Chapter 3
Potential Environmental Impacts
From Solar Energy Technologies
INTRODUCTION
produced from photovol
free compared to fossil fuels based el
and don’t produce toxic air or greenhouse gas (GH(
taking PV as a prod
many potential environmental, health, and safety hazard materials. The full
product lifecycle analysis in recent years has raised more concerns about
hazardous materials and their recyling/tisposal, even afer 25 years, Most
Im (TF) PV (Cae, CIGS,
0 pave way {0 potential environmental, health, and safety. At the same
time, emerging solar PV production technologies such as organie solar cells anc
perovskite solar cells are also involved with unknown health and environmental
hazards.
Regardless ofthe specific
2, summarizes the potential health, safety, and environmental hazards associ-
ated with different PV technologies, and24 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Production
3. acceptabl
‘Apart from the
tions have potent
thermal power pl
power plants have
it of exposure of chemicals and hazardous air emission.
ind outputs of a product
2011; Raugei et al.,
‘The industrial scale PY production depends on the fol
product design and development:
1, Raw materials mining and refining toward the necessary requirements of
PV materials feed stock: The primary hazards are exposure to and inhalation
of kerf dust
FIG. 3.1. Overview of photovoltaic solar cell materials process a
Potential Environmental Impacts Chapter | 3 25
2. Materials processing: PV technologies use
ing the materials process which can be cl
and health issues of exposure to sawing.
‘exposure to solvents, such as nitric
ric acid, used in wafer etching and cl
+ Product design and developme
arranged into module and cor
hydroxide, and hydrofluo-
‘as reactor cleaning.
either in building roots,
le analyses of the solar modules
stages for PV system and coal based power plants.
LCA of PV power plants shows that the majority of the GHG emission is
during the materials extraction and preparation and module manufacturing.
FIG. 3.2. Comparison of the leeyce stages for PV system and cul based power plan.26 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Production
The lifecycle GHG emissions for PV power systems are compared with other
electricity generation technologies by NREL harmonization which shows that
‘cycle GHG emissions from solar PV systems are similar to other
les and nuclear energy, and much lower than coal (http:/jvww.nrel,
‘gov/analysis/sustain_Icah, However, the materials manufacturing and
can leave worse effects on the environment
started from the microelectronics industry.
Wafers was majorly adopted from the micro-
electronics industry. Different methods have been adopted to manufacture
silicon. The quality/p icon will decide the process. According
to the available pu ify the
and semiconductor grade. The metal
approximately pure up to 99.6% and semi
‘The purity of the silicon is achieved through a series of chemical processes.
Commonly. three basie steps are involved in silicon production, such as reduc-
tion of and packaging. The first and foremost step in
icon is reduction, Section 3.3.1 wi the
-a reduction methods available.
Thi
which is sand or quartz. The
a key processing step
‘cesses are seldom used
wwe consider only the carboths
ten simply as:
facturing on an industrial scale, Here
ion process. The process can be writ-
Reduction of
sitca
gS eae (ag ESSE eaearpareneee
Carbotnermic __Aluminathermic —=—Caleiolhermic. «= Magnesiothermic
‘eduction reduction eduction Teducton
FIG. 3.3. Different methods of silica reduetion,
Potential Environmental Impacts Chapter | 3 27
SiO, +2C=$i+2CO(e)
licon source and reduction agents of
method will lead 10 99.0 wi.% of
Mn, C, Ca, Mg, B, P, and so on.
rough further chemical processes to result
mic and needs a very high
Cat
soe warn OG
4 Schematie of silicon metal preduction plant (From Selacar-Villalpando, MD.
R Post Guillen, D Pai 8, Rrandick, GK. (ds), 2012. Energy Techlogs
id Other Technologies, Joke Wiley and Sons)28 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Production
‘molten alloy is allowed to coo! ina suitable mold to attain a specific size. During
the refining process, the gas used for purging has toxie elements after its filtra-
tions, mainly sulfur dioxide,
3.3.2. Purification of
est purty ofthe silicon is achieved through reduction and pyrolysis of
HCl, Siti, SiCl,, and SIHBrs, This is
wn. as chloride-hydride technology. The purification
mn -of MG-Si and deposition of silicon was established in
the 1950s and known as the Siemens process (Gribov and Zinov'ev, 2003;
‘Tsuo et al, 1998). The typical chemical processing is given in the reactions
G.2-35). Acconding to reaction (3.2), the MG-Si is reacting with HCL. 10 pro-
lorosilane (HSiCl) at 500°C and 30 MPa temperature and pressure,
respectively.
5(MG)Si+ I6HCI = 4HSiCIs +64 +SiCl, 2)
2SiHCI, = SiC + SiCl, 3)
2SiH2Ch = SiHCl, + SiHsC1 G4)
2SiHsC1=SiH,Cl, + SiH, G3)
‘The reactions (3.3-3.5) are responsible for the redistribution of chlorine and
hydrogen atom from the metal chloride compounds and generating silane gas,
‘The steps in the process are necessary to distill diboride and other impurities.
sting material for production of c-Si wafers and silicon chips is silica
02). However, silicon for semiconductor use must be much purer. Intense
involved to make the MG
G-Si is exposed to hydrochloric acid and copper to produce a
rosilane (HSiCIs). The gaseous trichlorosilane
the desired diameter. For the multicryst
and cooled into blocks or ingots. The purity of
Pure (from 99.99999% 10 99,9999999%) for mi
industry usage. The whole process involves a
ergy intensive and
Potential Environmental impacts Chapter | 3 29
3.3.4 Hazardous Materials Used in Si Processing
and Manufacturing
2003). The mining of me
can lead to severe lung diseases. The personal
e respiratory masks can s
tain level of exposure. Howev
problems for the workers, Tabl
related health issues caused.
‘TABLE 3.1 Hazardous Materials and Associated Health Issues in Silicon
Processing.
Hazardous Material Environment Used Health Issues
gical rade silica Mining Silicosis, a severe lung
dust disease
Hydrochloric acid Reduction chamber ertanveorosive
Catbon tetrachloride chant Liver cancer, greenhouse
Bs
CChlorositanes 2Siand xsi tnt
“Sepostion
Diborane 2:5) dopant ENS, pulmonary
Germane 2S dopant Blood, CNS, kidney
Hydrogen i deposition Fite hazard
Hydrogen fluoride Etchant Inrtant, burrs, bone teeth
Lead Soldering CNS, Gt, blood, kidney,
Nitric acid Wafer cleaning
Continuedrotovoltaic Technology Production
TABLE 3.1. Hazardous Materials and Associated Health Issues in
Processing —cont’d
Environment Used Health Issues
2S) dopant
flarnmeble
Si dopant
Selenium compounds C18 deposition
Sodium hydroxide Wafer cleaning
Silane Si deposition
25 deposition
Clean the reactors Greenhouse gas
Sulfur dioxide Within chamber ‘Acid tain
Sodium hydioxide/ Remove the sawing ye lung, and skin damage.
potassium hydroxide damage
Phosphinelasine Doping with $i Accident
‘most hazardous in the production and
The semiconductor indu
for this extreme environmental hazardous material (Alsema et al., 1996), There
are strong regulations in the use of sulfur hexafluoride (SF) from the Intergov-
‘emnmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC). It is rated one of the most potent
GHGs per molecule; as one ton is equivalent to 25,000 tons of CO; (Moskowitz
when reacting with silicon to gen-
crate silicon tetrafluoride (SiF,) and sulfur difluoride (SF,), or be reduced to
tetrafluorosilane (SiF,) and sulfur dioxide (SOx). However, other chemicals
listed in Table 3.1 are used in the production of c-Si
«ling and disposal procedures. The production of monocrystalline
mainly for the electronic industry. However, the growing PV mark:
is surpass-
ing the electronic industry. ‘The additional chemicals, such as ammonium
Potential Environmental impacts Chapter | 331
fluoride, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, phosphorous oxychloride, and tin are
used inthe prod
hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, ion
tannie chloride, tantalum pentoxide,
998).
‘materials are often used in TF s
te materials are metal, glass, pla
Of the most hazardous gases and explo-
‘dents involving silane gas explosions have been reported in
the past (Moskowitz, 1995). Another explosive gas used in the process is hydro-
gen and usually mixed wi ane to recycle the hydrogen in waste streams.
ethane is also a potential GHG and a potential threat to the environment if
leased. The dopants used in the a-Si such as germane gas are considered to
be toxic and damage blood and kidneys (Fthenakis, 2003; Avrutin etal, 2011)
The other dangerous chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid,
acetone, aluminum, chlor s, dibor-
trogen, silicon tetrafluoride, tin, germanium,
jum tetrafluoride used in the process need special handling to avoid
‘occupational injury (Fthenakis, 1998). Table 3.2 shows the materials used in the
silicon PV industry and their potential environmental hazards.
‘TABLE 3.2 Materials Used in Silicon Photovoltaic Industry and Their
Potential Environmental Hazards With Regulatory Measures
Environmental
Materials Hazard Regulations
ilicon tevachlorde (SiCl,) React with water
and cause
‘environmental
SF, exposure