Lab Manual

Theory of Structures I

Submitted To:

ENGR. BURHAN AHMAD

Submitted By:

Name Muhammad Usman

Reg. # L1F18BSCE0006

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Central Punjab Lahore

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 Theory of Structures I

University of Central Punjab

(Incorporated by Ordinance No. XXIV of 2002 promulgated by Government of the Punjab)

Table of Contents
Sr. Page
Description
No. No.

1 Shear Force and Bending Moment 3

2 Influence line 17

3 Forces in Truss 23

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Job#1
SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT

1. Objective:

Measurement of shear force and bending moment in a beam from which comparison with
theoretical values can be made.

2. Apparatus:
2.1 ST3112 Shear Force and Bending Moment Apparatus:

The beam has two parts with one part having ball bearings travel on vertical surface of the other
part, an overhung spring balance for measuring the shear force and an underhung spring
balance for measuring bending moment are provided. The beam rests on two roller supports.
Load hangers and weights slide along the beam. It is to be used with ST305 Universal Base
Frame or ST300 Universal Structural Frame (separately supplied)

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3. Theory:

3.1 Internal Loads

The design of a structural member requires an investigation of the forces acting within the
member which are necessary to balance the force acting externally to it. There are four types
of internal loadings that can be resisted by a structural member.

3.1.1 Axial Force

This force acts along the member’s longitudinal axis, and passes through the centroid or
geometric center of the cross-sectional area.

3.1.2 Shear Force

If the external force is applied perpendicular to the axis of a member, it causes an internal
stress distribution acting tangent to the member’s cross sectional area. The resultant of this
stress distribution is called the “shear force”.

3.1.3 Bending Moment

When an external moment is applied perpendicular to the axis of a member, the internal
distribution of stress is directed perpendicular to the member’s cross-sectional area and varies
linearly from a “neutral” axis passing the member’s centroid. The resultant moment of this
stress distribution is called the “bending moment”.

3.1.4 Torsion Moment

An external torque tends to twist a circular member about its longitudinal axis. It causes an
internal distribution of stress which varies linearly when measured in a radial direction. The
resultant torque of this stress distribution in called the “torque” or “torsional moment”.

3.2 Shear Force

3.2.1 Sign Convention

Before presenting a method for determining the shear force as a function of x and later plotting
these functions, it is necessary to establish a sign convention so as to define “positive” and
negative shear force acting in the beam. The sign convention to be adopted here is illustrated
in Fig. 2-1.

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On the left-hand face (L.H.F.) of a beam segment, the positive internal shear force V acts
downward. On the right-hand face of a beam segment, the positive internal shear force V acts
upward.

3.3 Bending Moment

Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their
longitudinal axis are called beams. They are classified as to how they are supported for
example, a simply-supported beam, cantilevered beam and overhanging beam.
When the applied loads act on along a beam, an internal bending moment that varies from
point to point along the axis of the beam is developed.
To determine the internal moment in the beam, one way is to express internal moment as
function of the arbitrary position x along the beam’s axis. This moment function can then be
plotted and represented by graph called moment diagram. Before finding the moment function,
we must know step to do as follows:

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The sign convention to be adopted here is illustrated in Fig. 2-3 on the left-hand face (L.H.F)
of a beam segment, the internal moment M acts counterclockwise. In accordance with
Newton’s third law, a bending moment must act clockwise on the right-hand face (R.H.F) of
a segment.
Procedure for analysis
1. Draw a free-body diagram of the beam and sum moment of the force system about a
support. The reaction can determined at the other support.
2. Cut on the left-hand face and draw a free-body diagram of the left-hand face of beam, the
internal moment acting on it must be counterclockwise.
3. Sum moment of the force system about left-hand face, the internal moment function can be
determined at the left-hand face.
4. Plot moment function.

3.4 External Loads

Loads acting on a segment normally are separated to be three types as follows:

3.4.1 Point load

3.4.2 Uniform load

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3.4.3 Linearly increasing uniform load:

3.5 Centroid of Load

3.5.1 Uniform load

The uniform load on a segment is rectangular, so the centroid of uniform load is at mid-
length.

3.6 Supports

In general, we use three types of supports; each type has different number of acting reactions.

3.6.1 Simple support

The symbol of simple support is

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There are two reactions on it, one is vertical and the other is horizontal reaction. There is zero
moment at this support.

3.6.2 Roller Support

The symbol of roller is

There is only one vertical reaction action on it.

3.6.3 Fixed support

The symbol of fixed support is

There are three types of reactions acting on it.

These reactions are vertical reaction, horizontal reaction and moment reaction.

3.7 Samples of Various Loads Acting on a Beam

3.7.1 Concentrated load

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3.7.2 Uniform load

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3.8 Hinges

When two parts of segments are connected by a hinge, they become a beam where the joint
can be free. The internal moment at hinge will be zero.

3.9 How to Apply Moment in Beam to ST3112

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Referring to Fig. 2-24, when the external loads are applied on a beam, the beam will try to bend
at the hinge. The external moment is transferred to tension from underhung balance multiplied
by 100 mm where the distance from the hinge to underhung balance is. To be clear of this
concept, the left segment must be drawn as a free-body diagram as shown in Fig. 2-25.

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4. TEST PROCEDURE:

4.1 Shear Force

4.1.1 Place ST3112 on ST305. Adjust both columns on ST305 base frame with 700 mm
interval or in range 0-700 mm.
4.1.2 Put the underhung spring balance in place to keep two segments of the beam together
and place the beam with both ends on simple supports.
4.1.3 Adjust the support height until the beam is level, not sliding sideway.
4.1.4 Place the overhung spring balance in place and adjust both underhung and overhung
spring balances again until the beam is straight and level.
4.1.5 Record tare reading from overhung spring balance reading.
4.1.6 Apply weights on the weight hanger to positions along the beam and adjust both
underhung and overhung spring balance so that the beam reaches horizontal level and straight
again.
4.1.7 Record the overhung spring balance readings, positions and applied weights on data
sheet supplied.
4.1.8 The measured shear value is equal to the value obtained from the overhung spring
balance minus the tare value.

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4.1.9 Repeat the experiment at least three times and use the average measured value to
compare with the theoretical value on data sheets supplied.

Note: Net reading = Actual reading - Tare Reading

4.2 Bending Moment

4.2.1 Place ST3112 on ST305. Adjust both columns on ST305 base frame with 700 mm
interval or in range 0-700 mm.
4.2.2 Put the underhung spring balance in place to keep two segments of the beam together
and place the beam with both ends on simple supports.
4.2.3 Adjust the support height until the beam is level, not sliding sideway.
4.2.4 Place the overhung spring balance in place and adjust both underhung and overhung
spring balances again until the beam is straight and level.
4.2.5 Read underhung spring balance reading as tare reading.
4.2.6 Place load W1 = 400 g, W2 = 200 g and W3 = 300 g on each load hanger and hang
them on the position at 100mm. 500 mm. and 650 mm. on beam.
4.2.7 Adjust both underhung and overhung spring balance so that the beam reaches horizontal
level and straight again.
4.2.8 Record the underhung spring balance readings, positions and applied weights on data
sheet supplied.
4.2.9 Repeat the same process, weights and position at least 3 times.
4.2.10 Repeat the same process and weights at L1 = 100 mm. L2 = 400 mm. and L3 = 550
mm.
4.2.11 Repeat the same process with W1 = 400 g, W2 = 200 g and W3 = 400 g, L1 = 100
mm. L2 = 400 mm. and L3 = 550 mm.

Note: Net reading = Actual reading - Tare Reading

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Overhung Spring
Average Theoreti %
Balance
Case W1 L1 W2 L2 Measure cal Differ
Tare Actual Net
no. (g) (mm) (g) (mm) d Shear Shear ence
Read Readin Readi
(g) (g) (%)
ing g ng
1 204 150 204 550 380 420 40 400 122 70%

overhung Spring
Average Perce
Balance Theoreti
Measure ntage
Case W1 L1 W2 L2 cal
Tare Actual Net d Differ
no. (g) (mm) (g) (mm) Moment
Read Readin Readi Moment ence
(g-mm)
ing g ng (g-mm) (%)

1 204 150 204 550 1175 1350 175 437500 8154.9 98%

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Job#2
INFLUENCE LINE

1. Objective:

To study the reactions under various conditions of load at all supports along a three span bridge.

2. Apparatus:
2.1 ST 313 Influence Line Apparatus

The bridge has a cantilever end sections and a suspended center section. The location of the
supports is adjustable. The supports are vertical force supports for measurement of loads. The
deflection of the bridge can be measured by dial indicators. It is to be used with ST305
Universal Base Frame or ST300 Universal Structural Frame

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3. Theory:

The theory of influence line on three span bridge can be separated into important contexts as
definition, principle, and method and ST313 influence line apparatus analysis.

3.1 Definition

An influence line shows the variation of an external or internal force as a unit load travels
across the length of the structure. Influence lines are diagrams showing the effect of a unit
load of variable position at a given point in the structure.

A graph of the shear, stress, bending moment, or other effect of a moveable load on a
structural member versus the position of the load.

An influence line show graphically how the movement of a unit load across a structure
influences a force effect (reaction, axial force, shear, or bending moment) at one point in the
structure. It is not a shear force or bending moment diagram

3.2 Principles

The principles and concepts about influence line depend on the beam-type structure. The
ST013 apparatus is the beam-type bridge structure. For this type of beam, the principles of
the influence line can be shown as
3.2.1. The internal force may be either a transverse shear force or bending moment acting at
some discrete location along the length of the bridge.
3.2.2. Influence lines for truss bridges are commonly used to show the magnitude of the axial
force acting in a truss member as a unit load travels across the panel points of the bottom
chord.
3.2.3 Influence lines for the reaction forces at external support locations are employed in all
bridge types to determine the amount of load transferred to the bridge bearings.

3.3 Method

The two common methods for constructing an influence line are through consideration of
1) Equilibrium or
2) By applying the concept of virtual work (i.e., the Muller-Breslau Principle).

The Miller Breslau Principle states that

“ the ordinate value of an influence line for any function on any structure is proportional to
the ordinates of the deflected shape that is obtained by removing the restraint corresponding
to the function from the structure and introducing a force that causes a unit displacement in
the positive direction.”

Dr. Fouad Fanous shows influence lines of various types of forces on beam of figure 1 as
follows

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TEST PROCEDURES
4.1 Test/Steps
4.1.1 Place 4 Vertical force spring supports (ST124) on structural frame (ST300) as the figure
3-1.

4.1.2 Adjust distance between support A and B, B and C and C and D to be 225 mm, 310
mm. and 225m, respectively.

4.1.3 Place the bridge on top of all Vertical force spring supports symmetrically.

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4.1.4 Make the bridge in the same level by turning the nuts on spring load cells.

4.1.5 Set scale reading on spring load cell A and B to be zero.

4.1.6 Place the total 7.5 kg – truck on the bridge slowly with the center of small wheel at
position 380 mm of scale on bridge.

4.1.7 Reading on scale reading while placing the truck on bridge and record it.
4.1.8 Move the truck out and set scale reading at zero.
4.1.9 Repeat step 3.1.6 – 3.1.8 about 4 – 5 times.
4.1.10 Repeat step 3.1.6 – 3.1.9 and change the position of the center of the small wheel to
point 235 mm, 168 mm. 80mm. and 8 mm. (right of mid-bridge or zero number)
4.1.11 Change the scale reading from mm. to be N. and bring these data to plot the influence
line of reaction at A and B. Compare experimental values to the theoretical values.

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Experimental Theoretical
Scale Reading
Value Value
RA RB RA RB RA RB
400 500 40N 50N 29.2N 29.4N

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Job#3

FORCES IN TRUSS

1. Objective:
Measurement of axial forces in pin-jointed truss members and compare them with
Calculated values

2. Apparatus:
2.1 ST342 Forces in Truss Apparatus

The truss consists of 19 members for construction of different cantilevered trusses where
loading can be applied at any of the bottom joints by the load hanger and weights. An indicator
measures truss deflection. The joints are designed to simulate pin-joints. Each truss member
has a strain gauge. Each gauge is wired to form a full bridge with temperature compensation
and zero adjustment in the bridge box and strain indicator. A steady bar with three adjustable
forks is provided to ensure lateral stability. It is to be used with ST300 Universal Structural
Frame (separately supplied)

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3. Theory:
A truss is a structure composed of slender member joined together at their end points. The
members used in construction consist of metal bars, angles, or channels. The joint
connections are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a common
plate, called a gusset plate, as shown in figure 3-1.

Planar trusses lie in a single plane and are often used to support roofs and bridges. The roof
truss is shown in Figure 3-2.

The roof load is transmitted to the truss at the joints by means of a series of purlins.
In the case of a bridge the load on the deck is first transmitted to stringers, then to the floor
beams, and finally to the joint. The components of bridge are shown in figure 3-3.

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When a bridge or a roof truss extends more distance, a rocker or roller is used for supporting
one end to allow freedom for expansion or contraction due to temperature or application of
loads.

To design both the members and the connections, it is necessary to determine the force in
each member when the truss is subjected to applied loads. Two assumptions will be made:
(1) The members are joined together by smooth pins.
(2) All loadings are applied at the joints.
Each truss member acts as a two-force member, and therefore the forces acting at the ends of
the member must be directed along the axis of the member. If the force tends to elongate the
member, it is a tensile force, if the force tends to shorten the member, it is a compressive
force.
There are two methods to transmit external load at each joint to members. We will mention
only the method of joints.
If a truss is in equilibrium, then each joint must be in equilibrium. Method of joints can be
concluded:
(1) Draw the joint’s free-body diagram before applying the equilibrium equations.
(2) Sum moment of force systems about a support to get a reaction at a support.
(3) Sum vertical forces equals to zero to get reaction at the other support.
(4) Start at support joint that each joined member has line of action along the axis of the
member. We assume all members to be tension as sign convention.
(5) Break axial forces to be x–component and y–component.
(6) Use Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 for determining axial force.
(7) Consider other joints and use Fx =0 and Fy = 0 again until all members are computed.

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4. TEST PROCEDURES

4.1 Connect truss members to joint members to form Marquise Truss as shown in figure
above or other truss as required. Use members with transducers where required.
Each member end requires two screw pins. Tighten the nuts by hand (not too tight) to ensure
slight movement between the truss member and the joint member.
4.2 Connect the strain gauge bridge (transducer) to strain gauge indicator. Assume single
channel strain gauge.
4.3 All transducers are adjusted at the factory to read zero at no load.
4.4 Apply 10 N weight at the end of truss.
4.5 Record indicator reading.
4.6 Repeat step 4.4 to 4.5 for 20 N, 30 N and 40 N load.
4.7 Release the applied weight and move the indicator connection to the other members
where strain gauge assembly is already attached or rearrange the members. Repeat step 4.3 to
4.6.
4.8 Compare the measured axial forces to theoretical axial forces.
4.9 Repeat 4.1 to 4.8 for other type of truss.

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Note:
1. Both screw pins should be only lightly tightened so that the beam can adjust and align
itself under load.
2. The strain gauge indicator can be adjusted to read load in mV, kg, N or other required
units.

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For 10N Loading

Measured Theoretical Percentage

Member
Force (N) Force (N) Difference

37 -0.2 0 0.000
34 -16.7 -17.32 3.580
23 5.7 -17.32 132.910
12 -16.7 -17.32 3.580
47 21.1 20.005 -5.474
26 0.1 0 0.000
67 18.7 20.005 6.523
56 18.9 20.005 5.524
36 2.4 0 0.000
25 0.6 0 0.000
15 -4.1 0 0.000

For 20N Loading

Measured Theoretical Percentage

Member
Force (N) Force (N) Difference

37 -1.6 0 0
34 -32 -34.64 7.621
23 -8.6 -34.64 75.173
12 -33 -34.64 4.734
47 40.1 40.01 -0.225
26 -0.2 0 0.000
67 38 40.01 5.024
56 41.7 40.01 -4.224
36 3.3 0 0.000
25 0.3 -0.001 0.000
15 -2.9 0 0.000

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