Optics

Ajay Ghatak, Optics, Tata McGraw Hill Education, 5th edition, 2012
 Light : Wave – particle duality

1. Particle Nature of light : Photoelectric effect: Einstein interpreted the photoelectric effect by putting
forward his famous photon theory according to which light consisted of quanta of energy
E=hv, where ν is the frequency and h (~ 6.626 x 10–34 Js) is Planck’s constant; and that the emission of a
photoelectron was the result of the interaction of a single quantum (i.e., of the photon) with an electron

2. Wave Nature of light: Interference, diffraction and polarization

Reflection and Refraction

Snell’s law
Total internal reflection:

• At the heart of an optical communication system is the optical fiber that acts as the transmission channel carrying the light
beam from one place to the other; and as mentioned earlier, the guidance of the light beam (through the optical fiber) takes
place because of the phenomenon of total internal reflection (often abbreviated TIR).

• Now, if a ray is incident at the interface of a rarer medium (n2 < n1), then the ray will bend away from the normal [see Fig.
27.5(b)]. The angle of incidence, for which the angle of refraction is 90o, is known as the critical angle and is denoted by 𝛷c.

• Thus, when the angle of refraction 𝛷1 = 90° . When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle (i.e., when 𝛷1 > 𝛷c ),
there is no refracted ray, and we have what is known as total internal reflection. See Fig.27.5(b).
The optical fiber

Think of optical fibers as pipes that carry light !

 What is an optical Fiber ?
• Optical fiber is the technology associated with data
transmission using light pulses travelling along with a
long fiber which is usually made of plastic or glass.
• Metal wires are preferred for transmission in optical
fiber communication as signals travel with fewer
damages.
• Optical fibers are also unaffected by electromagnetic
interference.
• The fiber optical cable uses the application of total
internal reflection of light. The fibers are designed such
that they facilitate the propagation of light along with
the optical fiber depending on the requirement of
power and distance of transmission.
• Single-mode fiber is used for long-distance
transmission, while multimode fiber is used for shorter
distances. Ref: https://byjus.com/physics/what-is-optical-fiber/
• The outer cladding of these fibers needs better
protection than metal wires.
Types of Optical Fibers
The types of optical fibers depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of propagation of
light. The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:
•Step Index Fibers: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single uniform index
of refraction.
•Graded Index Fibers: The refractive index of the optical fiber decreases as the radial distance from
the fiber axis increases.
The classification based on the materials used is as follows:
•Plastic Optical Fibers: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the transmission of
the light.
•Glass Fibers: It consists of extremely fine glass fibers.
The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:
•Single-Mode Fibers: These fibers are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
•Multimode Fibers: These fibers are used for short-distance transmission of signals.

The mode of propagation and refractive index of the core is used to form four combination types of optic
fibers as follows:
•Step index-single mode fibers
•Graded index-Single mode fibers
•Step index-Multimode fibers
•Graded index-Multimode fibers
How it works:
Figure 27.8(a) shows an optical fiber, which consists of a (cylindrical) central dielectric core cladded by a material of slightly
lower refractive index. The corresponding refractive index distribution (in the transverse direction) is given by,

• where n1 and n2 (< n1) represent, respectively, the refractive indices of core and cladding and
a represents the radius of the core. We define parameter △ through the following equations.

• When n1 a n2, i.e., when △ << 1 (as is true for most silica fibers), For a typical (multimoded)
fiber, a = 25 𝜇m, n2 = 1.45 (puresilica), and △ ~ 0.01, giving a core index of n1 = 1.465. The
cladding is usually pure silica while the core is usually silica doped with germanium; doping by
germanium results in an increase of refractive index.

• Now, for a ray entering the fiber, if the angle of incidence (at the core-
cladding interface) is greater than the critical angle 𝛷c, then the ray will
undergo TIR at that interface. Thus, for TIR to occur at the core-cladding
interface

• Further, because of the cylindrical symmetry in the fiber structure, the ray will suffer TIR at the lower interface also and
therefore get guided through the core by repeated total internal reflections. Even for a bent fiber, light guidance can occur
through multiple total internal reflections
• Single Mode fiber optic cable has a small diametral core that allows only one mode
of light to propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections created as the
light passes through the core decreases, lowering attenuation and creating the ability
for the signal to travel further. This application is typically used in long distance,
higher bandwidth runs by Telcos, CATV companies, and Colleges and Universities.

• Multimode fiber optic cable has a large diametral core that allows multiple
modes of light to propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections
created as the light passes through the core increases, creating the ability for
more data to pass through at a given time. Because of the high dispersion and
attenuation rate with this type of fiber, the quality of the signal is reduced over
long distances.
• This application is typically used for short distance, data and audio/video
applications in LANs. RF broadband signals, such as what cable companies
commonly use, cannot be transmitted over multimode fiber.
Step-Index Multimode Fiber
Due to its large core, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route, whereas
others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternate paths cause the different groups of light rays,
referred to as modes, to arrive separately at the receiving point. The pulse, an aggregate of different modes,
begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent
overlapping limits the amount of information that can be sent. This type of fiber is best suited for transmission
over short distances.

Graded-Index Multimode Fiber

Contains a core in which the refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding.
The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than
those near the cladding. Due to the graded index, light in the core curves helically rather than zigzag off the
cladding, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to
arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core axis. The result: digital pulse
suffers less dispersion. This type of fiber is best suited for local-area networks.
 Application of Fibre optics

• Medical. Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries.
• Defense/Government. Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and SONAR ,
as wiring in aircraft, submarines and other vehicles and also for field
networking.
• Data Storage. ...
• Telecommunications. ...
• Networking. ...
• Industrial/Commercial. ...
• Broadcast/CATV.