u
Beam tjJY t/JU M M <l>y <l>u <f>.M eu -e- 8tu ety 82
y u y y
No. . -1 . -1 u
in. in. k-in k-in rad. rad.· rad. rad. rad. rad. rad.
A.1 0.0002 0.00785 136. 2 232 .4 0.0009 0. 0353 0.00154 0.03376 1.68 0.0567 0. 0036 0.060
A. 2 0.00023 0.00523 207.4 288.0 0.00103 0 .0234 0.00143 0.02197 1. 71 0.0375 0.0043 0.041
A.3 0.00026 0.00398 292.0 361.0 0.00115 0. 0177 0.00142 0.01628 1. 72 0.028 0.0047 0.033
d
1. <l>y = t/Jy'2
d
2. <l>u = t/Ju·I
M
u
3. eu = <l>u - <l>y·M
y
8tu l + 0.4 ~
4. -e- = 'd
u d
5. ety is the rotation in entire shear span 'Z'; curvature assumed to be linearly distributed,
tjJY at maximum moment, zero at the support.
.6. 02 = et y + et u
,_.
0
\0
7. etu is inelastic rotation in shear span 'Z'.
8. eu is'inelastic rotation in length f.

TABLE 5.4: ACI-ASCE COMMITTEE 428 1 S METHOD TO EVALUATE M-8 RELATIONSHIPS (Ref. 2.13)
Beam M
y M
u <Py <Pu R,
p
ey eu
No.
k-in k-in . -1
in. . -1
in. in. rad. . rad.
A.l 134. 00 143.00 0.000212 0.00810 5.16 0.0037 0.0418
A. 2 210.00 223.00 0.000249 0.00493 5.3 0.0044 0.0262
A.3 290.00 307.00 0.000269 0.00390 5.45 0.0047 0.0212
1. M = elastic limit resisting moment (assumed equal to moment at first yielding

Y of steel and calculated from cracked transformed section).
2. M
u
= ultimate moment (calculated from Ultimate Strength Provisions of ACI 318-63).
d
3. R, is the lesser of two values: Re:(4 + 0.03ZRm) or Re: d
p
d
but not to exceed Re: (-
2 + O.lOZRm).
4. Re:, Rm, Zand dare as defined in Committee's Report (Ref. 2.13).
.........
o·
400.-------r---.,..-------.------r-------,-------,c------r----------.--------,-------.------.-------
. '
3001----
-Jb~E~t,-t-t:j=;r'·=-1 1 1 1 11
--z (232.0 \0,06)

I @
~
- 200 I / I HI I SPECIMEN A-2
...z
UJ
J:
0
:E
...I
c(
....z
ct:
SPECIMEN A-1
@
w
u
1001 JI I ;; I ii I I I I G) EXPERIMENTAL
G) CORLEY 's METHOD

(i) BAKER & AMARAKONE S 'METHOD
@ ACI-ASCE COMMITTEE 428 1 5 METHOD
o.oos
RAD.
0
ROTATION (RAD.)
FIG. 5. 20 COM~ARISON OF CALCULATED (USING EXISTING METHODS) & EXPERIMENTAL·_ ::

....
MOMENT- ROTATION CURVES FOR A.1, A.2 & A.3.
~
112·
(i) The three methods give a close approximation to the experi-
mental values of the moment as well as rotation at first
yielding of the tension steel.
(ii) Except for specimen A.1, the method suggested by Corler
(Ref. 1.9) gives the best estimate of the moment and
rotation at ultimate point. The methods suggested by
Baker and Amarakone (Ref. 1.2) and Committee 428
(Ref. 2.13) in most of the cases, underestimate the ultimate
moment and rotation.
(iii) Fig. 5.20 indicates that a better co-relation between the
experimental results and Corley's method at ultimate conditions
is obtained by the inclusion of strain hardening effects
in steel properties.
(iv) For the three specimens, the shear span Zand effective
depth d, which are the main parameters defining the inelastic
behaviour by the three theoretical methods, were kept
constant (only small change in value of 'd' occurred in
three specimens). Therefore, there is no appreciable
change in 8 , calculated by Baker and Amarakone's method,

p
calculated by Corley's method and L computed by
p
Committee 428's proposals for the three specimens. The
experimental values show contrary results. When the
percentage of steel increased from 0.86% to 1.38% the

experimental value of the total rotation (and the inelasti~
113
rotation) increased. This increase in rotation appears to
be due to a change in the crack pattern from flexural
cracks to flexure-shear cracks and agrees with the
"qualitative" prediction of the hinge behaviour by Bachmann
(Ref. 2.3, 2.23). With further increase in steel percent-
age from 1.38% to 1.96%, the ultimate rotation decreased.
This was expected since the crack pattern remained similar
in type but the sectional ductility decreased.
This means that the percentage of steel has an appreciable
effect on the beam behaviour and should be included in methods for
predicting the rotations.

CHAPTER 6
DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF

TESTS ON KNEE JOINTS (SERIES '8')
6.1 Object and Scope

Nine knee joint specimens were tested in series 1 81 • The
main object was to study the behaviour, and in particular the moment-
rotation characteristics, of the beam near the joint.

The strength and deformation characteristics of the joint
block can limit the strength and the deformation capacity of the
adjoining members. The joint block behaviour needs as much attention
as the structural members framing there and was therefore included
in the investigation.
The variables considered in the investigation were:
(i) Percentage of the tension reinforcement in the beam cross-
section, and
114
115.
(ii) The dimensions of the joint block.
The beam cross-sections were identical to the beams of
series 'A' and contained steel percentages of 0.86, 1.38 or 1.96.

By changing the dimensions of the column member it was possible to
provide joint blocks of 10 in. x 10 in., 10 in. x 20 in. or
10 in. x 30 in.
The shear span for the beam members in knee joint specimens
(52 in.) was approximately equal to the shear span in simply supported
beams of series 'A' (48 in.). It was thus possible to compare the beam
behaviour near a joint with that of a simply supported beam in the
maximum moment region at the same moment-shear ratio.
All the specimens in this series were subjected to bending

moments closing the right angle of the knee joint.
6.2 Properties of the Specimens
Fig. 6.1 shows the dimensions and layout of the reinforce-
ment for the knee joint specimens tested in this series. The main
(tension) reinforcement of the beam was bent through 90 0 and carried
into the column on the tension side. The reinforcement on the compression
side (2 # 3 plain bars in all cases) was provided by separate straight
bars in the beam and the coltn:1J1. Table 6.1 gives the properties of
the individual specimens. In the case of specimens with column width
of 10 in., an additional bar of the same size was provided (except
for B.4) on the tension side in the column for the following reasons:
I
.. - 9
"
. '
21t/
- 7 --
,,
•
# 3 STIRRUPS AT 5 CRS.
-
"""'
...
0 ~
r-~
---- N
-l.
L
r-, -- jr-
31/
~~r
Z# 3
•
...
C)
·~[IC? 2#,
JI ~
...
' hLl
C)
w-- '
I. VARIABLE
..I
Ill
a::
u
•
Ill
....
"' 3 PIECES OF BAR
WELDED TO
RE INF ORCE ME NT
'
""
BEAM CROSS-SECTION . . COLUMN CROSS-SECTION
Ill
l&J
....
(SEE TABLE &.1 FOR COLUMN DIMENSIONS,) "' .~
:ii= MAIN
SPOT
WE•:f5,
REINFORCEMENT
/
STEEL I!. rl
C
1
C
SECTION AT C-C
FOR ONE BAR
10"20•0R 30.,
........
. ~
°'
FIG. 6.1 SPECIMEN DETAILS - SERIES B
TABLE 6.1: PROPERTIES OF TEST SPECIMENS - SERIES 'B'
Beam Cross-Section Clear Column Cross-Section Clear Stirrups Concrete

Specimen Details 1 Beam Details 1 Column Joint Block or Tie Cylinder
No. Span Length Dimension Spacing 2 Strength 3
Overall Tension Overall Tension
Depthz. Under Widthz. Reinforce- Under
l_leinforce- Test
Test ment Bars
ment Bars
in. in. ksi
in. in. in. in.
B.1 10 2#4 52 10 3#4 18 10 X 10 5 6.41
B.2 10 . 2#4 52 20 2#4 36 10 X 20 5 6.20
B.3 10 2#4 52 30 2#4 36 10 X 30 5 6.34
B.4 10 2#5 52 10 2#5 36 10 X 10 5 6.20

B.5 10 2#5 52 20 2#5 36 10 X 20 5 6.60
B.6 10 2#5 52 30 2#5 36 10 X 30 5 6.15
B.7 10 2#6 52 10 3#6 18 10 X 10 5 6.15

B.8 10 2#6 52 20 2#6 36 10 X 20 5 6.40
B.9 10 2#6 52 30 2#6 36 10 X 30 5 6.50
1. See Fig. 6.1 for other details which are common to all the specimens.
2. Stirrup or tie size= #3 plain bar as closed rectangle.

3. For_ reinforcement properties, see Table 4.2.
4. Effective depth= overall depth - ½(tension bar dia.) - clear concrete cover. ........
-..J
Clear concrete cover= 3/4 in . .

118
(i) To decrease the deflection at the free end of the beam
(measured by deflection gauge 'M', Fig. 4.7) so that the

test could be continued at advanced stages of loading.
(ii) To ensure the formation of a hinge at the interface between
the beam and joint block. This was considered essential
in view of the fact that hinge would form at the beam face
for specimens with columns of 20 in. and 30 in. widths.
A steel base plate was used for positioning and fixing the
specimens in the test rig. The base plate was welded to the longi-
tudinal reinforcement as shown in Fig. 6.1.
6.3 Theoretical Moment Capacity of Beam Members
The beam members of the knee joint specimens were similar
to the beam specimens of series 'A' with respect to cross-sectional
details and material properties. Therefore, the experimental values

of yield moments and ultimate moments of specimens in series 'A'
were assumed as the yield and ultimate moments of similar beams in
this series. Table 6.2 gives these values for different specimens.
6.4 Test Set-Up and Procedure
Fig. 6.2 shows a typical set-up used for specimens with

column widths of 20 in. and 30 in. (B.2, B.3, B.5, 8.6, 8.8, 8.9).
Two stiffened 6 in. x 3 in. channel lengths were fixed on the reaction
floor by two 1-1/8 in. diameter high tension bolts 4 ft. apart. The
two vertical faces of the channel sections were 5 in. apart. The
119
TABLE 6.2: THEORETICAL MOMENT CAPACITY OF BEAM MEMBERS

OF KNEE JOINT SPECIMENS IN SERIES 1 B1
Relevant Beam Yield Ultimate

Specimen No. Specimens in Moment Moment
Series 'A'
k-in k-in
B.l
B.2 A. l 142.00 192.00
B.3
B.4
B.5 A. 2 214.00 274.00
.<
B.6
B.7
B.8 A.3 288.00 350.00
B.9
120
FI G. 6 . 2 TEST SET- UP FOR SPECI MENS WITH COLUMN

WIDI'HS OF 20 I N. AND 30 IN .
FIG . 6 . 3 TEST SET- UP FOR SPECIMENS WITH COLUMN

WIDI'H OF 10 I N.
121-
specimens with column widths of 20 in. and 30 in. were bolted to the
channels as shown in Fig. 6.2. This arrangement did not provide sufficient
restraint at the column base for specimens with a 10 in. column width
and for these the set-up shown in Fig. 6.3 was used. This set-up
also decreased the effective length of the colunm member and thus the
overall deformations.
A separate frame was used for hanging the hydraulic jack.
Spherical seatings were provided on both ends of the jack. This
arrangement facilitated the application of loads to the specimens
at advanced stages of deformation.
Before subjecting the specimens to external load by the
hydraulic jack, the initial or "no load" readings of all the gauges
were recorded.
The constant load increment method was used for all the
specimens tested in this series. The results of series 'A' were used
as a guide in deciding the load increments. After each load increment,
the load was maintained at the same value while all the deflection
gauge, electric rotation gauge and Tensotast readings were taken.

The deflection gauge readings were recorded at the beginning (initial
readings) and end (final readings) of each set of readings at each
load increment. In some cases, the initial and final readings of

rotation gauges were also recorded at each load increment in a similar
manner. The instrument readings were always taken in the same
122·
sequence, i.e. deflection gauge and rotation gauge readings (initial);
Tensotast readings in fixed order; deflection gauge and rotation
gauge readings (final). It took about 8 to 10 minutes to complete
each set of readings.
Figs. 6.4 - 6.12 show the crack patterns developed near the
joint in specimens B.1 to B.9 respectively. In all the specimens,
the flexural cracks were first visible on the tension side of the
beam member and the joint blocks along the horizontal external face.
These cracks appeared at a maximum beam moment of 25 to 40 per cent
of the theoretical yield moment. The spacing of these cracks was
approximately equal to the average crack spacing observed in identical
beams of series 'A'. The behaviour beyond the initial cracking was
different for different specimens and will be described separately
for each specimen.
B.1: 2 # 4 Bars; Column Width 10 in.
Before yielding of the beam reinforcement the flexural
cracks appeared in the column also and this increased the overall
deformations of the specimen. At first yielding of the beam reinforce-
ment one crack just inside the joint block opened up. The yield
moment was equal to the yield moment observed in beam specimen A.l
(= 142.00 k-in.). At the same load an inclined crack appeared in the
joint block and opened up immediately (Fig. 6.4). The beam member
did not reach the ultimate moment capacity.

123
FIG. 6.4 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B. l
FIG. 6.5 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B.2
FIG. 6. 6 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B. 3

124-
B.2: 2 # 4 Bars; Colunm Width 20 in.

Fig. 6.5 shows the crack pattern for this specimen. The
yielding occurred at one flexural crack about 2 in. inside the joint
block and at another crack about 2 in. in the beam member. The yield
moment was equal to 142 k-in. With further increase in load many
secondary cracks inclined in direction appeared in the joint block
and joined the main flexural crack. These inclined cracks developed
rapidly and caused splitting of concrete in the joint block along the
main reinforcement. The colunm member remained uncracked.

The behaviour of this specimen was similar to specimen

B.2. There was no effect of the size of the joint block on the yield
moment of the beam member (142.00 k-in.). But the post-yield

.-
deformations mostly occurred in the joint block due to splitting of
concrete along the main reinforcement, i.e. destruction of bond.
Fig. 6.6 shows the crack pattern developed in this case. The separ-
ation between steel and concrete is visible in this figure. The column
member remained uncracked in this specimen.
In this specimen, the flexural cracks appeared in the beam

and the column. The cracks also appeared on both external faces of
the joint block (Fig. 6.7). Due to failure at the column base, the
testing was terminated even before yielding of the beam reinforcement.
125
FIG. 6. 7 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B . 4
FIG . 6 . 8 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B . 5
B-<,
/:AC£ A
l:' .L J . 6 .) CRACK PATTEffi FOR SPECI MEN B . 6

126·

The yield moment of the beam member for this specimen was
equal to the yield moment obtained from the test on beam A.2 (214.00
k-in.). An inclined crack in the joint block which appeared much
earlier than the yield moment proved to be the critical one and most
of the post-yield deformations occurred at this inclined crack. This
crack opened because of destruction of bond along the main reinforce-
ment in the joint block and subsequent increase in the steel deform-
ations. With increase in load, flexural cracks also opened in the
beam (Fig. 6.8). In this specimen, the cracks appeared in the column
member also.
The.behaviour of specimen B.6 was similar to specimen B.5

except that the colunm member remained uncracked. Most of the post-
yield deformation occurred at the inclined crack in the joint block.

Fig. 6.9 shows the crack pattern for this specimen. Notice the
concrete spalling in the beam near the joint block.
In this specimen, the cracks appeared in the beam as well
as the column (Fig. 6.10). The diagonal crack in the joint block
appeared before yielding of the tension reinforcement. The observed
yield moment was greater than the yield moment for specimen A.3
(299 k-in. as compared with 288 k-in.). In the post-yielding behaviour
127
FIG . 6 .10 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B. 7
FIG . 6 . 11 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B. 8
•• . •
&-9
•
FACE. e,
'•• • -.
FIG . 6. 12 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN B. 9

128"
the widening of the inclined crack was restricted due to the position
of the reinforcement at that point (the crack penetrated the tension
reinforcement just near its 90° bend along the column axis). The
specimen reached a value of maximum moment approximately equal to the
maximum moment reached by specimen A.3.
The behaviour of this specimen was, in some aspects, similar
to that of specimen B.S. An inclined crack developed in the joint
block and most of the post-yield deformation occurred at this crack
(Fig. 6.11). The main difference in the behaviour of the two specimens
(B.S and B.8) was the absence of severe concrete splitting along the
main reinforcement in the joint block of B.8. The post-yield deformations
were, therefore, limited and the beam member was able to reach the
theoretical maximum moment.
The behaviour of this specimen was similar to specimen
B.6. Most of the post-yield deformations occurred at the diagonal
crack in the joint block (Fig. 6.12). The beam member did not reach
the theoretical maximum moment.
In almost all the cases, the testing was terminated because
of excessive overall deformations of the specimens which made the
hydraulic jack unstable.
6.6 Deformations in the Joint Block and the Beam Member Near the Joint
A quantitative study of the beam behaviour near the joint

129.
and that of the joint block was made by plotting the surface strains
from the Tensotast readings at various locations in the joint region.
The following diagrams of strain profiles are drawn with respect to
different joint block sizes:
Figs. 6.13 6.15: Joint Block 10 in. X 10 in. (B. 1, B. 4, , B. 7)
Figs. 6.16 6.18: Joint Block 10 in. X 20 in. (B.2, B.5, B. 8)
Figs. 6.19 6.21: Joint Block 10 in. X 30 in. (B. 3, B.6, B.9)
For most of the specimens it was not possible to take the
Tensotast readings after first yielding of the tension reinforcement.
(Only for specimens B.5 and B.6 have the post-yielding strains also
been plotted.)
The strain profiles (Figs. 6.13 - 6.21) show that for a
10 in. x 10 in. joint block the deformations occurred along both
external faces of the joint block. For larger joint block sizes,
10 in. x 20 in. and 10 in. x 30 in., the deformations occurred mainly
along the horizontal (top) face of the block. Within the joint block
the compressive strains along the horizontal inter-face died out

rapidly before reaching the other end of the joint block.
The deformations or the strains on the tension face depend
on the percentage of tension reinforcement in the joint block. For
small percentage of reinforcement the deformations were mainly concen-
trated near the beam-joint block inter-face (B.1 - B.3).
In the case of specimens wit~ a higher percentage of rein-
forcement (B.4 - B.9), the appearance of a diagonal crack in the

+3
-3
.. ,
.10
·------ -----
1, '\. -3
-- -0·5 0 1 +2 • 10
.J -= • • ,~~
• • . zo. •
.... -0-5J 5 '7 9 '
11•
I 23
17
~ I
....... I
i
~ ~
I
BEAM MOMENT AT
I 2&• \ JOINT INTERFACE
I
z
~
a:
+o.s
.6 .
8 .
10 n'
I
19 22
II// • ..,_ 3 K-IN•
I-
Ill
0
I ! ! " ,---~2~
. -~
A 94.5 K-IN.
• u,.a I<- IN.
1 f 32 ar +
-
TENSION
COMPRESSION
I I I
-3
10
-2
FIG. 6.13 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS - SPECIMEN 8.1
....
(,-I
·c
.
,'\
+3
-3
1110
.....
:i 2
""-:,..
. ?:
--z ,
<
~
I-
U'I
0 I
• . t • . •
- O•SJ 7 9 111
I
17 20 23 26
29
•
I
I
. ,
32 11
.
I
. . I BEAM MOMENT AT
JOINT INTERFACE
-····1
z 0
.
8 10 1&'
'
~---.--
1.9 22 25
F-
2-9•
... --·
35 • K-IN.
' '
---:-- ',. 3
z
z
,c(
11 I . 38 11 '• 94.5
141· 8
K-JN•
K-IN.
a::
-3~ + TENSION
I I
U'I
.
I- . 1110
- COMPRESSION
•·
FIG. 6.16 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS - SPECIMEN B.2 ~

~
~
•
.. ,
3
-3
•10
--..,.~
z 1
--z
<
~
:ii
0
J • • ,,,' . • • . • • •
-0-5 •7 9
I
I
17
.
20 23 Z6 29 32 35
I
I
I
r· I BEAM MOMENT AT
+O•S, I JOINT. INTERFACE
.•
8 ,.o u,
I
19 22 2.5 28 31 u• 37
z 0 • ,- -3
•
=--------~---------------•
• • •
• 47.3 K-IN •
':-,
z
--z , •• 9 A,S· K-IN,
U1°8 K-IN.
~
.....a: + TENSION
Ill -3
•10
2 - COMPRESSION
FIG. 6.19 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS SPECIMEN B.3 ....

t.,.I
N
•
z
..... -3
~ 1110
""'-:-
z
0 2 1111>3 3
z
<(
...a: 0
.
1,1\
- 0•5 u• 12
•
10
'
71
I
•
• 1
20
IC
I
I
I 2311
I
I
+ 0•9
3!i 0
15
• .
13 11
•
gl
4
& .
3
':-,
z
z 1 29 II
<
a:
... -3
1,1\ ..10
-2
BEAM HOMEN T AT
JOINT .JN TE RF ACE
,·
I
i
• . 53.0 K-IN.
" 1Z6,Q K-IN.
• 176.5 K-IN.
+ TENSION
- COMPRESSION
....
(,'I
(,'I
~ FIG. 6 .14 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS SPECIMEN 8.4

. '
-- 20
~ -3
....,_ 1110
....zz 10
ct
a:
t-
111
0
2
-3
-:- 1110
z
.;:;.
z 1
z
~
a:
t-
VI
-0
,, .
o.s 1&
'
113
I
10 7 4 1
BEAM MOMENT AT
r- I
I
JOINT INTERf'ACE
I
I • &3.0 I< - IN.
+ o.s I A. 12&,0 K-IN.

-:--
z 0 .
1g
.
17
·---~---=---_: ___
11s 12 9 & 3
.,!. _ _ _
• 189.0 I< - IN.
':-
z 0 239.S 1<-IN.
. ....
z
~
, + TENSION.
a: COMPRESSION
t-
"' -3
1110
2
. I-'
-~
FIG. 6.17 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS SPECIMEN a.s ~
~10 3
+ZS.
.
'
z 20
.:::::.
z
z 10
~
...
a:
UI
0
+2
-3
__ .10
z
.:::::..
~ 1
z
cc
...a:: 0
UI
• • • • • • • •
- 0•5 7
29 27 22f
I
19 16 13 -10 7 A 1
I
I BEAM MOMENT AT
I
I JOINT INTERFACE
I
+ o.s -
30
• .
28
I
1s1 21
• .
18 15
•
12
•
9
• .
6 3
•
• 31. 5 K•IN •
0 A 126.1 K-IN.
--z t,, 189.1 K-IN.
':-,.
,. z · 226.9
-
~
1
I(
0
D 239.S
K-IN.
K-IN •
<(
...a: 2 + TENSION
"' .,o-3 - COMPRESSION
~
vi
: VI
FIG. 6. 20 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS - SPECIMEN B. 6
...
-3
JC10
~
. ·,
--
~
.2
267.9 K-IN.
~-
....~
1 -3
z
<(
...a: • ~
0 +1 + 2 JC10
II\
0
-0·5 J •
s· •
7
•
9
,~I
,.,• •
20 JC
I 23
I
I
I 26JC
I
.I
~ ! ~o 16! ,, 2} 267.9 K-IN.
----------------------~ 29
BEAM MOMENT AT
32 •
JOINT INTERFACE
• 31, 5 K-IN.
+ O•S
--z 0
,j
6
1'26.1
2 20,6
K•IN.
K•IN.
":,
z
-
z 1
+
-
TENSION
COMPRESSION
ct
a:
... -3 2 67.9 K -IN.
"' 10
JC - 2
....
t,.l
FIG. 6.15 DISTRIBUTION -OF STRAINS - SPECIMEN 8.7 °'

.·,
.
11,-0 3
.....
:i 2
'....
z
z 1
cc
...
ex
"'
-o.sJ
0
•
7
.
9 11i
•
17 26
I
I
I
I BEAM MOMENT AT
I
I JOINT INTERFACE
I
I • 31.S K-IN•
. ,. . •
10 -
I
.
1 r, I 1_9 22 25 21
+0•S -------------w----------------
t
· ' 12 6 .1 K-IN.
~ oI : : 1:..:-3}£ ! a I A 220.6 K-IN.

a
z
0 283.6 K-IN.
z 1
<l D 330.9 K IN.
e:"'1110-~ + TENSION
-2 - COMPRESSION
....
~
FIG. 6 .18 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS SPECIMEN B. 8 "

. '
+S
... 3
111 0
..
.... 3
~
':-,.
~
--z 2
~
...a:
Ill
+1
0
• t
1 ,,
• • • • • •
-o-s. 7 9 17 20 23 215 29 32 35 '•
I Jr,
I BEAM MOMENT AT
l JOINT INTERFACE
I
I
I .
~ 1.
• 31.s K-IN.,
. 1,, \9 ~2 2.s ~.' 3.1 !' ,z

8 10
.... +0.S
~
--------~----------------------------
•
'
A
12 6.0
220,6
K-IN.
K-IN.
....,_,
z·
oI , • f~ t · I • , 1 a I 0 213.6 K-IN •
z
< -1
• 2 99.A K-IN.
a: + TENSION
1-
111
-3
1110
- COMPRESSION
:..2
~
CA
00
FIG. 6.21 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS - SPECIMEN 8-9

139
joint block extended the region of tensile deformations further into
the joint block. In the post-yield range, splitting of concrete

started from this inclined crack and extended further inside the
block.
6.7 Analysis of Stresses in the Joint Block
In seven of the nine specimens tested in this series, a
diagonal (or inclined) crack developed in the joint block. The posi~ion
and the shape of this crack did not change much for different specimens.
Also, this crack appeared at load increments corresponding to maximum
beam moments of either 126.00 k-in. or 142.00 k-in. This means that the
inclined crack developed when the tensile force in the reinforcement
reached a certain value.

If 'j' is taken as 0.875 then the value of this force
'Tb' is found to be 16000 lbs. for M = 126000 lb. in. (d ~ 9 in.).
This force carried by the tension reinforcement is trans-

ferred back to the concrete in the joint block through bond, inducing
shearing stresses in concrete. The magnitude and distribution of these
shearing stresses in the joint block along the reinforcement is
complex and difficult to determine experimentally.
In order to carry out an analysis for the diagonal tension
strength of the joint block, the following assumptions were made:

(i) The shearing stresses produced by the reinforcement are
distributed over a length, equal to the effective depth
of the shallower member, along the tension reinforcement
in the joint block. (This assumption is based on the

140
position of inclined cracks observed during the tests in
this series.)
(ii) The shearing stresses are uniformly distributed over that
length.
On these assumptions when the joint block is square the whole
block is effective in resisting shear from the force in the tension

steel. But when the colunm is wider than the beam only a length of
the block equal to the beam depth resists shear (unless special
reinforcement is provided as discussed in Chapter 7). Fig. 6.22
illustrates this. Considering the specimens in series '8',
= V .b.d. ..... 6. 1
UJ 7>
where b = width of the joint block perpendicular to the

plane of frame
¾ = effective depth of the joint block (equal to. the

effective depth of the beam)
V •
UJ = ultimate nominal shear stress of concrete in the
joint block,
Substitution of numerical values gives:
V . =
16000
UJ 5 X 9
= 354 psi.
141·
-- - - - - - - - - - - - 1 9
A : I
I
I
I
~ I
I
I
D
1 C
r..
FIG. 6.22 FORCES IN THE JOINT BLOCK

142
For a concrete strength off'= 6400 psi, this value of

C
v in terms of -v'F is:

U C
V • = 4.4vF ..... 6. 2
UJ C
This means that a diagonal crack would appear in the joint
block when the tension reinforcement is carrying sufficient force to
produce a nominal shear stress of 4.4vf" over a length equal to its

C
effective depth.
6.8 Influence of Gauge Length on Measured Curvatures or Rotations
The Tensotast gauge positions 11 - 16 (Fig. 4.3) were used
to determine the strain distribution along the depth at the beam-joint
block inter-face at different values of bending moment. Figs. 6.23
and 6.24 show typical results obtained for specimens B.1 and B.2
respectively.
Fig. 6.23 for specimen B.1 suggests that the strain distri-
bution along the depth follows an approximately linear pattern provided
that the main crack appears and remains within the segment length
over which the deformations are being measured (see Fig. 6.4 for
crack pattern of B.1).
When a crack appears outside the 'gauge' segment and with
subsequent increments in bending moment, travels into this segment
at some depth from the tension reinforcement, a non-linear distri-

bution of strain is obtained (Fig. 6.24; for crack pattern of B.2
see Fig. 6.5). In this case, the term 'curvature' which is a plane
(BEAM MOMENT VALUES
AT JOINT INTER• FACE
STRAIN (IN,/IN,) IN K-IN, ) ( IN./ IN.)
-5 0 ., +10 / +15 -5 'R1...,;:: +~ +10 +15

101 I '°...; r,,0:
r!o
I ~
3
-
. :; ION 101 .,, "" -": 0 I I
N .., ....
~ 9 ~ 91 1~-- ,.-r I I I~,
"'u "'u
c(
c(
I&,. 14.
:!:i::~z 71 ~ 71
~I
I l 1' ll ~,.....::::::: I I 112
If
Ill
Ill
"'
a Vl
i-
o.
~ "'
Ill
E
0 0
u 51 -----fll-----~~-~-...:::::=,.....-4_:::::::..,...__-1,J "'
~
u
oE 51 IH ~ II' F _, CJ)
• -1 E ~
I
+ TENSION I 0
a
c(
u,
~
:c
...
o. ·31
,-----1·~,J~)~~~~~,,~fC~-__:~;::~:~-
1 :v .v
_ COMPRESSION : I ~ 1·
:;: Jt------ttt--+----::.~~~f-~.,,L.--~-----~114
1 ~
~
~
w ...
% I 0 0
0
Vl
" I ~ + TENSION z
_, - COMPRESSION .
"'
m "'
·:1
0
..,,;RI
aHH'I I
I
I I m ·-~I -2ilt I
0
I I 1::
FIG. 6 .23 DIStRlBUTION OF STRAINS FlG. 6. 24 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS
ACROSS THE BEAM DEPTH ACROSS TH~ BEAM DEPTH
....
AT JOINT INTER-FACE. AT JOINT INTER-FACE .. .i::,.
v:i
( SPECIMEN 8.1) ( SPECIMEN 8.2)

144
section parameter becomes meaningless. An under-estimate of segment
rotation is obtained if extreme tension and compression deformations
are used in calculating that rotation (e.g. gauge position 11 and 16).
Therefore, the experimental value of 'curvature' or rotation measured
over a certain gauge length which does not cover all the critical
cracks (flexural or flexural-shear cracks due to inelastic derorm-
ations) and concrete crushing zone, will depend on that gauge length.
The above discussion, therefore, supports the statement
made in section 5.7 that the deformational behaviour of a member
can best be described by measuring rotations over a certain length
which includes all the critical regions. This rotation may be obtained
by measuring deformations over the total length or by dividing that
length into small segments and taking the sum of all the segment
rotations~
6.9 Analysis of Test Data
The crack patterns and the distribution of strains in the
beam member and the joint block suggest that in the case of a knee
joint a plastic hinge may spread into the joint block. Accordingly,
the beam rotation and the joint block rotation were combined together
to study the beam behaviour near the joints.
The joint block rotation is defined as the angle change
between the inter-faces AB and AC (Fig. 3.1) of the block, initially
at right angles to each other. For calculating the joint block

145·
rotation 03 from the Tensotast readings, it was divided into two
components, i.e.:
8J = ..... 6. 3
where 8J1 = rotation of the inter-face with the beam (AB)
8J2 = rotation of the inter-face with the colunm (AC)
831 was calculated by considering the deformations along
the horizontal lines E and F (Fig. 4.3) in the joint block, and
032 was calculated by considering the deformations along vertical
lines G and H.
For the beam member the rotations from the Tensotast readings
were calculated in a manner similar to that used for specimens in
series 'A'.
The Tensotast gauge lengths 11 - 16 (Fig. 4.3) were common
to the beam as well as to the joint block. While calculating the
rotations, it was assumed that one half of the deformations in gauge
lengths 11 and 16 (used for calculating rotations) occurred in the
beam and the other half in the joint block. A similar approach was
adopted for the set of targets along the coltnnn axis at the colunm-
joint block inter-face for calculating 832 .
The Tensotast readings were used for calculating the rot-
ations, in most cases up to first yielding of the steel. Subsequently,
the deformations increased rapidly and it was not possible to take

146
all the Tensotast readings for each load increment. However, a
complete record of rotation gauges and deflection gauges was maintained
for post-yield behaviour. An attempt was made to separately record
the beam rotation and the joint block rotation by rotation gauges
at positions X, Y and Z (Fig. 4.7). This procedure was W1satisfactory
due to the position of rotation gauge 'Y' and the cracks occurring
there. Therefore, the readings of rotation gauges X and Z were used
to calculate the combined rotation '0BJ' of the beam and the joint
block.
= . .•.. 6. 4
where = beam+ joint rotation
= beam rotation
calculated over a length of 22 in. by the Tenso-
tast readings up to yield of tension steel and
calculated over a length of 42½ in. by electric
rotation gauges in post-yield behaviour;
0
J
= joint block rotation
calculated by the Tensotast readings (as explained
earlier) up to first yielding of the steel and
calculated in combination with beam rotations
by electric rotation gauges in post-yield
behaviour.
In the event of the malfW1ction or absence of these electric

147.
rotation gauges, the deflection gauge readings were used to
calculate the beam and the joint block rotation e8J in a manner similar
to that used for beam specimens of series 'A'. The various corrections
made and the procedure used are shown in Fig. 6.25 for calculations
from deflection readings.
6.10 Moment-Rotation Characteristics
Figs. 6.26 - 6.28 show the moment-rotation characteristics
of the hinging region in the joint block and the adjacent beam member
for the specimens B.1 - B.9. The 'moment' is the bending moment
at the beam-joint block inter-face and the 'rotation' is the sum of
the joint block and the beam rotations calculated as 0BJ from the
experimental data (section 6.9) at each load increment.
Figs. 6.26 - 6.28 also show the moment-rotation curves
for the relevant beam specimens tested in series 'A'.
Although the general trend of the moment-rotation curve

for a beam member near the joint is similar to that of a simply
supported beam, the following observations can be made regarding
its behaviour near the joints:
(a) Before yielding of the tension steel:
(i) The members near the joints show more rotation than the
identical simply supported beams. The additional deform-
ations occurring in the joint block contribute towards

the overall deformations of the beam member near the
joint. A similar observation was made by Swann (Ref. 3.4)

~
tB
--------~M
~, -lol-f--- 0N·r
ts
C
oe
148
--------- ..lo
r P
ic - + +
cS ...
M
= oM =
corrected
cS ...
M = e+
cS cS
p
oe op ee
-- -- --
I
I I
M1 M1
M M
ey
y y
M1 eBJ1
Corrected Beam Defl~ction Beam &Joint Block Rotation
At moment M1 > M
y
8 BJ1 =
ee =·
and ep = in. for all

specimens
0
p =
0
e =
FIG. 6. 25: CALCULATION OF ROTATION FROM MEASURED

DEFLECTIONS IN THE INELASTIC RANGE
· 149
•
m
,., o5
,,,,, .
N
. m N
.
-.. .
m I*' .....
II\ m,.
~
. 0
m
\ (I)
z
UJ
~
..., u
- 0
UJ
' 0-:- a.
0
<( (I)
er:
1 "'
,...
ai
~
(D
z
~
""'
m (I)
UJ
>
a::
. ,., t-
~ <(
::::>
0 ... u
0
er:
z
~
u
0 ...
0
...
.J
m
...:z ...
0
<t
<( N- a::
.
oO
0 . ""' ...z I
+
:!: UJ
<( .
ILi ~
m 0
~
' ~~
...
q
0
(!)
LL
•
1 ~
. ~
6 0 0 0 0
...,
a 0
,-,
0
N
0
,-
("N 1- )I) 3::>V~-~3.lNI .lNIOr .lY, .1N3HOH HV38
ADO
....
i
'i 300
~
A-2 ........
----
UJ
u 8·6 ~
< I
'
u.
a:
I .
.,,-_
UJ
1-
z
- 200
r ' e.s
1- F'/. ILURE AT COLUMN BASE
z
...,0
I- 'A -9.,4
fl
<
i;..
z
UJ
J:
0 ,oo
:E J1
:E
<
UJ
CD.
i,
1
0 0,01 0.02 0,03 o.o, o.os . o.o 6
BEAM+ JOINT BLOCK ROTATION 8 (RAO,)
BJ
....
.U,
FIG. 6.27 MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES - SPECIMENS 8.4,B.5 & 8.6 0
~
151
- CJ)
•
Ill
m
~ C? o5
0
Q)
m
..
c---"
.
~
m
.
~
.. 0
0
tn
z
UJ
~
. ·• . a
u
UJ
c(
0: Q.
(I)
""I
I
\
m
CD
.., z (I)
C!o UJ
0 ... >
~\ "r- ~ c( a::
m ~ ::)
. 0: u
X
u z
-\ . ~
N
~
m
...
z
0
~
4
l-
~\
0~ o
+ a::
::E I
c( ~
~ z
IA-
UJ
~·
0
~
...
0
. a,·
'~
0
N
t
-- ~
--
~
--- ~ r---...=
~ ....._
-~ -ci
.
0
0
0
..,
0
0
0
N
0
...
0
0
(·Nl-)1) 3JV.:i-H3.LNI .LNIOr .LV .LN3HOH HV3a
152
during tests on knee joints. He expressed this additional
rotation in terms of equivalent additional lengths of the
joining members.
(ii) For a given percentage of reinforcement, the rotation
decreased as the joint block became wider. This greater
rotation of the square joint block resulted from cracking
on external vertical face (remote from the beam). This
cracking did not occur in the wider blocks. (For example,
in specimens B.1, B.2 and B.3, the specimen B.1 showed
more rotation than B.2 and B.3. Similarly, specimen B.7
showed more rotation than specimens B.8 and B.9.)
~ii) The difference between the beam rotation near a joint and
that of a simply supported beam increases with increase
in the percentage of tension reinforcement. At first
yielding, the rotations of B.7 - B.9 differed from A.3
more than the rotation of B.1 - B.3 differed from A.1.

(b) Post-yielding behaviour:
Like the beam specimens of series 'A', the moment-rotation
curves for the beams near the joints showed a sharp break at yielding
of the tension steel. The value of the yield moment for beam members,
as indicated by this sharp break in M-0 curve, was approximately
equal to the value attained for identical beam sections tested as
simply supported beams. This means that although there is some increase
in the rotations of the member near the joint, its (member's) moment
capacity at first yielding is not affected by the proximity of the
joint.
In the post-yielding stage, the beam behaviour near the
joint with respect to its moment-rotation curve was different from
that of an identical section in a simply supported beam. Except for
specimens B.7 and B.8 no other specimen reached the value of theoretical
ultimate moment (see section 6.3).
Fig. 6.26 shows that, whereas the hinge rotations for the
specimens B.1 - B.3 exceeded that of A.1, none of the three specimens
reached the theoretical ultimate moment. For the three specimens
the rotations increased appreciably without much increase in moment.
For specimens B.2 and B.3, the ultimate rotation was approximately
twice the value obtained from specimen A.1.
The post-yield behaviour of specimens B.S, B.6 and B.9
was similar to that of specimen B.2 or B.3. The rotation increased
without appreciable increase in moment. The splitting of concrete

in the joint block was responsible for this fast rate of increase in
rotation.
In the case of specimens B.7 and B.8, although the ultimate
moment was approximately equal to that of specimen A.3, the ultimate
rotation was nearly half the value obtained from A.3.
6.11 Discussion
The test results of series 'A' and 1 B1 indicate that the
154.
general behaviour, crack patterns and moment-rotation characteristics
of beam members near the joint is different than those of simply
supported beams.
Cracks and deformations occur in the joint block which
contribute towards the overall rotations of the members joining there.
Crack patterns for the specimens in series 1 B1 indicate that the critical
section controlling the behaviour and moment-rotation characteristics
of the beam member may not be located in the member itself, but in the
joint block.
While the post-yield deformations due to yielding of the
reinforcement may occur mostly in the joint block, the concrete failure
by surface spalling and crushing may be located outside this block in
the adjoining beam member (e.g. B.2, B.3, B.5, B.6 and B.9). A
similar observation was made by Burnett and Jajoo (Ref. 1.12) during
the tests on interior span beam-column connections.
The appearance of an inclined crack and the splitting of
concrete in the joint block for specimens in series 'B' suggest
that while the beam member may be adequately proportioned, shear and
bond can be critical in the joint block and may affect the moment-
rotation characteristics of the hinge forming there.
These test results indicate that the location and the shape
of the critical section and the nature of final 'failure' depend on
size of the joint block and percentage of reinforcement.

155.
The proximity of joint block does not seem to affect the
moment value at first yielding of the steel. But the difference between
ultimate moment of the simply supported beam and the beam member near
a joint increased with increase in the size of the joint block and
decrease in percentage of tension reinforcement. Thus for a given
percentage of tension reinforcement, the beam member framing into
10 in. x 30 in. joint block (B.3, B.6 and B.9) developed the lowest
value of ultimate moments. This is due to excessive deformations
in the joint block, which caused the joint block failure rather than
the beam failure.
For the same size of the joint block an increase in per-
centage of tension reinforcement means spreading of deformations further
inside the joint block (i.e. further away from the inter-faces). For
example .
'specimens B.1, B.2 and B.3 carrying minimum amount of tension
reinforcement, the deformations within the joint block, before yielding
of the steel were restricted to the region near the beam-joint block
inter-face. But in specimens B.7, B.8 and B.9 the deformations were
present well inside the joint block. This increase in the joint block
deformations is due to an increase in the force carried by increased
percentage of steel. This may result in further propagation of flexural

cracks or shear and bond failure within the joint block.
As mentioned earlier in section 6.10, due to cracking on

156-
both external faces of the joint block, the beam members with square
blocks (B.1, B.7) developed the maximum rotation (0BJ) in each specimen
group before yielding of steel. Near ultimate moments, the trend
seems to be opposite and varying. In specimen group B.1 - B.3, hinging
regions in B.2 and B.3 developed rotation much greater than that of B.1
(and A.1). Similarly, B.9 developed rotation greater than B.7 and B.8.
The value of the ultimate rotation in each case seems to depend on
the spread of plasticity in the joint block due to concrete splitting.
Concrete splitting was nearly non-existent in square joint blocks and
was present in 10 in. x 20 in. and 10 in. x 30 in. joint blocks in
varying amounts depending on steel percentage.
--
CHAPTER 7
DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF TESTS

WITH REINFORCED JOINTS (SERIES 'C')
7.1 Object
During the testing of specimens in series 'B', it.was observed
that the joint block plays an important part in the behaviour of a
plastic hinge developing there. In six specimens (B.l - B.3, B.S,
B.6 and B.9) the beam members did not reach their ultimate flexural
strength because of premature failure within the joint.block. For
these specimens, the hinge rotations, generally, exceeded the values·
obtained from relevant beam tests in series 'A'. In two other specime~s
(B.7 and B.8) the 'final' beam moment was approximately equal to the
ultimate flexural strength, but the hinge rotations were less than
those observed in similar simply supported beam specimens (A. 3, A.6)".
In view of the uncertain characteristics of the hinges when they depend
on shear and bond failures within the j~int, it seems desirable to
157
158
strengthen the joint block so that the hinge develops the full flexur~l
strength of the beam and has predictable characteristics .. It was
with this object that series 'C' was designed.

Three knee joint specimens C.7 - C.9 were tested in this
series. Specimens C. 7, C.8 and C.9 had the same width, effective
depth and longitudinal reinforcement as the specimens B.7, B.8 and
B.9 respectively, but were provided with extra reinfor~ement in the form
of vertical or diagonal ties in the joint block. The thickness of
the concrete cover was also increased from 3/4 in. to 1-3/4 in. along
the beam member and horizontal face of the joint block. Concrete cover
and longitudinal ties are effective in increasing the splitting
resistance of concrete.
It was decided to study specimens similar to B.7 B.9
because of the varied nature of their behaviour (B.7, 8.8 - maximum

moment approximately equals ultimate capacity but rotation quite small;
B.9 - maximum moment less than flexural capacity but maximum rotation
nearly equal to that of relevant beam specimen A.3).
7.2 Design of Joint Reinforcement
While designing the reinforcement for the joint block,

the following points were considered:·
(i) The layout of the reinforcement should be such that no

practical problems arise in placement of reinforcement .or
during pouring and vibration of concrete in the joint.
(ii) The layout of the reinforcement should be planned in a-way
159
that it does not interfere with the reinforcement details
of the adjoining members. For the tests in this series,

it was desirable not to change the flexural capacity of the
beam.
The reinforcement in ~he joint block was required to prevent.
the opening of a 45° crack and also to prevent splitting along the
0
top bars. In specimen C.7, closed stirrups normal to the 45 crack
were tried (Fig. 7.la). In specimens C.8 and C.9, vertical stirrups
were used (Fig. 7.lb and c). These would best hold down the top bars
and would also be easier to place in practice.
Specimen C.7:
Overall dimensions of joint block = 11 in. ·.X 10 in.
Thickness perpendicular to plane = 5 in.
,
Depth of tension steel in beam
or colunm member ~ 9 in.
Area effective in resisting shear = 9 X 5
= 45 sq. in.
f ... = 6400 psi
C
V
UJ
. = 4.4vf'°
C
= 350 psi
Shear capacity of joint block = 350 X 45
= 15800 lbs.
Area of tension steel in be~ member = 0.88 sq. in.

(2 ll 6 Bars)
f = 42000 psi
y
2};
CLOSED STIRRUPS
n
N TIES
ONG
IL. Ill - n OPEN TIE 22.LONli
(a) SPECIMEN c.7 (b) SPECIMEN c.e

2 112
.,
I , 1 'i
1 ,,
l /2
I I
rJ OPEN TIES 22\oNG
_,,..,.
~
' .,
'. - NOTE: THE REQUIRED CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
WITH THIS ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCEMEN'
WAS DETERMINED BY CONSIDERING
THE FREE BODY EQUILIBRIUM (FIG. 7.2)
I
I
I
.
u
. ....
· (~) SPECIMEN C. 9 °'
0 .
FIG. 7.1 ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCEMENT IN THE JOINT BLOCK.

•
161
Force carried by steel at yielding = 42000 X 0,88
= 37000 lbs.
(Neglect the increase in force due to
strain hardening.)
This value exceeds the shear capacity of the joint block.
Therefore, additional reinforcement was provided in the joint block
to prevent shear failure (and subsequent splitting failure).
The layout of reinforcement is shown in Fig. 7.la. Assuming
all stirrups to be of same size, the required cross-sectional area
can be determined by considering the free-body equilibrium (Fig. 7.2a).
Taking moments about point '0', the centroid of compressive
stresses, the area of one stirrup (2-legged) A. comes out to be

VJ
0.236 sq. in.
In view of the approximate method used for analysis, it ,
was decided to provide # 3 bars as stirrups (Avj = 0. 22 sq. in.).•
Specimen C.8:
Overall dimensions of joint block -- 11 -in. x 20 in.
Thickness (width) perpendicular to plane = 5 in.

Depth of tension steel in beam member =:: 9 in.
It was assumed that only a length of 9 in. along the joint

block is effective in resisting shear.
Shear capacity of joint block = 9 X 5 X 350
= 15800 lbs.
162
1--------------,--, I
'T=O
I
I
(l I
I
3 Ay. fyl
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
FIG. 7.2 {a) FORCES AT DIAGONAL CRACK IN JOINT

BLOCK OF SPECIMEN C.7
--.--:-- -,
--- - - - -7-+-+- -t,,--:t--- ·- - - -.. l !I
I I 1 1 ...
(!
. I I I T=ifY.AS
T =A .f I I I I
b s y I
I
I
I
I
I • I I
I I
.., I
I
I
I • I
I V
I I
.I
I I •
I
FIG. 7. 2 {b) FORCES AT DIAGONAL CRACK IN, JOINT

BLOCK OF C.8 {& C.9)
163
Force carried by steel at yielding = 42000 X 0.88
= 37000 lbs.
> 15800 lbs.

joint block reinforcement required.
Fig. 7.lb shows the layout of the joint reinforcement.
Assuming all ties to be of same size and taking moments about '0'
in the free-body diagram _(Fig. 7. 2b), the required area of one tie
A. is 0.183 sq. in. # 3 bars were used as 2-legged ties
VJ
(A.= 0.22 sq. in.) in specimen C.8.
VJ
In the joint block of C.8, there was some anchorage length
beyond the diagonal crack for the top steel of the beam. Without
ties, this anchorage length was ineffective due to splitting; It
was assumed that with stirrups, this length would account for a bar
,
force of½ As fy, and this value was, therefore, taken into accoWlt
in the free-body equilibrium (Fig. 7.2b).
Specimen C.9:
The analysis and design of reinforcement for joint block
(11 in. x 30 in.) is the same as that of specimen C.8. Fig. 7.lc
shows the layout of reinforcement in the joint block. #3, 2-legged
open ties 22 in. long were placed at 1½ in. c/c. One additional tie
was placed beyond the point at which the reinforcement was not needed.
7.3 Properties of the Specimens and Test Procedure
Table 7.1 and Fig. 7.3 show the dimensions and typical
layout of reinforcement for the specimens in this series.
TABLE 7 .1: PROPERTIES OF TEST SPECIMENS - SERIES 'C'
Beam Cross-Section Clear Colunm Cross-Section Clear Joint Joint Block Stirrups Concrete
Specimen Details 1 Beam Details 1 Colunm Block Reinforcement or -Tie Cylinder
Length Dimension 2 Bar 2 Strength 3
No. Overall Tension
Span Overall Tension Fig.No. Spacing
Under Under Size Showing
Depth 4 Reinforce- Width 4 Reinforce- Test
Test ment Bars Details
ment Bars
in. in. in. in. in. in. ksi
C.7 11 2#6 52 10 3#6 18 11 X 10 #3 7. la 5 6.13

C.8 11 2#6 52 20 2#6 36 11 X 20 #3 7.lb 5 6.28
C.9 11 2#6 52 30 2#6 36 11 X 30 #3 7. le 5 6.42
1. See Fig. 7.6 for details which are common to all the specimens.
2. Stirrup or tie size= #3 plain bar as closed rectangle.
3. For reinforcement properties, see Table 4.2.

4. Effective depth= overall depth - ½(tension bar dia.) - clear concrete cover.
Clear concrete cover= 1-3/4 in. for beams
= ·3/4 in. for columns.
....
°'
.i:,,.
,
A-9
. VARIABLE
•... .#
., .""
... 3 STIRRUPS AT 5 CRS.
eN
........
N
•
,~·
_l,
-~ -,-
3 ,.
• ~- ,___ .--.
·~Iit>2#·
M
- :
........ I
· 2#3- ........
-~ I Ill
a:
~~ u
--- i~ VARIABLE
.1 •
w
I
.
10 FOR C•7 ..."' '0
.
20 FOR C•B
-(
,. I
fl)
1/1
ao"FOR C•9
...
II.I
BEAM CROSS-SECTION COLUMN CROSS-SECTION M

#
NOT E: STEEL PLATE DIMENSIONS & WELDING

--- - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~
IN SERIES
.,
THOSE OF SIMILAR SPECIMENS ( 8•7, B•8,B•9.)
B.
STEEL It
FIG •. 7.3. SPECIMEN DETAILS - SERIES C

._ I
....
°'·
Ul .
166
The method of fabrication and material details for the spe~imens

were described in Chapter 4.
The effective depth of the beam member of the specimens
in this series was the same as that of specimen A.3 (and A.6 and.
B.7 - 8.9). Therefore, the 'theoretical' values of yield and ultimate
moments for the beams in specimens C.7 - C.9 are assumed to be equal
to experimental values of yield moment and ultimate moment obtained
for specimen A.3. These values are:
Yield moment = 288.00 k-in.
Ultimate moment = 350.00 k-in.
The set-up of series 1 8 1 was used for the testing.of specimens

in this series. The specimens C.8 and C.9 (column widths 20 in. and
30 in. respectively) were bolted on to the channels fixed on the ,
reaction floor of the laboratory (see Fig. 6.2). While specimen.C.7
was fixed in the test rig in a manner similar to that used for specimen
B.7 (Fig. 6.3), the effective length of column under test for
specimen C.7 was 18 in.
The method of testing and recording observations was

identical to the method used for specimens in series 1 8 1 and is
detailed in section 6.4.
Figs. 7.4 - 7.6 show the cra~k patterns for specimens C.7 C.9
respectively.
167
-
"''
c-7
I I
FIG . 7 . )4 CRACK PATTERN FOR SPECIMEN C. 7
FIG . 7 , ) CTIACr: PA'ITERJ\J FOR SPECIMEN c . 8
- l
>
168
A comparison with similar specimens B.7 - B.9 suggests that
the inclusion of additional reinforcement changed the 'shape' of the

plastic hinge developing there and also the mode of failure. An
inclined crack appeared in the joint block of specimens C. 8 and C. 9.
The growth of this crack was checked by the joint reinforcement and
therefore, remained a 'hair crack' up to the ultimate load. No diagonal
crack was observed in specimen C.7.

In the post-yield behaviour, there was no sign of bond
failure or splitting failure in the joint block in any of the three

specimens. The inelastic deformations occurred due to opening of
flexural cracks in the beam and the joint block.
The average spacing of the main flexural cracks along.the
beam members was approximately 5 in., as compared to a value of
3.5 in. to 4 in. observed in specimens A.3, A.6 and B.7 - B.9. This
seems to be due to an increase in concrete cover in the beam members.
7.5 Deformations in the Joint Block and the Beam Member Near the Joint
Figs. 7. 7, 7. 8 and 7. 9 show the profiles of surface strains

for specimens C.7, C.8 and C.9 respectively. In the case of these
three specimens, it was possible to take the Tensotast readings du~ing

their post-yielding behaviour. Due to relatively larger values of
tensile strains along the beam axis, two scales are used to draw the
tensile strain profiles. The smaller scale is used for the post-yield
behaviour.
The effect of joint reinforcement is evident from these·
+30
.,o·-3
169
20
10
....
z
.... 0
i
..,
z
+Z
-l
..
4 1110
..."
UI 1
0 1 2 +3
-0·5 .
5
.
7
.
10 131
I
' •
20
.
23.
ZS
2 9•
I
.
& .
11 11'
•~-----22.---- -~
.
25
' 32
35•
+0•5
.....
z SEAM MOMENT AT
1 Joun INTERFACE
'! A 31.5 K-IN.
z
( 2 • j2&.1 K-IN.
"...
UI 6 220.& K-IN.
•103 283.& K-IN.
0
-3 371.2 K-IN. 330.5 K-IN •
•
+ TENSION
COMPRESSION
I
I FIG. 7.7 DISTRIBUTION OF ST RAIN SPECIMEN C.7
I
I
j. .
• 30
.
·,
-3
x10
20
346.7 K-IN.
z 10
""'-:-
z
~ 0
<(
a:
1- +1,5
Ul -3
x10
1
- 0,5 •
5
•
7
•
10 13T
I
•
20
.
u •
27
•
30
I BEAM MOMENT AT
I JOINT INTERFACE
I
I K-IN,
•'
31. 5
I
I
I 126.1 K-IN,
.-.+ 0·5
z
6
. 11• 181 2.2 ' 2.6 2' ---3.2---
8
----------------------
• A 2 2 0,6 K-IN,
.....
-
z
0 0 283.6 K-IN,
+ · TENSION
COMPRESSION
!<( 1 rt-' 346°7 K-JN,
...a:
111 -3
I
,_-- 3 71 2 K-IN.
x10 I
-2 I
I
I
....
. -..J
.o
FIG. 7.8 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS - SPECIMEN C .8

+25
. '
•103 I II\\ I A\ --- 359.3 K-IN.
IA\f 't·"·'
20
K-IN.
10
.
z
"":-
-z 0
I
I
l~ I
I
z +2~ I
~ -3
....a: 1110
Ill
•
1
0 1 I
-0.5-1 •
5
.
7
.
10 n1
I
I
.
20
.
23
•
26
.
29
.
32
•
35 38
I
I
I
I BEAM MOMENT AT'

.. +O •51 .
6 8
• .
11 181
• 2.2 · 2.s .
28 3.1 .
34 37
•
,o
• JOINT INTERFACE
~ . 0 l 31.S K-IN.
......
z
-z • 126,1 K-IN.
1 A 2 20,6 K-IN.
~
....U'Ia: 0 28 3.1 K•IN,
-3
1110
-2 • 330.9 K-IN. ....
....
'1
+ TENSION
- COMPRESSION
FIG. 7.9 DISTRIBUTION OF STRAINS SPECIMEN C.9
•
172
figures. The inelastic defoI111ations occurred mainly in the beam and
in the joint block near the inter-face. In the joint block, the
strains died out rapidly before reaching the other end.
7.6 Moment-Rotation Characteristics
Fig. 7.10 shows the moment-rotation characteristics of the
hinging regions in specimens C. 7 - C.9 (an_d relevant beam specimen

A.3). The rotations were calculated by the method outlined for
specimens in series 1 8 1 (section 6.9).
In order to evaluate the effect of joint block reinforcement
on M-8 characteristics a comparison can be made with specimens 8.7,

8.8 and 8.9.
In the 'pre-yield' behaviour, the beam rotations near the
joints in specimens C.7 - C.9 were less than those of specimens
8.7 - 8.9. This seems to be due to the addition of reinforcement in
the joint block which increases its stiffness.
Specimens C.8 and C.9 also showed a marginal increase in
the yield moment as compared to 8.8 and 8.9 or A.3 (315.00 k-in.
against 299.00 k-in.).
In the post-yield behaviour, the three specimens C. 7 - C,.9

show increase in ultimate moments as well as rotations as compared
to similar specimens 8.7 - 8.9.
The test results of series 1 8 1 and 'C' support the conclusion

drawn by Cranston (Ref. 2.17), Swann (Ref. 3.4) and Mayfield et al
(Ref. 3.5) that detailing of reinforcement in the joint region has·a
AOO .
C,7 C,8
u--- I •
r ~ -
___.
I --- r--"""
~ L----- ~
A .3
~ c::::::----- c.s
..... 300
·r
I
z
I
:lie
~
Lil
u
• <(
"-
I
~ .
Lil
._ 200
z I
•
-
._
z
...,0 rJ
.__
<(
._
z
Lil
~ 100
0
.
1
::E
::E
<( •
w
• ID
y
0 o.o, 0°02 0.03 0-0A 0.05 o.o&
BEAM+ JOINT. BLOCK ROTATION 8 8 J· (RAD.)
....
-.J
(,,.I
FIG.7.1O MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES-SPECIMENS C-7~C-8 & C.9
174
...
strong influence on strength, stiffness and crack pattern of the knee
connections.
The effect of the size of the joint block was also noticeable
in the post-yield behaviour of specimens C.7 - C.9. While the total

rotation of hinging regions in C.8 and C.9 exceeded that of·A.3, the
beam member in C.7 failed to reach the rotation value of A.3.
---
CHAPTER 8
PROPOSED METHOD FOR THEORETICAL EVALUATION
OF MOMENT-ROTATION CHARACTERISTICS
8.1 Introduction
The experimental work carried out in this investigation
(series 'A', '8' and 'C') indicates that the moment-rotation character-
istics of members near joints are different than those of simply
supported beams. The existing methods (Refs. 1.2, 1.8, 1.~, 2.13)
for the evaluation of moment-rotation characteristics which are based

on experimental work carried out on simply supported beams, are not
applicable to members near joints. Moreover, the member behaviour'near_
joints is affected not only by the size of the joint block but also-by
the arrangement of reinforcement in the block.
In the following sections a method is presented which takes

into account most variables affecting the moment-rotation behaviour
175
176
of a plastic hinge. The suitability of the method is demonstrated by
its use for the mid-span and the corner hinges observed in the test
specimens during this investigation.
8.2 Idealization of M-8 Curve
On the basis of experimental moment-rotation curves obtained
for the test specimens in this investigation, the ascending branch of
the moment-rotation curve for a hinge segment can be idealized by three
straight lines (Fig. 8.1). A hinge segment is defined as the length
of the member in which inelastic deformations occur.
Referring to Fig. 8.1, line OC passing through the origin
represents the uncracked behaviour of the hinge.
Line CY represents the behaviour between first cracking and
first yielding of the tension reinforcement.
Line YU shows the behaviour between first yielding and ultimat~

moment capacity of the member.
If the descending branch of M-8 curve is also required, then
this can be idealized by the line UF (Fig. 8.1).
8.3 Hinge Models

In reinforced concrete lumped deformations occur at cracks
and a hinge model can be best defined by the crack pattern in the hinge
segment. Flexural, flexural-shear and shear cracks appear in members
subjected to bending and shear. Two types of hinges are defined for
flexural members (Ref. 2.3, 2.23):
(i) Flexural crack hinge;
(ii) Shear crack hinge.

177
e -
FIG. 8.1- IDEALIZED MOMENT-ROTATION CURVE·

OF A HINGING LENGTH.
178
...
A FLEXURAL CRACK HINGE may develop in a beam segment in which
bending moment i's predominant and shearing force is zero or small.
Fig. 8.2 shows the model of a flexural crack hinge, which consists of
equally spaced vertical cracks. The length of the hinge along the
member is the distance over which inelastic deformations occur (M > M)
y.
and is obtained from the bending moment diagram at ultimate load. If
the hinge segment is divided into "n" equal elements, then the hinge
rotation is the sum of the rotations of the individual elements
centred around the "n" cracks, i.e.
et = :Ena
1 e.1
..... 8.1
where et = hinge rotation
a .th element, and

e. = the rotation of the 1
1
n = number of hinge elements.
The elements in a flexural hinge are called flexural crack

elements.
A SHEAR CRACK HINGE develops in a region of high bending mo~ent
and shear force. The flexural cracks bend in an inclined direction
when the diagonal tension strength is exceeded (change to flexural-
.
shear cracks) and converge towards the point of maximum moment. Fig: 8.3
shows the model of a typical shear crack hinge. The hinge can be
divided into "n" elements, each centred arowid a crack. The spacing
of cracks at the reinforcement level is assumed equal to the average
179
p
,
I I
I I I
I I I
-_,
I
I
I
I
I
,-
I
I
';;ti"'
I I I
I I
I I • I
s...
l"I 2 I
I· -1
•
FIG. 8.2 FLEXURAL CRACK HINGE
I. ..J
MMAX M1
My
,_ .. I
,ePc
Fl G. 8.3 SHEAR CRACK HINGE

180 ·
spacing of flexural cracks. The inclination of flexural-shear cracks

to the tension reinforcement is assumed between 45° and 90°. The ...
length of the plastic hinge on the compression side 't ' is equal to·
pc
the distance over which M > M.
y
While on. the tension side, at the
reinforcement level, the length will depend on the spacing of cracks
and the inclination of n th crack (Fig. 8.3). The maximum value of this
length will be tpc + d, where dis the effective depth of the member.
Due to the nature of the crack pattern and, therefore, the·
shape of the elements, "ri-1" elements are assumed inclined elements

while the n th element (element no. 1 in Fig. 8.3) is assumed a flexural
cra~k element having a (nearly) vertical crack.
The hinge rotation can again be calculated by summing the
rotations of individual elements (Eq. 8. 1] •

Depending on the loading configuration and the position of
.,-
the hinge, various combinations of flexural and flexural-shear cracks

are also possible. '
For example, in a beam subjected to two-point loading,
only flexural cracks will appear in the constant moment region, but
inclined cracks may also appear outside this range. Simil~rly, a p~rt
of plastic hinge may spread into the joint block (for corner hinges)
and the shape of this part of the hinge may be different than that in
the member. The length of a hinge may also increase due to splitting
of concrete along the reinforcement.·

8.4 Development of a Hinge Model
The hinge model in both types of hinges (flexural crack hinge
or shear crack hinge) will consist of "n" elements, of which at le~t
one will be a flexural .crack element. The other n-1 elements may ·be
181
.
flexural elements or inclined elements or a combination of both,
depending on the loading conditions.
The following procedure may be used to evaluate the hinge
model:
(1) Calculate the cracking moment, yield moment and ultimate moment,
corresponding to points C, Y and U of the M-0 curve (Fig. 8.1)
for the given member cross-section.
(2) Determine the hinging length from the configuration of the

bending moment at first yielding and at ultimate load.
(3) Divide the hinging length into "n" equal regions, depending
on the expected crack spacing.
(4) Calculate the shear capacities of the individual regi?ns.

This in turn will determine the shape of the crack in the
region _and the nature of the hinge element (flexural or
inclined).
(5) Using the equilibrium conditions, determine the steel stress,
depth of neutral axis, forces carried by the stirrups etc.
at the cracked sections of individual elements.
(6) · Calculate the rotations of the individual e~ements giving
due consideration to bond and anchorage characteristics (for
corner hinges).
8.5 Analysis of a Hinge Model
Once the shape of the hinge model (length of the hinge, pos-
ition and spacing of cracks) is developed, analysis is carried out. to
,
182
...
find the moment-rotation characteristics:
8.5.1 Analysis of Flexural Crack Hinge.

The hinge rotation is calculated by Eq. 8.1, provided the
rotations of individual elements are known. Therefore, the first.
step in the analysis of a flexural crack hinge is the determination
of moment-rotation characteristics of individual elements (M - 8

e e
curves).
The length of a flexural cra~k element is assumed equal to
average crack spacing
·
11 S . " and is subJ. ected to a constant moment
ave
11 M11 •
For the uncracked element, the curvature is then uniform
over the element length and, therefore, element rotation 8e. is given
1
by:
8 . • . • • 8. 2
e.
1
where$ cc is the curvature obtained from strain distribution at ~he

central section (or any other section).
After the appearance of a crack, the· moment-curvature relation-
ship for the central section does not remain representative of a_ll the.
sections in the element. Fig. 8.4 shows a typical flexural crack element
-:racked at the central section "c - c". The distribution of stresses
and strains at various locations is also shown in Fig. 8.4. The

curvature at an tmcracked section (e.g. "A - A" or 11 B· - B") is less
than that of cracked section "c - c" in the same element.
For calculating the element rotation, after the propagations
..
of a crack, it is assumed that bond is destroyed over a certain distance

..
,r-----
ACTUAL
EL ~ ... ,,,,,,,,,,
CONCRETE STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
e.~.
Al ~ C ~-,,ctB
r2 't 2.,
·-
,. ~
\
\
M( ...
\
\
)M d
I- ., I i-- t, 11 30
· STRESS DIST.
AT SECT. A-A I 8-B
Af '
C
3D
le
STRESS DIST.
£5
STRAIN DIST,
AT SECT. c-c·
. s
HINGE ELEMENT
HIN6E ELEMENT
AT SECT. C-C ROTATION Ge.
.
f.cicS+f 5 ic30
e•. =
" d
ACTUAL
I I
I. I
I I
~--L. _..,- - ASSUMED
STEEL STRAIN
DISTRIBUTION ....
00
~
FIG. 8. 4 ANALYSIS OF FLEXURAL CRACK ELEMENT . •

,
184
...
on both sides of the crack. The distance· is taken to be 1.5D (as
explained in section 2.3) on either side of the flexural crack for the
deformed bars used in this investigation. Outside this length, the
deformations at the steel level are assumed to be zero. Therefore,
the total deformation at the steel level in a flexural crack element
is 3 x D x £ . On the compression side, the outer fibres are supposed

s
to be subjected to a uniform strain equal to the value calculated at
the central section, thus producing a compressive deformation of
Ec x Save over the hinge element.

The rotation of the hinge element 8 after cracking is then
e.
1.
given by:
ae. = 8.3
1.
where 8 = rotation of the flexural crack element

e.1.
= compressive concrete strain of the outer most fibre
as calculated at the central section
= steel strain as calculated at the central section
save = average crack spacing (length of the element)
D = diameter of the tension reinforcement bars
d = effective depth.
When Me - Se relationships have been established for individual

hinge elements, the moment-rotation curve for the hinging length o_f the
185
'
member can be drawn as shown in Fig. 8.5.
Fig. 8.5 shows the position of ~inging length, number and
position of different elements and Me - ae relationships for these
elements. Due to the effect of the point loading, the hinge element
n1 11 may have a different M -
e ae· curve than other elements "2" and "3" ..
In the ascending branch of the M-8 curve for the member hinging
length, different points can be plotted by considering the bending
moment configuration and the individual element rotations from the

respective M - a relationships of the elements.
e e
At some value of the external load one of the elements will
reach the ultimate moment M If the member is subjected to further
eu
defonnation increments, then the element which has already reached the
moment M will follow the descending branch of its M - 8 curve.
eu e e
This hinge element will then become the 'control' element for the membe~
and, therefore, the external load will decrease, i.e. the M-8 relation-
ship for the hinging length of the member wili also enter the falling
branch. The other elements in the hinging segment which have not yet
reached their ultimate moments will then follow their unloading curves.
Therefore, in the descending branch of M-8 curve for the hinge, the total
rotation (considering element no. 1 to enter descending branch) wilf be:
= ae1 + "'n
LJ2
ae. . . • • • 8. 4
descending 1 unloading
•
t
M
Mmax.=M 1---
• -- - ..... - .-
:=:-4
1
Me - 8 8 CURVE FOR
te .
M I
i---------,------
ELEMENT 1 , ~
... ______ .. ... --
--
.- .- - '"',
-
... ',, SYNTHESIZED
MOMENT ROTATION
... ""f" - - - ' CURVE FOR BEAM

M1
--- MEMBER.
I
I M .- O• CURVE FOR
j,l
·~r~~--~
ELEMENTS 2 & 3 .....F...;..;..a- (8. + e. +e. ) 8t-
M2
I
I
UNLOADING
CURVE
I I 4
I 3 I 2 I 1 I
I I I I
I ' I f I I I
Pt2
I. . HINGING
LENGTH
• I P12
MOMENT - ROTATION CURVES

FOR HINGE ELEMENTS
e8 a e8. a. e.
' e ....
e - 00
°'
FIG. 8.5 SYNTHESIS OF MOMENT-:ROTAT ION CURVE FOR THE FLEXURAL CRACK HINGE
187
A detailed procedure for the synthesis of M-0 curve for ..the .
hinging length from any general shapes of Me - 0e curves for. the hinge
elements is given in Ref. 1.14.
8.5.2 Analysis of Shear Crack Hinge.

Many difficulties arise in the determination of moment-
rotation curve for a member developing a shear hinge. The first prob~em
is the exact definition of the inclined (or shear crack) elements of
the hinge. Another problem is the calculation of deformations at the
reinforcement level at each crack. These deformations depend not only

on the type of reinforcement and the steel stress but also on the
inclination of the crack to the reinforcement. Prior to inclined

cracking, the steel stress at a crack is proportional to the·be~ding
moment at the crack. After inclined cracking, however, the steel stress
at the crack is proportional to the bending moment at the compression
end of the inclined crack. Therefore, for calculating the rotation
contribution of individual cracks, a knowledge of their extension along
the member is needed at each value of bending moment.
In the initial stages of loading when the moment is small,
the cracks are also small in length and remain more or less vertical.
For the beam members tested in this investigation the external shear
force carried by the beam sections at first yielding of the reinforce-
ment was less than the shear capacity of the unreinforced concrete
section. The extension and inclination-of the cracks was not as
pronounced as at ultimate moment. Therefore, the moment-rotation
188
characteristics of the hinging length of·such members, up to first

yielding, can be determined by dividing the length into flexural crack
elements only.
For calculating the rotations at ultimate moment (point 'U')
a fully developed shear crack hinge is considered (Fig. 8.3). The
hinge is assumed to consist of n-1 inclined (shear crack) elements and
one flexural crack element (element no. 1 in Fig. 8.3).
Fig. 8.6 shows a shear crack element (shaded). On the tension
side its length is assumed equal to the average crack spacing 1 S '
ave
while on the compression side its length is assumed to be small compared

With 1 S I
ave
The length of the element remains unchanged at level. of the
point OR which is assumed to lie on the neutral surface. The element
rotation 0 can thus be calculated from the tension steel deformation

e.
l.
and the length of the crack. For the analysis of a shear crack element
in this investigation, it is assumed that the·component of-deformation
at reinforcement level perpendicular to the inclined crack is 3D_ x e: 5 ._

The real value of this deformation is not known and this assumption
is made on the basis of flexural hinge behaviour as discussed previously.
Therefore,
e: x 3D
s
ae. = • • • • • 8. 5
l.
Vh2 + (d-A )2
n
. ..
.,
"
d d.
l Y/B .
"'-3011£5
Sav
Fl G,. 8. 6 SHEAR CRACK ELEMENT
~
00
1-0
190
where = steel strain corresponding to the stress in steel
h = horizontal projection of the inclined crack
d = effective depth of the section, and
A
n = depth of the neutral surface (axis) at section through
point 'A'.
To calculate the stress in the reinforcement consider the
inclined section AORB (Fig. 8.6). Neglecting the dowel force in the
tension reinforcement,
T = V - V . •.. . .. 8. 6
w X C
where T = force carried by the vertical stirrups intercepting

w
the inclined crack
·vX = external shear force at point 'A' of the beam
= shear force carried by the uncracked concrete compression

zone (assumed equal to ultimate shear capacity of
unreinforced web, based on nominal shear).
The force in the vertical stirrups 'T'

w
is mainly a function·
of external shear force and does not depend on the deformations in
the hinge caused by progressive rotation (Ref. 2.23).
Taking moments about point 1 0 1 (centroid of compression zone

force):
.
MX = 8.7
ext
191
~
ext
-[~x~J '
or T = 8.7a
s
where T = A .f; force carried by the tension reinforcement

s s s
at the crack (point B)
f = stress in th~ reinforcement
s
= external bending moment at point 'A'.
'di' and 'g' are the distances as shown in Fig. 8.6. As an
approximation the distances An and d1 Eqs. 8.5 and 8.7 are assumed
equal to those of a flexural crack element subjected to the same
bending moment Mx
ext
When the rotations of the individual elements have· been cal-
culated by the above procedure, the total hinge rotation at ultimate
moment can be calculated by summation using Eq. 8.1.

8.6 Hinges Near Joints (Corner Hinges)·
In the case of hinges forming near the joints (corner hinges),
a part of the hinge may spread into the joint block. In this case,
it is quite possible that the crack pattern of the hinge portion in
the member may be different from that in the joint block. Moreover,
failure in one part of the hinge may limit the moment and rotation
capacities of other part. Fig. 8.7 shows a typical hinge developing
at a knee joint.
The analysis of a corner hinge can be carried out by dividing

the hinge into two parts:
192
·1
HINGE PORTION IM HINGE PORTfON IN
THE MEMBER THE JOINT BLOCK~- _
· CONCRETE
~ Sav• : db SPLITT IN6
•I - ·I·
r-----,,---,-----,,,....--:-~~-----,
--r - - - ~---,.;...;.-..._ -~,
I I
I
I
I
I
......--------~------------r
I
I
I
I
I
I
My
FIG. 8.7 A TYPICAL HINGE FORMING AT A

KNEE JOINT (CORNER HINGE).
193
...
(i) The part of the hinge present in the member.
(ii) The part of the hinge present in the joint block ..

The hinge rotations can then be calculated by summing up the
rotations of the two parts of the hinge.
The analysis of the mo~el for the hinge portion in the
member can be carried out by the procedures given in sections 8.4 and
8.5.
The analysis for the portion in the joint block can be carried
out by considering the shear and bond resistance of the block. The
strength of the joint block and therefore, the position of the inclined
crack can be determined by the procedure given in section 6.7. But

no methods are available for calculating the moment at splitting failure
and the length over which splitting occurs. Therefore, it becomes
difficult to calculate the failure point ('U') on the moment-rotation

curve.
While calculating the rotations in the specimens of series
'B', the failure point corresponds to the observed failure moment.

The crack pattern and the length of separation between steel and· concrete
due to splitting are assumed to be those observed during the actua! tests.
In the beam members, however, the cracks are spread according to the
calculated spacing.
The inclusion of shear reinforcement changes the shape o.f
the hinge in the joint block. For calculating the rotations in such
specimens (series 'C') some use of the experimental observations was
194
'
made in that some secondary cracks were included in the hinge model.
8.7 Application of Proposed Method to the Test Specimens .
The moment-rotation characteristics of the hinging regions
in the test specimens were determined by the method outlined in the
previous sections. Only the ascending branch of the M-0 curve was
obtained. This was then compared with the experimental results.
The average spacing of the main cracks (flexural and flexural-

shear) at the reinforcement level was calculated by Eq. 2.12. The
shear strength of different unreinforced sections was calculated accord-
ing to the ultimate strength requirements of ACI Building Code 318-63.

An important step in the determination of the moment-rotation
characteristics of a hinging segment is the establishment of th~ moment-
rotation characteristics of the flexural crack element, which is assumed
to be present in both types of hinges. The stress-strain relationships,
of the constituent materials and the numeral method of solution for the
flexural crack element are given in 8.7.1 - 8.7.3. The complete

M - 0 curves for flexural crack elements in different specimens were
e e
determined by computer using this method of solution. These curves
were then used to construct the idealized moment-rotation curves f~r

the hinging segments.
In the case of a shear crack hinge, the ultimate rotations
were determined by slide rule calculations using the procedure outlined
in 8.5.2.
195
'•
8.7.1 Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete.

The assumed stress-strain relationship is shown in Fig. 8.8
and is expressed non-dimensionally in terms of stress ratios and strain
ratios.
For the compression side, the relationships are as follows
(Ref. 8 .1) :
0 < e < 1.0: sC = y 1e C + (3-2y )e 2 + (y -2)e 3 ..... 8. Sa

- C 1 C 1 C
1 - 2ec + e2
C
1.0 < e
- < y :
C - 2
sC = 1 - ....• 8.8b
1 - 2y + y2
2 2
e > y : sC = 0 •.••• 8. Sc
C - 2
For the concrete in tension, the relationship is:
e < 0: = ..••• ·8. 8d

c-
s = O < -Y
C - 3
where s = non-dimensionalised stress ratio

C
f
C
= Pr , k"'f-"C being concrete compressive strel)gth
, C
in flexure
eC = strain ratio
EC
= e:.. , e: C.. occurs at a stress of k"'f-"C
C
196
2 ND ORDER
POLYNOMIAL
3 RD ORDER
POLYNOMIAL
,.o
TENSIOM
COMPRESSION
FIG. 8.8 STRESS-STRAIN RELATION FOR CONCRETE
f .,
+--__,..TENSION
(SAME AS IN
TENSION)
FIG. 8 .9 ST RESS -STRAIN RELATION FOR STEEL

•
197
y1 = open parameter defining the ascending " branch

of the curve to suit concretes of various
stiffness E
m
Ee: ..
ID C
=
F'T'"
C
y2 = parameter defining the descending branch of·

the curve
y3 = parameter defining the limiting stress ratio

for concrete in tension
. f t
= k .. ~ .. , f ct being the modulus of rupture.
C
8.7.2 Stress-Strain Relationship for Steel.

The stress-strain curve for reinforcing steel obtained from
tension tests (Chap. 4) is idealized as shown in Fig. 8.9. The .

idealized relations are:
0 < e: < e: : f = Es . e: s ..... 8. 9a

s y s
< e: < e: h:
e: y - f = fy ..•.• 8. 9b
s - s s
e: s ->e:h: f f
= ·y + (e: ..... 8. 9c
s s s - e:sh) Esh
< f
SU
e: s > e: f
s = 0 (steel rupture) .•••• 8. 9d
sr
198
where f = yield point stress

y
E = Yotmg's modulus of elasticity
s
e: y = strain at the onset of yielding
e:sh = strain at the onset of strain-hardening
Esh = strain hardening modulus
f SU = maximum stress, and
e: sr = strain at rupture.
For the computer progranune these idealised relations were

expressed in non-dimensionalised stress ratios and strain ratios s 5
and e respectively.
s
f
s
s
s
=
r; stress ratio
y
e:
s
es = - strain ratio.
e: y
Similar relationships were assumed for compression steel.
8.7.3 Method of Solution for a Flexural Crack Element.

The analysis of a flexural crack element was outlined in
8.5.1. This analysis involves the determination of a relation between
moment and strain distribution (i.e. curvature) at the central section
of the element (section 'c - c', Fig. 8.4). In the method of solution
described here for the establishment of this relation, the internal
199
conditions (concrete strain£) are assumed first, and then the

C
external effects (bending moment M) are determined. The following are
basic steps:
(i) Starting from zero, increase Ec at a chosen interval.

(ii) For any value of£, find a value of neutral axis depth A
C n
by successive approximation such that equilibrium is satis-
fied at the section.

(iii) For the known values of£ and A calculate the bending
C n
moment acting at the section.
(iv) Calculate other parameters: steel stress and strain, maximum
concrete stress etc.
(v) Continue to increase£ up to and beyond a value at which

C
the moment reaches a maximum (M ).

u
For satisfying the equilibrium condition and for calculating
the moment, the rectangular concrete section is divided into concrete
elements (horizontal strips) and steel elements (number of bars). The
total force in the section (equal to zero for equilibrium) is then
the summation of the forces acting on elemental areas. Similarly,
moment is calculated by sununation of the moments of elemental forces.
After the establishment of relation between moment and
strain distribution at central section, the flexural crack element
rotations can be determined by Eq. 8.2 (for the uncracked element) or

200
Eq. 8.3 (for the cracked element).

A computer programme was written in FORTRAN IV language
incorporating the above-mentioned procedure to evaluate the moment-
rotation characteristics of the flexural crack elements. Fig. 8.10
shows the flow chart of the progranune.
8.7.4 Presentation of the Theoretical Results.
The following values of constants were used in the analysis

of test specimens:
Concrete:
e: ... = 0.002
C
= 2.00
= 3.5, for flexural crack elements near steel

loading plates in A.l - A.3 and for elements near
20 in. and 30 in. colunm.s (B.2, B.3, B.5, B.6-, B.8,
B. 9, C. 8, C. 9)
= 3.0 for elements near 10 in. column (B.1, B.4, B.7,

c. 7)
= 2.5 for elements away from the colunm or point load
= 0.15
= 0.85.
201
DATA:
SECTION PROPERTIES
AND HINGE ELEMENT
PROPERTIES:
STRESS-STRAIN
RELATIONS FOR
STEEL AND CONCRETE
SELECT SOME VALUE

OF e:
ASSUME DEPTH OF
NEUTRAL A IS
FIX STRAIN COMPATIBILITY

AT THE CENTRAL SECTION
OF THE ELEMENT
CALCULATE FORCES AT
THIS CENTRAL SECTION
CHECK NOT
E UILIBRIUM SATISFIED
SATISFIED
COMPUTE
MOMENT, ELEMENT
ROTATION
PRINT
M, 8el''}/s' e:s' e:c
IS THIS THE TERMINATION NO

VALUE OF
YES
FIG. 8.10: FLOW CHART FOR THE COMPUTER PROGRAMME TO ESTABLISH

MOMENT ROTATION CURVE FOR FLEXURAL CRACK ELEMENT
202
Steel:
e:sh
y,. = e: y = 7.00
Esh
ys = ~ = 0.018
s
= 66.0/fy
The values off~ f and E were used as obtained from

c' y s
control tests for different specimens.
The values of concrete strain e: were increased in increments
C
of 0.00005, till the section moment showed a drop in its value beyond
ultimate point.
Fig. 8.11 (a - q) shows the hinge models for hinging regions

in different specimens. The moment-rotation curves of the hinging
regions were synthesised on the basis of these hinge models.
The following ratios were calculated for comparison between
experimental (test) and theoretical (calc) results:
M a
Y(test) , Y (test)
M a
Y (calc) Y (calc)
M
u
au
(test) , (test)
M
u(calc) 9u(caic)
3"_ 1.5" 203
1· ·I· -I -
--- --- --- --- .

----
I
l.)
•
Cl © © G) G) G) CDI.
I.
I ,.
(a) SRECIME N A,1
. ,,,
3.5 1.75•
.
--t- - -
I
I
l)
I
(I (DI
.I
I
(b) SPECIMEN A-2
,,,
,.. 4
-+- -:.:S.---
1
I
I I
(l !)
I I
I
I 0.: I
II
.I
(C) SPECIMEN A.3·
FIG. 8.11 HINGE MODELS FOR DIFFERENT SPECIMENS

204
,,
3 ,0 1.5 "' .
---- --- --- --- - -- - -- _.
I
•
~ .l © © © @ G) @
.l.
0j )
(d) SPECIMEN A .7
,,
I- 3 •s ~I
(e) SPECIMEN A .a
F I 6. 8 • 1 1 ( C O N T 'D J·
1•
3.0
.
-, I.. 6.0
•
.,
I
205
- ---,
'I
I
© © © I
I
I
I
I
I ( f) SPECIMEN e.,
I
•
,. 3.0
•
-1 ,. 12.0
,,
-,
---
(9) SPECIMEN B.2
12 .o
•
(h) SPECIMEN B. 3
FI6, 8.11 •
(CONTD)
•
t-3.s_ •I
206
( i) SPECIMEN B,,
,.
.
3.0 .. •l•---1_1.o_ _~,
..
1 1
I
(j)
. .
SPECIMEN B.5 I
I-
I
,.. 3.5"-1. ,... u..o

,,
..,
(K) SPECIMEN 8.6
Fl 6. 8.11 (CONT 1 D).

I· ,.o" -I 207
( l) SPECIMEN B •7
.. 10,0
,,
_ _ _ J.. _ _ _
I
I \
I. .
,,
\ I I
\ I
' "\ I
\ J
I I
I
I
I
(m) SPECIMEN d 0 8
I
I
,.
16,0 ·
I
I .
I
I
I
(n) SPECIMEN 8°9
FIG. 8 •11 (CON T 'D )

I _s -s "
r-
II
5.5
-l
.
208
- ,\
1 '
(o) SPECIMEN. C.7

1
r
I
,.
r s.s
.I I
s.s.,
-1
·1
1
I
I
·I
(p>SPECIMEN C.8
I
I
I- s.s
-I s.s
-I
SECONDARY CR-ACK
(Cl) SPECIMEN C. 9
FIG. 8.11 (CONT 1 O)

209
8.8 Comparison with Experimental Results

Figs. 8.12 - 8.16 show the moment-rotation curves obtained
by the proposed method along with the experimental curves for the
specimens A.l - A·.3, A.7, A.8, B.1 - B.9 and C.7 - C.9.
For the five beam specimens in series 'A' a good agreement
exists between the theoretical and the experimental values of moments
and rotation_s at first yielding and at ultimate moment. The average
M 0
values of Y(test) Y(test)
and for the five specimens come out 1.00
M 0
Y(calc) Y(calc)
M au
u(test) (teS t ) are 0. 99 and 1.12 respectively;
and 1. 31. Similarly, and
M au
u(calc) (calc)
For the eight specimens in series 1 B1 (specimen B.4 not
M 0
Y(test) Y(test)
considered) the average value of ratios and 0
M
Y(calc) Y(calc)
work out 1.04 and 1.31 respectively. At the failure point, where the
a
u(teS t ) comes out
final moments were predetermined, the average of
9u(calc)
to be 1.2 with maximum value 1.71 (for specimen B.3) and minimum value
0.5 (for specimen B.8). This scatter seems to be due to the unpre-
dictable nature and extent of splitting failures.

The agreement is also good for specimens in series 'C'.
M 0 M
u au
Y(test) (test) , and
Y(test) (test)
The average values of M ' 0 , M
9u(calc)
u
Y(calc) Y(calc) (calc)
for the three specimens are 1.02, 1.27, 1.03 and 1.13 respectively.
.400
.
v-- ----
L----- -----
i....
~~
L----- A.3
300
L,...,--"'"
---
.
.....
!1 ---=:::: -- ---- -~
L--4
II ---
z
I
....
---- A,2
~
n -
1- 200
- -- L-----
II - L----:
z
L&I
X L-::::::::: •
0
X
...,
- A,1
~
f If
<
...za:
L&I
u
100I
I . I • • THEORETICAL
I•
II
( .
EXPERIMENTAL'-
- 0-005
RAD,
'
0
' ROTATION
N
FIG. 8 .12 COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL (USING PROPOSED METHOD) & ·I-"
0
EXPERIMENTAL MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR A.1,'A.2 & A.3

,oo .
300
. .
-z
__..
- -
I
:ic A• 8
...
z
-
r --
//
200 .
""l:
0
J:
.J
· A,7
<
...z
ff II
12:
LI.I -
u 1.00
f f - THEORETICAL
E~PERIMENTAL
-
0°005
0
. RAD •
ROTATION
FIG. 8.13 COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL (USING PROPOSED METHOD) &

EXPERIMENTAL MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR A-7 & A-8 ........
N
AOO
.
'
/
r ,.
lA.:/ ~
~ ~
~/
I ./
• 300 .
z
I
•" .
:ii:
/
UI
u --
~
I
<
u.
I
IX
...
UI
~ 200
_/'
V
...z
0
""I
. I 1 {FAILURE AT COLUMN BASE
L_.../
I\.
'
...< j ·--~
rI
...z a.,
UI
:[
0
J: 100
~ I
.
'· •
J:
11
. • • THEORETICAL
< EXPERIMENTAL
UI
•CD
, ' 0·01
RAO.
0- ROTATION
'N
Fl G. 8 .1 4 COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL . ( USING PROPOSED METHOD).& : N
EXPERIMENTAL MOMENT-ROTAT.ION CURVES FOR 8.1,B.4,B.7 & C.7
400----------,-----.-----,------.----.------.-----.----.----------,,----71
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•
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:I:
c( ---- THEORETICAL
ILi
11:1 ---- EXPERIMENTAL
t
0 Fl.G,.- 8.15
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RAD.
ROTATION
COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL .(USING PROPOSED METHOD) &

....\JoiN
EXP.ERIMENTAL MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR 0.2,e.s,e.s & C~8
400
•
~
~
- ~
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.
~300
~~
~v '
i---
- -
9.9
f
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. ·-
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- - - 9.3
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• THE ORE TICA~
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, . 0,01
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ROTATION N
. ~
FIG. 8.16 . COMPARISON OF -THEORETICAL (USING PROPOSED & -~

METHOD)
: EXPERIMENTAL MOMENT-ROTATION CURVES FOR 8.3,B,6,B.9 & C.9
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
9.1 Conclusions
In this investigation the general behaviour and moment-
rotation characteristics of beam members near joints were examined and

compared with those of simply supported beams in the maximum moment
zone. The investigation included tests on knee joints and simply
supported beams. On the basis of these tests a theoretical method was
developed for the evaluation of moment-rotation characteristics.
The following conclusions are drawn:

(1) The behaviour of a hinging region in a beam member near a
knee joint is different than that of a simply supported beam
in the maximum moment zone. In particular, the moment-
215
216
rotation characteristics, crack patterns and hinge lengths
are different.
(2) Therefore, the existing expressions based on previous
experimental results of simply supported beams are not valid
for computing the moment-rotation relationships and inelastic
rotations of members near joints.
(3) When reinforced concrete structures are subjected to external
loads, deformations occur within the joint blocks. The

simplest method of incorporating these deformations in any
limit design solution is to combine them with the deformations·
(rotations) of the adjoining members and thus define the
moment-rotation characteristics of the members near joints.
This approach is similar to one used in the elastic analysis
of reinforced concrete structures when effective lengths are
computed for the members to account for the effect of the
joint deformation on the total frame flexibility.
(4) The percentage of tension reinforcement and the size of the

joint block influence the moment-rotation characteristics of
the hinging region near the joint.

(5) Depending on the values of the percentage of tension reinforce-
ment and the size of the joint block, a part of the plastic
hinge may spread into the joint block. Most inelastic deform-
ation due to yielding of the reinforcement and destruction
of bond may occur in the joint block, while the concrete

217
spalling and crushing take place in the adjoining members.
(6) Shear and bond are critical factors limiting the strength
of a joint block at a knee connection.

(7) Shear and bond failures in the joint block may limit the moment
and rotation capacities of the hinging regions near joints.
For example, the adjoining beam member may not reach the
ultimate moment value or the hinge may not attain sufficient
inelastic rotation because of premature failure in the joint

block.
(8) In view of the unpredictable nature of shear and bond failures
(especially with respect to deformations) in the joint block,

it is desirable to strengthen the joint block with properly
designed reinforcement so that the plastic hinge may develop
the moment capacity of the adjoining member and have
predictable characteristics.
(9) The moment and rotation capacities of a hinging region near a
knee joint can be altered by proper designing and detailing

of reinforcement in the joint block.
(10) The moment-rotation curve of an under-reinforced concrete
member is characterised by three stages of behaviour: pre-
cracking, post-cracking and post-yielding.

(11) For the theoretical evaluation the ascending branch of an
under-reinforced concrete member (having a definite yield
point for the reinforcement) may be idealized by three
straight lines joining the following four points: the origin,

218
first cracking, first yielding and the ultimate.

(12) Cracks· play an important part in the hinge behaviour. There-
fore, the hinge models for theoretical evaluation of their
moment-rotation characteristics should be based on their

crack patterns.
(13) The theoretical method developed in this thesis shows good
agreement with the experimental results.

-
9.2 Suggestions for Further Research
The following problems relating to member behaviour near
joints require further study:
(1) The moment-rotation characteristics of members near other
types of joints need to be investigated; e.g. exterior beam-

column joints, interior beam-column joints (see section 3.2).
(2) A practical problem which could be studied in some detail
is the design and layout of reinforcement in the joint·block.

Reconunendations based on such studies would lead to the design
of ductile frames.
(3) Problems of shear and bond, as they affect the inclination,
spacing and width of cracks, also require considerable
investigation .
•••••••
APe.ENDIX 'A'
REFERENCES
1.1 BAKER, A.L.L.
"Report to Institution of Civil Engineers (London) on

Ultimate Load Design of Concrete Structures".
Proceedings Vol. 21. Feb. 1962. pp 400-422.
1.2: BAKER, A.L.L. and AMARAKONE, A.M.N.
"Inelastic Hyperstatic Frame Analysis".
Proceedings of ISFMRC. pp 85-142.
1. 3: MACCHI, G.
"Proposed Method of Analysis Based on Theory of Imposed
Rotations".
C.E.B. Bulletin D'Information. Nr. 21. Jan 1960. pp 15-37.

1.4: COHN, M.Z.
"Limit Design of Reinforced Concrete Frames".

Journal of The Structural Division, ASCE. ST. 10. Oct. 1968.
pp 2467-2483.
219
220
1.5: SAWYER, H.A.

"Elastic-Plastic Design of Simple Span Beams and Frames".
Journal of the Structural Division. Proceedings of ASCE.

Vol. 83. ST 1. Jan. 1957. Paper No. 851. pp 1-29.
1.6: ERNST, G.
"A Brief for Limit Design".
Transactions ASCE. Vol. 121, 1956. pp 605-619.
1.7: COHN, M.Z.
"Limit Design Solutions for Concrete Structures".

Journal of the Structural Division. Proceedings of ASCE .
. ST. 1. Feb. 1967. pp 37-58.
1. 8: MATTOCK, A.H.
"Rotation Capacity of Hinging Regions in Reinforced Concrete
Beams".
Proceedings of ISFMRC. pp 143-181~
1.9: CORLEY, W.G.
"Rotation Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Beams".
Oct. 1966. pp 121-146.
1.10: BURNS, N.H. and SIESS, P.
"Plastic Hinging in Reinforced Concrete".

Oct. 1966. pp 45-64.
221
1.11: ERNST, G.
"Plastic Hinging at Intersection of Beams and Columns".
J. ACI. June 1957. pp 1119-1144.
1.12: BURNETT, E.F.P. and JAJOO, R.P.
"Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column Connection".

ST. 9. Sept. 1971. pp 2315-2335.
1.13: SOMES, N.F.
"Moment-Rotation Characteristics of Reinforced Concrete

Members. Stage 1: Rectangular Sections".
Technical Report. TRA/398. Sept. 1966. C &CA London.
1.14: JONES, P.B.
"The Characteristics of Plastic Hinges in Reinforced Concrete".
Ph.D Thesis. University of N.S.W. Kensington, Australia.
August 1971.
1.15: HALL, A.S.
"Deformations and Stresses within Joints of Plane Frames".
UNICIV Report. R.51. · School of Civil Engineering, University
of N.S.W. Kensington, Australia. August 1969.
2.1: BEEDLE, L.S.
"Plastic Design of Steel Frames".

John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York. 1958.
222
2.2: BAKER, A.L.L.

"The Ultimate Load Theory Applied to the Design of·
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Frames".
Concrete Publications, London. 1956.
2.3: BACHMANN, H.
"Zur Plastizitalstheortischen Berechnung Statisch
Unbestimmter Stahlbetonbalken". ("On the Plastic Design of
Statically Indeterminate Reinforced Concrete Beams").
Bericht Nr. 13. des Instituts ftir Baustatik, ETH, Zurich.
Juli 1967.
2.4: BARNARD, P.R.
"Limit Design - Past, Present and Future".
A paper presented to the Regional Technical Conference of
the Engineering Institute of Canada, Toronto. Nov. 1965.
(Reproduced in "Engineering Journal" June 1966. pp 26'..31).
2.5: WINTER, G.
"Wither Inelastic Concrete Design".
2.6: HALL, A.S.
"An Introduction to Mechanics of Solids".
John Wiley and Sons Australasia Pty. Ltd., Sydney. 1969.
223
2.7: BURNETT, E.F.P.
"Flexural Rigidity, Curvature and Rotation and Their.

Significance in Reinforced Concrete".
Magazine of Concrete Research. June 1964. pp 67-72.
2.8: BURNETT, E.F.P. and YU, C.W.
"Reinforced Concrete Linear Structures at Ultimate Load".

2.9: BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION COUNCIL FOR CODES OF PRACTICE
"Draft British Standard Code of Practice for the Structural
Use of Concrete".
(To supersede CP 114, 115 & 116).
, ,
2.10: ROSENBLUETH, E. and DIAZ de COSSIO, R.
"Instability Considerations in Limit Design of Concrete Frames".
Proceedings of ISFMRC. pp 439.-464.

2 .11: BARNARD, P.R.
"The Collapse of Reinforced Concrete Structures".

2.12: THOMAS, K. and SOZEN, M.A.
"A Study of the Inelastic Rotation Mechanism of Reinforced
Concrete Connections".
Structural Research Series No. 301. Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
August 1965.
224
2.13: ACI-ASCE COMMITTEE 428

"Progress Report on Code Clauses for Limit Design" ..
J. ACI. Sept. 1968. pp 713-720.
2.14: C.E.B.
"Structures Hyperstatiques".
lle Session Pleniere - Bruxelles, Octobre 1961.
2.15: BAKER, A.L.L.

"Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete".
C &CA London. 2nd Edition. 1970.

2.16: C.E.B.
Bulletin d'Inforrnation Nr. 30. Paris.
2.17: CRANSTON, W.B.
"Tests on Reinforced Concrete Frames. 1: Pinned Portal

Frames".
Technical Report No. TRA/392. August 1965. C &CA London.
2.18: CRANSTON, W.B. and CRACKNELL, J.A.

"Tests on Reinforced Concrete Frames. 2: Portal Frames with
Fixed Feet".
Report No. TRA/420. Sept. 1969. C &CA London.
2.19: SOMES, N.F.
"Addendum to Technical Report TRA/398".
(Reference 1.13). Nov. 1966. C &CA London.

225
2.20: SAWYER, H.A.

"Design of Concrete Frames for Two Failure Stages". ·
2.21: BACHMANN, -H. and THORLIMANN, B.

"Versuche Uber das Plastische Verhalten Von Zweifeldrigen
Stahlbetonbalken". ("Tests on the Plastic Behaviour of Two
Span Reinforced Concrete Beams").

Bericht Nr. 6203-1 (Juli 1965) und 6203-2 (Dezember 1965).
Institut filr Baustatik, ETH, Zurich.
2.22: BACHMANN, H.
"Plastisches Verhalten Von Statisch unbestimmten Stahlbeton-
balken". ("Plastic Behaviour of Statically Indeterminate

Reinforced Concrete Beams").
Bericht Nr. 9. Oktober 1966. Institut fur Baustatik, ETH,
Zurich.
2.23: BACHMANN, H.
"Influence of Shear and Bond on Rotation Capacity of
Reinforced Concrete Beams".
IABSE Publications. 30-II, 1970. pp 11-28.

2.24: COHN, M.Z. and GHOSH, S.K.
"The Flexural Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Sections".

Report No. 100. Nov. 1971. Soil Mechanics Division,
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
226
2.25: WINTER, G., URQUHART, L.C., O'ROUKE, C.E. and NILSON, A.H.
"Design of Concrete Structures".

McGraw Hill Book Company, New York. 1964.
2.26: RtiSCH, H.
"Researches Towards a General Flexural Theory for
Structural Concrete".
J. ACI. July 1960. pp 1-28.
2.27: ROY, H.E.H. and SOZEN, M.A.

"Ductility of Concrete".
2.28: NAWIY, E.G., DANESI, R.F. and GROSKO, J.I.

"Rectangular Spiral Binders Effect on Plastic Hinge
Rotation Capacity in Reinforced Concrete Beams".
J. ACI. Dec. 1968. pp 1001-1_010.

2.29: SHAH, S.P. and RANGAN, B.V.
"Effects of Reinforcements on Ductility of Concrete".

ST. 6. June 1970. pp 1167-1184.
2.30: YAMASHIRO, R. and SIESS, C.P.
"Moment-Rotation Characteristics of Reinforced Concrete Members

Subjected to Bending, Shear and Axial Load".
Structural Research Series No. 260. Dec. 1962. University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
227
2.31: WARWARUK, J.
"Strength and Behaviour in Flexure of Prestressed Concrete

Beams".
Structural Research Series No. 205. Sept. 1961. University
of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
2.32: MacGREGOR, J.G.
"Strength and Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete Beams with
Web Reinforcement".
Structural Research Series No. 201. August 1960.
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
2.33: LUTZ, L.A., GERGERLY, P. and WINTER, G.
"The Mechanics of Bond and Slip of Deformed Reinforcing Bars
in Concrete".
Report No. 324, August 1966. Department of Structural
Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, U.S.A.
2.34: LUTZ, L.A.
"Analysis of Stresses in Concrete Near a Reinforcing Bar

due to Bond and Transverse Cracking".
J. AC!. Oct. 1970. pp 778-787.
2.35: LUTZ, L.A. and GERGERLY, P.
"The Mechanics of Bond and Slip of Bars in Concrete".
J. AC!. Nov. 1967. pp 711-721.

228
2.36: RUIZ, W.M. and WINTER, G.
"Reinforced Concrete Beams Under Repeated Loads".

ST. 6. June 1969. pp 1189-1211.
2.37: ACI COMMITTEE 408
"Bond Stress - The State of Art".

J. ACI. Nov. 1966. (Also available in ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice, Part 2, 1968). pp 1161-1189.
2.38: WELCH, G.B. and JANJUA, M.A.

"Width and Spacing of Tensile Cracks in Reinforced Concrete".
UNICIV Report No. R.76. Dec. 1971. University of N.S.W.
Kensington, N.S.W. Australia.

2.39: BROMS, B.B.
"Mechanism of Tensile Cracking in Reinforced Concrete
Members - Phase II".

Report No. 311, June 1963. Department of Structural Engineering,
Cornell University, Ithaca, U.S.A.
2.40: BRESLER, B. and MacGREGOR, J.G.
"Review of Concrete Beams Failing in Shear".
Vol. 93. ST. 1, Feb. 1967. pp 343-372.

229

"Shear and Diagonal Tension".
(Committee's Report). ACI Manual of Concrete Practice,
Part 2, 1968. pp 426/1-125.
2.42: CRANSTON, W.B. and RAYNOLDS, G.C.
"Influence of Shear on Rotation Capacity of Reinforced
Concrete Beams".
Technical Report TRA/439. April 1970. C &CA London.
2.43: RAO, S.P., KANNAN, P.R. and SUBRAHMANYAM, B.V.

"Influence of Span Length and Application of Load on the
Rotation Capacity of Plastic Hinges".
J. ACI. June 1971. pp 468-471.
3.1: JIRSA, J.O.
"Cast in Place Joints for Tall. Buildings".
Report of Technical Cononittee 21. ASCE-IABSE Joint Committee
on Planning and Design of Tall Buildings. Lehigh Conference
August 19 72 ~:
"Opportunities in Bond Researchlf.
J. ACI. Nov. 1970. pp 857-867.
230
3.3: HANSON, N.W. and CONNOR, H.W.

"Seismic Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column Joints".
ST. 10. Oct. 1967. pp 533-560.
3.4: SWANN, R.A.
"Flexural Strength of Corners of Reinforced Concrete Portal
Frames".
Technical Report TRA/434. Nov. 1969. C &CA London.
3.5: MAYFIELD, B., KONG, F., BENNISON, A. and DAVIES, J.C.D.T.
"Corner Joint Details in Structural Lightweight Concrete".

J. ACI. May 1971. pp 366-372.
3.6: BURNETT, E.F.P. and TRENBERTH, R.J.
"Column Load Influence on Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column
Connection".
J. ACI. Feb. 1972. pp 101-109.-
4.1: AUSTRALIAN STANDARD A97
"Minimum Requirements for the Deformation of Deformed
Steel Reinforcing Bars".
Standards Association of Australia. 1965.
4.2: YARIMCI, E., YURA, J.A. and LU, L.W.
"Rotation Gauges for Structural Research".
Experimental Mechanics. Nov. 1968. pp 525-526.
231
8.1: WARNER, R.F.
"Long Reinforced Concrete Columns in Biaxial Bendinglf.

IABSE Publications, Vol. 29-I. Zurich. 1969. pp 133-148 .
•••••

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MOMENT-ROTATION CHARACTERISTICS

OF REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS NEAR JOINTS

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the J

The author wishes to thank Professor A. S. Hall and

Dr. G. C. Lacey, the supervisors of this thesis, for their valuable

An investigation is reported of the general behaviour,

crack pattern and moment-rotation characteristics of beam members near

Tests were carried out on simply supported beams and knee

joint specimens (with and without shear reinforcement in the joint

block) subjected to bending moment closing the right angle. It is

demonstrated that the moment-rotation characteristics of the hinging

regions of beams near joints are different from those of simply

supported beams. The percentage of tension reinforcement and size

of the joint block influence the post-yield behaviour and a part of

the plastic hinge may spread into the joint block.

When there is no shear reinforcement in the joint block,

member develops its ultimate flexural strength. However, by proper

detailing and designing of reinforcement in the joint block, the

characteristics may form there.

A method is also developed for theoretical evaluation of

moment-rotation characteristics. The suitability of the method is

demonstrated by its application to the test specimens.

1.2 The Aim s

CHAPTER 2 MOMENT-ROTATION CHARCTERISTICS

2.2 Moment-Curvature and Moment-

2.3 A Survey of the Present State

2.3.1 Methods for Evaluating Moment-

2.3.2 Factors Affecting the Moment-

CHAPTER 3 JOINTS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE

3.3 A Survey of the Present State of

CHAPTER 4 PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS

4.1 Layout of the Experimental Programme 62

4.2 Materials and Fabrication 63

4.3.1 Strain Gauges 70

4.3.2 Rotation Gauges 73

4.3.3 Deflection Gauges 75

4.3.4 Load Measurement 78

4.4 Reduction of Test Data 78

CHAPTER 5 DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF TESTS

5.1 Object and Scope 79

5.2 Design of Test Specimens 80

5.3 Test Set-Up and Procedure 83

5.4 General Behaviour 86

5.5 Analysis of Test Data 90

5.6 Effect of Method of Testing 92

5.7 Segments Behaviour 96

5.8 Central Moment-(Total) Rotation Curves 100

5.9 Compression Strain Distribution 103

5.10 Theoretical Evaluation of Moment-

CHAPTER 6 DESCRIPTION AND RESULTS OF TESTS

6.1 Object and Scope 114

6.2 Properties of the Specimens 115

6.3 Theoretical Moment Capacity of

6.4 Test Set-Up and Procedure 118

6.5 General Behaviour 122

6.6 Deformations in the Joint Block and

6.7 Analysis of Stresses in the Joint

6.8 Influence of Gauge Length on