SCIENTIFIC THINKING

Prof dr. Gamal abushanb

INTRODUCTION

A person specializes in thinking and blogging the intellectual product and the
intellectual product accumulates through pictures. This collected products formed
and taught in schools and university. The codified intellectual heritage begins in
Greek era 1500 year BC , and since then it has accumulated and diversified , and the
science become more complex and added new branches. So it must be classified to
identify the research methodology and methods of thinking and the criterion of
validity of the results in each branch. The intellectual product is divided into two
types : science and theoretical studies.
2. science and applied studies.
We must differentiate between the two names ''science and study'' on the one hand
and ''theoretical and applied attributes'' on the other hand. And this classification is
to facilitate the identification of the characteristics of each branch, and not to rank
the importance. The difference between ''science and studies'' is a difference in the
quality of the intellectual product and the degree of its saturation with the personal
views and its known only to specialists while studies bear personal views because it
deal with topics that everyone knows. The difference between the ''theoretical and
applied'' qualities is a difference in a goal, the way of thinking, the criterion of
honesty and the research method.
Science and theoretical studies:
Aims to present theories about intellectual, natural, human and social phenomena
A. Science and mathematical and philosophical studies as (arithmetic, geometry,
algebra, philosophy of the universe, beauty, morality and religion).
= Deductive mental approach.
= Honesty standard: internal.
B. Science and natural studies as (physics, chemistry, biology, seas, oceans,
geography, geology, astronomy, galaxies).
= Inductive experimental approach.
= Honesty standard: external.
C. Science and humanities studies as (medicine, pharmacy, sociology, psychology,
economies, education, history, literature, law, arts, languages and archaeology)
= Inductive experimental approach.
= Honesty standard: external.
D -Applied sciences & studies:

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It aims to applying all the science and studies of theoretical studies and aimed to
solving societal issue+s such as. Science and technical studies - nuclear, electrically,
mechanical, sea, productivity, architect, healthy, petroleum and computer).
= Deductive Inductive experimental approach.
= Honesty standard: external & internal and utility
E. Science and Administrative studies - information systems, management, urban
planning, education, military, agriculture, industrial, commercial and human
resources development).
= Deductive Inductive experimental approach.
= Honesty standard: external & internal.
Scientific research curricula:
Group a uses a mental research curricula group B & C experiment research
curricula, and group D&E uses a research curricula for system analysis.
First: logical reasoning method:
Group A -
-proofing by mental and logical way
- it is an argument
Types: direct proof, indirect proof, proof by contradiction, proof by choice, proof by
inductive.
Second: Empirical method:
-Group B&C
-Honesty standard: external
-proof by experiment
Third: System Approach method:
-applying every experiment
-group D&E
-starts in military engineering branch.
-types of system approach method:
a- closed system:
Goals are clearly defined and can be control ex:
(design an electric motor, design car, design plane)
b- open system
goals are defined but not clear ex:
(business project, farm project)
Impede of the names and increase branches of science:
Science and theoretical studies also called Basic science & study and applied science
also called technical science & studies.
Types of thinking:
1-Mathematical
2-Abstract
3-Spatial

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4-Mechanical
5-Statistical
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UNIT ONE
The nature of science
Thinking patterns evolution:
• Legendary thinking and mythical thinking
• Metaphysical thinking
• Thinking by the minds of others
• Thinking depending on personal experience
Meaning of science:
• Definition of science
• Science, unaware, and non-science
• Science, art, religion and philosophy
• Science, technology and engineering
Science features:
• Accumulative
• Relativity
• Organization
• Generalization and inclusion
• Formulation accuracy
• Honesty test
Goals of science:
• Description
• Explanation
• Prediction
• Control
• Finding new knowledge
• Scientific application
Expropriations scientific thinking:
• System
• Regularity
• Attic
Thinking patterns evolution:
1- Legendary thinking and mythical thinking:
In the beginning we must distinguish between legendary thinking and mythical
thinking.
A- Mythical thinking is the thinking of ages that it wasn't appeared in them. Or didn’t
spread in a way that makes it a force that influences human lives. Hence, legend is
considered as a means of polishing natural phenomena in the pre-imperative era.
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Hence legend was a way to explain natural phenomena in the era that preceded
science. As for legendary thinking, it's thinking based on the denial of science and
the rejection of its method, or resort in era of science to previous methods of
thinking for this age.
B- Mythical is a proof for the world or a huge number of natural phenomenon,
legend is a proof for only one phenomenon.
❖ Mythical thinking:
• The first principle:
The mythical is based on the principle of the vitality of nature. What is meant by this
principle is that mythic thinking is mainly based on dyeing nature phenomena that
are not living as life, so that they have a sense and emotions.
Ex: the legend of ISIS & Osiris
• The second principle:
The principle of the teleological interpretation of natural phenomena or the
interpretation of phenomena through the end that these human phenomena
achieve. For example, people imagine the moon and the stars appear at night to
light the way for us. This principle is directly related to the principle of the vitality of
nature as an application of the idea of teleology in it.
❖ Legendary thinking:
Fabulous thinking still exists between people to this day, and the example of this is
the field of astrology and astronomy the practice of astrology requires extensive
knowledge of astronomical facts, and even that major astronomers in different eras
were astrologers.
The phenomenon of magic, for example, interfered with scientific practices for a
long time to the present time.
2- Metaphysical thinking:
At this point, the human divides the natural phenomena with explanations that lie
within the same thing. These interpretations are abstract meaning that the human
body has in its imagination, aided by its ignorance of the real reasons behind the
occurrence of phenomena.
The kind of thinking doesn't differ. From the one that preceded it, so all that
happened is that the human being stripped some of the
general characteristics from the partial natural accidents that characterized them,
then he made it a presence in himself independent of nature, then he made it move
the nature.
3- Thinking by the minds of others:
Authority id the unquestionable source and subject to which we are subject based
on our belief that his opinion is the ultimate clement and that his knowledge
transcends our knowledge.
Therefore, the eras in which power was the last reference in matters of science and
thought were eras.
Power passed thinking depends on a number of supports, for example:

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A- old:
Meaning that the opinion is old, because the inherited opinions are believed to have
a special value and that they exceed the opinions of contemporary people. This view
assumes that knowledge deterioration from generation to generation, which is not
true.
B- Spreading:
if the adjectives foot is on a longitudinal stretch, the spreading adjective expresses
an occasional extension with people, so opinion acquires greater authotority
whenever it is common among people.
c- the fame:
opinion acquires great authority if it is issued by an opinion famous among them for
its experience and expertise in its field.
D- Desire and awareness:
People tend to believe what they went or wish and fiercely fight what shocks their
desires and wishes.
4- Thinking depending on personal experience:
The personal experience is considered as a very important source of thinking but we
can’t count down it in all situations as the person might not see all the solutions and
consider only the good sides of a solution with his own opinion.

The meaning of science:

1-definition of science:
The science is a structure of knowledge and a curriculum for research and the ways
of thinking and levels of honesty accompany it a group of values and scientific ways.
A- The structure of science contains facts, definitions, concepts, laws and theories.
❖ Facts: are events that happen frequently and can be noticed there are no big
disagreement between its observers.
❖ Definitions: are the mind images that forms from things, events, phenomena or
experiments that connects by having similar characteristics.
❖ Concepts: declare the relation between two definitions or more.
❖ Theories: are groups of definitions and concepts that were made in one
context.
B- Ways of research and thinking:
It contains both of the science experiments and ways to solve problems.
❖ Values and the scientific ways: which the scientist have to :
• Accuracy: observation, collecting data, calculating results and expressing it, results’
extraction, using math language
• Objectivity: critical spirit, integrity, neutrality
• Broad-mindedness: can change his opinion, reads and observes what support or
oppose his opinion, doesn't accept any result as a final one.

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• Rationality: doesn’t believe in myths, doesn’t accept mysterious explanations,
believes in causality principle, doesn’t believe in the myth and having a relation
between 2 events for just happening in the same time.
• Curiosity: the clear desire of exploring what surrounds him
• Slowing down in judgment: collecting lots of clues before concluding results, avoid
generalization, being patient.
• Scientific humility: Scientist who has acquired this trend are distinguished by:
a-He is not deceived and does not transcend because he knows in his field what he
does not know other than him
b-He knows the limits of his abilities and potentials
2-The unknowing - not the knowing - the knowing
A-Unknowing:
These are areas that are consistent with knowledge of its goals, but differ with it in
the approach or method Hence, it loses the conditions of accuracy, reliability and
stability Examples: Magic, legend, divination, astrology, ancient medicine
B-Not science:
These are attempts that are inconsistent with knowledge in its goals or
methodology, and they provide us with knowledge but transmit it in ways different
from the methods of science Examples: Art, philosophy, religion
3-Science, art, religion and philosophy
A-The difference between science and art:
• Science seeks to reach complete laws and then theories, which allows it to predict
but art seeks to achieve what is individual subjective
• There is no similarity between technical subjects, while we find great similarities
between scientific subjects
• Science uses induction and deduction as scientific methodologies, but art does not
use these two approaches
• Science aims to reveal the laws that explain and govern phenomena. Art does not
seek
B-The difference between science and religion
• Religion is fixed facts and firm beliefs
• Religion is not subject to edit or change
• Religion is not gained by experience
• The goal of religion is human happiness in this world and the hereafter, the goal of
science is human happiness in this world
C-The difference between science and philosophy
• Knowledge is objective. Philosophy is subjective attitudes, personal thoughts and
visions
• Scientific judgments are determining what is in external reality. As for
philosophical judgments, some are normative and some are individual and do not
burden what is in reality.

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• Science searches for the direct causes that occur to phenomena, while philosophy
goes beyond that in order to search for the indirect causes that fall behind the
causes (where science ends, philosophy begins)
• Natural science is based on an experimental approach, while philosophy is a
theoretical contemplation that has nothing to do with experimentation
• Science cuts into each branch in itself a specialized sector in which to search, while
philosophy studies the total existence in terms of existence
• Science is more concerned with quantitative terms than with qualitative aspects,
while philosophy deals with its issues from a qualitative perspective.
4-Technology, engineering and art:
A-Technology:
Technology has several meanings:
a- Technology may mean practical application
b- Technology is everything that a person uses to do his work, in addition to his
organs and physical strength
c- Technology is the tools or means that are used for practical purposes that a
person uses in his work to supplement his powers and capabilities
d- Technology is the Implementation of science on industrial arts, that is, it focuses
its attention primarily on scientific uses
e- So technology is the organized and systematic Implementation of discoveries of
science and studies of all kinds to solve the problems of daily life
B-Engineering:
a- A science and application for the design, construction and operations of various
buildings, machines and machines
b- Engineering is the use of principles and scientific principles related to Material
and energy to construct, organize, and evaluate things.
In this sense, engineering is the result of both science and technology together.
Science is interested in revealing scientific principles and theories And technology is
interested in applying these principles and theories and engineering comes to
organize the relationship between them and formulate useful formulation.
From here we note that the engineer must be familiar with the engineering side
with extensive information on technology and a great amount of information in
science and studies of all kinds and have
• The ability to apply knowledge in mathematics, science and engineering
• The ability to design, conduct experiments and manipulate data
• The ability to design systems (or units or processes) to meet specific requirements
• The ability to work with a multidisciplinary team
• 5 - The ability to identify, create and solve engineering problems
• Understand professional and ethical responsibilities
• The ability to communicate effectively
• The desire and ability to engage in learning for life
• Knowledge of contemporary issues
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• The ability to use the modern engineering techniques, skills and tools necessary
for practicing the engineering profession
c-Engineering and art:
-Engineering applies practical and mathematical knowledge
-Art is a human stimulant that evokes a sense of beauty in a person

Characteristics of science:
1-Cumulative
Science is a cumulative knowledge, as the scientist begins his research from where
other scientists have ended, and in this way science develops and its research
relates to Accumulation in science goes in two directions, one is vertical and the
other is horizontal Vertical direction - that is the direction of delving deeper into
research of phenomena, science returns to research of the same phenomena
previously discussed, but from a new perspective, As for the horizontal direction -
that is, the direction of expansion and extension is a search for new phenomena -
science begins with a study of limited phenomena that were believed to be subject
only to the rules of scientific research and then with the development of science
new horizons open
2-Relativity
The cumulative characteristic reveals an important attribute relates to which is
scientific knowledge, meaning that this knowledge is ablet to modification and
change.
3-Organization
Meaning that science is not an arbitrary or random activity, as much as it is an
organized activity that is carried out according to steps that depend on each other,
so that each step is completed, including the previous step on it, regardless of the
nature of the subject matter of the thinking.
4-Generalization and comprehensiveness:
Science is based on generalization, meaning that the judgments or results that it
ends with should not be confined to the interpretation of a single partial condition,
but rather behave likewise to all similar and similar cases and particles.
It is noted that generalization in science depends on two things:
• It is not a hasty generalization in the sense of not moving from a limited number of
notes to general laws
• It does not depend on two assumptions: the particles are identical and the
conditions are similar
5-Formulation accuracy:
The advantage of knowledge is that the ideas in it are expressed in an accurate
quantitative language in the sense of a mathematical form, this mathematical
language is distinguished from the descriptive language as it depends on the
quantitative measurement
6-Honesty test:
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Scientific thinking is characterized by the possibility of testing and reviewing its
results and generalizations
The meaning of verification varies depending on the type of science
• Verification in experimental sciences means referring to the external reality in
order to verify the truthfulness of the results of science with regard to the topics or
phenomena studied by that science
• As for verification in mathematics, it is only by revealing the consistency between
the results and theories and the lack of contradiction between them
The goals of science
Those who conduct scientific research seek to achieve one or more of the following
goals:
1- Description:
Description is the monitoring and recording of what we observe of things, facts and
phenomena, and what we perceive as reciprocal relations, their classification,
classification of their characteristics and their arrangement.
It is noted that the description is based more on sensory perception, observation
and experience than on higher thinking processes such as analysis, composition, and
evaluation
2- Interpretation
Interpretation is the attempt to reveal the causes of accidents and phenomena or,
more correctly, the Circumstances and conditions that must be the same in order
for accidents or phenomena to occur.
And science, when it seeks to explain phenomena, it tries to formulate verifiable
laws and generalizations to explain these phenomena.
3- Prediction
It is an expectation of what can happen in the future in the light of the previous
information that we reached and expressed through scientific laws or scientific
theories.
4- Control
Control may mean finding the specific Circumstances and conditions in which a
particular phenomenon is realized
And it may mean preventing the occurrence of the phenomenon by preventing the
occurrence of the conditions that occur; it may mean controlling the natural forces
and harnessing them to serve the human being
5- Finding new knowledge:
The scientist aims from his research to reach new laws and theories about the
universe we live in and its various phenomena, astronomical, physical, chemical,
biological, and others.
And the scientist may do his research to reach this knowledge with the aim of
interpretation, prediction, control and practical application thereof
And solving problems that hinder scientific research
6- The practical application:
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The scientist may aim to access new knowledge to apply and use it to obtain
innovations, machines and devices that facilitate people's lives and increase their
well-being.
Sources of scientific thinking:
The scientific method requires that the world be recognized with the number of
postulate or seizures, and these are preliminary issues that are explicitly accepted
Or implicitly, without the need to prove its sincerity And the most important of
these postulate is determinism
And determinism means that what happens or is believed to happen in this world in
a particular place and time must happen or be true in every place and time if it has
the same Circumstances or conditions that occurred in the first time
This principle includes three basic postulates:
• There is a certain system in this universe
• This system is steady, meaning that it follows a steady pace
• This steadfastness is doomed to have a relationship between cause and effect
1 - The system
It starts with knowing that the universe is organized and the world only has to
discover this system which without him, no scientist could have reached a scientific
law predicting some phenomenon and scientific laws try to translate this system and
the extent of its success in this translation is its sincerity
2- Uniformity
This principle means that the events of nature occur at the same pace, meaning that
what happened in a certain way in the past will happen in the same way in the
future if the conditions are equal
3- Causality
The Causality means a correlation between accidents, some of which are causes,
and some of them are etiology or it may mean the necessary correlation between
what is considered a cause and what is considered its result so that whenever the
cause is found the result is found and whenever the reason is absent the result is
absent it is worth to mention that contemporary science has partially abandoned
the idea of the Causality and replaced it with the idea of the quantitative delineation
relationship between variables that have numerical quantities that depend on each
other.
The end of the first unit

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 Unit 2: The mental process used in science
1- Analysis and composition
1- A) Analysis
1- B) Composition

2- Scientific intuition
2- A) Sensory (Receptive) intuition
2- B) Generalized intuition
2- C) Mental intuition
2- D) Creative intuition

3- Reason (Argument)
3- A) Deductive reasoning
3- A - I) Direct Deduction
3- A - II) Indirect Deduction
α-) Analogy
β-) Conditional reasoning
I) Connected
II) Separated
γ-) Mathematical reasoning
3- B) Inductive reasoning
3- B - I) Incomplete scientific inductive reasoning
3- B - II) Complete Visual inductive reasoning
3- B - III) Complete Mathematical inductive reasoning
3- C) Representation (‫)التمثيل‬

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 1- Analysis and composition

 1- A) Analysis

 Analysis: its movement from complicated to simple or from results to cause

(reason).
 Analysis can be materialistic or mental. Materialistic analysis is dismantling the
complex to to simple units, eg:- Chemistry scientist dismantle water into
Hydrogen & Oxygen. While mental analysis is reversion of phenomenas to its
causes
 Analysis is also looking at things of different point of views, as analyzing
problems for its reasons in human sciences.
 1- B) Composition

 Composition in contrary to analysis is transmission from part to whole or from

simple to complex or from reasons to results.
 Composition also can be materialistic or mental.
 Composition & Analysis are two processes that complete each other. To reach
composition, analysis must be used and vice versa, also composition is a test for
the validity of analysis done.

 2- Scientific intuition
 Scientific Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or
conscious reasoning, or without understanding how the knowledge was acquired.
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  2- A) Sensory (Receptive) intuition
 Is intuition based on the five senses and imagination altogether. Eg:- an engineer
to innovate needs to imagine pictures and shapes, asses them & choose between
them.
 2- B) Generalized intuition
 Which depends on inductive process used natural science, & enables us to reach to
natural laws/rules.
 2- C) Mental intuition
 It is mathematical intuition which we realize logical relations or mathematical
axioms.
 2- D) Creative intuition
 Sometimes called inspirational intuition, where from it scientific theories is
reached and new discoveries.
 This intuition is what makes scientists stand out as such Isaac Newton, Einstein
and Gauss.
 3- Reason (Argument)
 Reason (Argument) is a type of conclusion. The process of transition of
introductions to results or proving a case with another one.
 The elements of reasoning are:-
1. An introduction to deduce the validity of result.
2. A result obligated about the introduction.
3. Logical relations that connects these introductions and results obligated of.
4. Rules depend on thinking from transitioning from introduction to result.
 Reason (Argument) classifies to 3 groups (Deductive, Inductive & Analogy)

 3- A) Deductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning, or
deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the
possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion.

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  3- A - I) Direct Deduction
 Is transitioning from one hypothesis to a conclusion without considering other
cases. Eg:- A>B therefore B<A
 3- A - II) Indirect Deduction
 Is transitioning of 2 or more hypotheses to a logical conclusion with the
assumption of the validity of the hypotheses.
 α-) Analogy
 A process deduced on the authenticity of conclusion from 2 hypotheses. The
hypotheses must be true (authentic).Eg:- All metals expand by heat (Major Hypothesis)
All steel is metal (Minor Hypothesis)
Therefore: All steel expands by heat
 β-) Conditional reasoning
 They are indirect reasoning built on distinct separate hypotheses
 I) Connected
Eg:- If it rains Ground becomes wet
If ground is wet Plants grows
Therefore If it rains Plant grows

 II) Separated
 It consists of separate cases but connected in some sort of way
 Eg:- The number is either even or odd
X is not even
Therefore X is odd number
 γ-) Mathematical reasoning
 Mathematical reasoning or the principle of mathematical reasoning is a part of
mathematics where we determine the truth values of the given statements by
indirect deductive methods
 3- B) Inductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations.

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 Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data.
(Indirect reasoning)
 3- B - I) Incomplete scientific inductive reasoning
 Also called incomplete inductive reasoning. It is uncertain transitioning from data
to conclusions. Eg:- Iron expands with heat ; Copper expands with heat
Gold expands with heat; Aluminum expands with heat
Therefore All metals expands with heat

 This judgment stays true and valid until proven otherwise (A metal that does not
expand with heat)
 3- B - II) Complete Visual inductive reasoning
 Also called complete inductive reasoning. Transitioning from ruling of a kind to
ruling of a whole species.
 Eg:- Human Breathes ; Animal Breathes ; Plant Breathes
Therefore All living creatures breath
 It is conditioned in this type that kinds are limited and known to be observed all
 3- B - III) Complete Mathematical inductive reasoning
 Is transitioning of some numbers/figures to ruling them all.
 Eg:- Number 2 is divisible by 2
Number 4 is divisible by 2
Number 6 is divisible by 2
Number 10 is divisible by 2
Therefore all even numbers are divisible by 2
 3- C) ‫التمثيل‬
 Is transition of ruling something old to ruling new state for a similarity between
them. Analogy depends on a relation between the 2 sates (older and newer)
 Analogy is the weakest kind of reasoning
 Eg:- This car crash ached me
This is another car crash
Therefore It might ache me
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 Eg 2:- Someone ate red berry and was poisoned
This berry is red in color
Therefore It might be poisonous

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Unit Summarization

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 Unit 3: Research methodology in mathematical science
1- Nature of mathematical science

2- Research methodology in mathematics

3- Stages of employing the use of hypothesis deductive approach

3- A) Setting introductions stage

3- A - I) Initial boundaries
3- A - II) Definitions
3- A - III) Axioms
3- A - IV) Postulates

3- B) Theory deductive stage

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1- Nature of mathematical science
 Mathematics is the science based on making equations and numbers in accurate
and symbolic calcareous language.
 Math is scientist/man made science, not something that exists in outer world,
because whats in outer world compels to quantum limitations.

2- Research methodology in mathematics

 The mathematical science curriculum is the mental curriculum called the
deductive hypothesis method , and based on : the deduction and proof which are
two complementary and opposite in their attitude ,thus the deductive start from the
premises/introductions finishing to the results ,but the proof start from the results
in order to proof its validity with reference yo the first introduction that obligated
it .
 Deduction & proof

3- Stages of employing the use of hypothesis deductive approach

 Two essential stages in in this approach, which are the introduction stage and
theory deductive stage.

3- A) Setting introductions stage

 the studies of introduction which includes the initial boundaries ,the definitions
and finally the postulates which include confiscations and axioms.
 3- A - I) Initial boundaries
 Statements or propositions accepted without explanation or for 2 reasons:-
 Its concept is explicit in our mind and does not need more explanation.
 scientists consider them as boundaries from which to begin the process of
defining others.
 Eg:- initial boundaries include length , width , and depth to begin the process of

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 defining other, they are example of Euclidean geometry.
 3- A - II) Definitions
 the definitions are an explanation of the meaning of the word, and the first part
includes the desired terms, and the second includes the expressions sentence.
 Eg Definitions Euclid made:-
 Line: A line is a straight one-dimensional figure having no thickness and
extending infinitely in both directions.
 Surface: what does not have width or height.
 Volume: what has height width and length.
 Triangle: surface connected with 3 straight lines.
 Definition conditions:
 The defined nor the definition include similar words.
 To be consistent and accurate between them and between whole
mathematics laws and rules. i.e. not to overlap or interfere with other
definition.
 Don’t make the definition too big, precise and short.
 Not to be overly short which creates mystery and uncertainty.

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 3- A - III) Axioms
 a statement or proposition on which an abstractly defined structure is based.
 Eg:- Whole is larger than part
Objects equals itself (A=A ; 5=5)
The halves of the same thing are equal
When equals are added to equals, the results are equal
 3- A - IV) Postulates
 They are a primary propositions, has their sincerity, and not need to proof.
but the difference between them in the basis of recognition of the honesty,
because confiscation is assumption of sincerity, in the level of the general
science such as arithmetic which include engineering.
 The example is the assumption of Lubashivsky about the place as the
internal surface of the cylinder or the external surface of the ball .
 Therefore the same sentence may be arithmetic confiscation or engineering
axioms in the same time, if we used it in two different levels of sciences
,the example of equal between the amounts called called confiscation in the
field of mathematic, and axiom in the field of engineering .

 Eg:- A straight line can be drawn between 2 dots/points.

Parallel lines never intersect
All right angles are equal
Unparalleled lines meet at 1 point only.

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 3- B) Theory deductive stage
 The stage of deductive theories is the stage of completing the mathematical
hypothesis building , and extracting their implications of the introductions that
include “ definitions,the confiscations and axioms “ in order to reach the proven
theories. As follows:-
 The truth of the theories or its falsehood linked to their consistency with the
assumptions from which they were drawn.
 It is not proven that it is correct to say that the sum of the proverbs is equal to 180
degrees in Euclid,s mathematical pattern,with introduction from the other
geometric pattern “Lubashivsky” which say the place is a flat surface.
 The straight line connecting from the center to the circle to the middle of any
string in it , is not perpendicular on it.

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  Unit Summary

Unit Four
Research methods in the natural sciences

1- natural sciences definition

2- Definition of induction
- meaning of induction
- Notes on induction
3- Inductive Curriculum steps
3.1 note and experimentation stage
observation -experimentation
3.2 The stage of Scientific assumptions
-C conditions of formation of the scientific assumptions
- Sscientific assumptions function
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- Tthe stage of achieving scientific assumptions
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***
1- natural sciences definition: we can define the natural sciences
in many ways as Curriculum, example and topic. example: sciences
like physics, chemistry, Astronomy, etc.
rccurriculum: depended on the Curriculum deduction to get general
laws.
topic: sciences that teaches all about the universe.

2- Definition of induction: is the mental processes that be reached

by the scientist To a general ruling for several similar and not similar
cases.
N notes on induction:
1- Induction issues are known issues of honesty and lies.
2- Induction is characterized by generalization that moving from
judgment on what is private to what is general.
3- induction include proof process.
4-Induction applies to human phenomena that are subject to
observational conditions such as human behavior in its various fields.

3- Inductive Curriculum steps: It is the stages of induction or

scientific research.
3.1 note and experimentation stage:
3.1.1 note: A process in which the researcher uses one or more senses
and all possible tools and tools to examine things and events and record
them accurately.
Conditions of scientific observation:
1-The researcher's role in it should be more positive by analyzing
phenomena and trying to identify relationships, whether internal or
external.
2-The scientific observation should be organized and intended, as it has
a specific goal.
-That the observation be devoid of all personal appreciation, inclination
24 ‫ى‬
 Difference normal observation scientific
observation
Achieve general Reaches the
Target benefits on the daily scientific discoveries
life
Happened without Happened with
Method planning or planning and notes
arrangement

Not uses scientific uses scientific tools

Using machines tools or machines and machines
and tools
or passion.
-And that the observation is quantitative.
3-The observation depends on the accuracy of viewing the event, which
requires the use of various scientific instruments and tools.

-The difference between normal observation and scientific

observation.
Register It does not record It records
phenomena phenomena

- The difference between note with and without tools and

machines
The senses are used to see phenomena that we can perceive as for
things and senses that are not perceived by the senses due to their
dimension, smallness or high speed, they can be observed using
tools and machines such as telescopes, microscopes, etc.

-the difference between quantitative observation and

qualitative observation
Qualitative observation is based on description based on
identification and classification, while quantitative observations
depend on mathematics and symbolic formulas.
25 ‫ى‬
3-2-1 Experiment:
An experiment is a structured test of phenomena or several
phenomena that are intended to be observed in an accurate and
systematic observation to reveal a result or verify the validity of a
particular hypothesis.
A-The difference between Observation and Experiment:
1- when the researcher makes the observation, he waits for the
phenomena to occur in nature. If it occurs, it is sufficient
observing it. In the experiment, the researcher is the one who
produces phenomena and sets preconditions for verification the
assumptions assumed.
2- in the experiments the researcher can analyze phenomena into
their primary components or their basic components as an analysis
water to its elements and can do I in the observation.
3- While the researcher can experiment with diversifying the
circumstances in which the phenomena occurs with the intention
of certainty and accuracy, he cannot do so in the observation.
4- The researcher can repeat his experience more than once to
ensure the validity of the results he has reached and he may be
unable to repeat his observation after the natural phenomena
because it is not repeatable.
B- Reasons for error in observation and experiment:
There are a set of errors that relate to observations and
experiment. And the researcher should not fall in it .Because these
errors lead to corruption inductive method used.
1-Errors of the senses:
As the strength and accuracy of the motifs vary from person to
person and from experimenter to another. As a result, each
observer or an experimenter differs from other.
2-Instrument Errors:
Although precise scientific instruments can correct sensory errors,
these instruments themselves are subject to changes in
temperature, humidity, rust and damage ...Etc.

26 ‫ى‬
3-Errors in reference time:
These are errors that are due to the researches himself. Each
researcher has a specific time of references (the response time of
the hand to see the eye for example), especially in sensitive tools
that depend on movement of the fingers of the hand.
4-Selection errors:
The researcher usually chooses what he observes and what he
experiment.
5- Errors discrimination:
Occur when the researcher issues a preference judgment such as
errors arising from researcher being affected by an ethical,
religious, or national passion or a philosophical view.
3-2 Imposition stage:
A hypothesis is a provisional proposal prepared by the researcher
to explain a specific fact or set of facts that will be observed or
experimented.
3-2-1 conditions for the formation of the scientific hypothesis:
A- The scientific hypothesis must be based on experiments, I.e. it
is not ideal or imaginary, in other words, it must be subject to an
honesty test or verification of its truth or false hood by the same
facts.
B- The scientific hypothesis must be clear, specific and accurate,
and this requires that the hypothesis not be contradictory.
C- The hypothesis should not contradict any honest and well-
known law, and this means that the hypothesis does not contradict
with facts previously approved by science in an unquestionable
manner.
D- The hypothesis permits the interpretation of all the phenomena
that have been but in place to explain them.
E -the number of hypotheses proposed by the researcher should be
limited in number.
3-2-2 Scientific hypothesis function:
There are several functions for Assumptions:
27 ‫ى‬
 A-Exciting experiments and observation:
Good scientific hypothesis raises observations and experiments in
order to get them to laws and theories.
B-Duplication functions:
Assumption have a dual function in scientific research because
they are used to achieve one of two targets. They are either
formulated to reveal some of the established relations or special
laws to which a particular set of phenomena are subject, and in
this case, they are used to link some of the special laws previously
disclosed. And these are the hypotheses of the second degree that
lead to theories.
C- Guiding the researches:
The scientific hypothesis directs the researcher towards solving
the problem, identifying the observations and experiments
necessary, and choosing the appropriate tools for measurement,
that is, the hypotheses leads the researcher to reveal the scientific
laws.
D- Explanation:
Scientific hypothesis provides a scientific explanation that
converts changing facts into one or more textual facts. (if the
imposition becomes law).
E- The importance of wrong assumption:
False assumption performs the same function as correct
assumption.

3-3 The stage of achieving scientific hypothesis:

We knew the hypothesis as a temporary proposal aimed at
interpreting the facts and that we must resort to observation and
experiments in order to test this hypothesis. If the observation and
experiment prove that the loan is valid. The imposition became a
scientific law.

John Stuart Mill method:

This method depends on several steps:

28 ‫ى‬
1- The Method of Agreement
John Stuart outlined this method by saying that if two or more
cases of the phenomena under study agreed in one common
circumstance, then this only circumstance which all cases were
agreed is a cause or cause of this phenomena.
For example: if some people were poisoned as a result of food
that they ate together and the common food category between
them is fish with their difference in other varieties, then it is likely
that the fish in this case is the reason for the poisoning.
This method is based on the following:
1-That there is a casual relationship between introductions and
results.
2-That what is not present in the case of the existence of result is
deleted, as it cannot be a reason for this result.
The following is observed on the method of agreement:
1-It is a method of revealing hypotheses rather than a method of
proving their authenticity.
2-That this method has some complexity, because the casual
relation in nature are not so simple, it may lead more than one
reason to same result. (for example, factors affecting the dew
occurring).

3-3-2The method of difference:

In this method, all pathological conditions that exist during
association of two phenomena are fixed, then add or delete one to
see if the other exists or disappears.
In the previous example, if we prevented the presence of the cause
(which is fish), would the result (poisoning) disappear or not, if
the result has disappeared by the disappearance of the reason we
have already confirmed that the relation between causality and
result exists positively(in the first way, agreement) and negatively
(in the second method, the difference).

We note that:
1- It is an experimental method Because it is used to verify the
29 ‫ى‬
validity of the assumptions and the difference between
observation and experimentation is the same difference between
agreement and disagreement.
2- The difference method often provides us with a test of the
linkage provided by the agreement method.
3-Because of the complexity of natural phenomena so we cant find
any condition Leads his disappearance to disappear only one result
and its too difficult to remove any condition in all cases.
3.3.3 the joint method of agreement and difference: Two
integrated processes, each covering the observed deficiency in
each method separately, where what is difficult on the way to the
difference achieved by the method of agreement.
Example: If someone notices that whenever he drinks coffee he
feels insomnia, and if he refuses to drink it he feels calm, then we
conclude from that that drinking coffee is the cause of the
phenomenon of insomnia.

3.3.4 The method of concomitant variation: this method is

called conjugation in change, If a phenomenon changes and its
owner changes in another phenomenon, then we decide that the
first phenomenon is the reason for the occurrence of the second or
has a causal relationship between them.
Example: The relationship between volumes and pressures
changes in the case of gases and the relation between volumes and
temperatures.

We note that:
1- when the variables are uncountable or difficult to measure so
this method is used like the other three methods. We can change
on their conditions but we cant remove it.
2- this method is used in countable condition as the condition is
more accurate.
3- it allows to know all between two phenomena. It is the basis on
which the modern perception of scientific law was established.
so,
30 ‫ى‬
1- If the reason is found, the result will be found (agreement
method)
2- if the reason is removed, the result will be removed (difference
method)
3- if the reason is returned, the result will be returned (the joint
method)
4- if the reason is changed, the result will be changed (relative
method)

The inductive approach goes through three stages:

1- Observation and experimentation
2- The formulation of assumptions
3- Proof of assumptions

*****************************************************
*******

Unit 5
 Problem Solving

1. Definitions

2. General methods of solving problems :

I. Difference Reduction Method

II. Method of analyzing the means and goals

III. Backwards work style

IV. Identity

31 ‫ى‬
3. The importance of representing the problem

4. General strategy for finding a solution

32 ‫ى‬
  Problem Solving

▪ Thinking is the most sophisticated mental activity. Results from the human ability
to handle symbols and concepts, and use them in certain ways. To be able to solve
the problems facing the different educational situations. The individual’s thinking
is directed towards finding solutions to problems of scientific and vital
importance.

 Definitions
◆ Problem Definition :
• It is a situation in which the individual does not know how to move
between two situations, one of which is known and the other
unknown to him.

◆ Problem solving :
• Are the ways and methods followed by the individual to reach a
solution or goal or to cross the gap between the initial and the final
state.

◆ Algorithm :
• A set of sequential steps, if followed by the individual, leads to the
correct solution to the problem.

◆ Methods of searching for a solution : "Heuristics"

• A series of intended and targeted moves to solve the problem, but it
does not necessarily lead to reaching a solution.

◆ Problem space :
• It is a problem research process that consists of several levels. The
first level is the "primary case". The final level is the "final state or
goal"

Primary case Final State

2 1 6 1 2 3
4 8 8 4
7 5 3 7 6 5

General methods to solve the problem

33 ‫ى‬
◆ The term "problem space" describes the
possible moves that can be taken to reach a solution, but it does not explain the
actual moves made by the solver, so the concern is to define the principles that
govern the movements leading to the solution. And how the individual analyzes the
main goal into sub-goals when he fails to arrive at a general solution to the
problem directly

❖ Some methods of finding a solution

"HEURISTICS" :

◆ Difference Reduction Method :

▪ It is one of the famous methods to solve a

problem, and this method is used when the problem domain is
strange and unfamiliar to the solver.

◆ Method of analyzing the means and

goals :

▪ It is the most appropriate way to analyze a

problem or main goal into sub-goals.

 EX :
Start

Main Goal
(Get to solve
the problem)
34 ‫ى‬
Compare
‫‪35‬‬ ‫ى‬
 ❖ The method of analyzing the means and goals assumes :
A. Notice the difference between the two situations, the current situation, and a situation
that is required to be reached.
B. Use a set of operations to either delete the difference between the two situations or to
reduce it as much as possible.
C. The difference between the positions varies according to the degree of importance or
difficulty of each part.
D. Difficult differences are usually eliminated, their impact reduced as much as
possible, or search for other differences.
E. This process repeats to an appropriate number of times as long as there is progress
towards a solution.

◆ Working Backwards :

▪ It is to move from the goal and it is an appropriate way to solve

mathematical problems.

 EX: REQUIRED : Paint a ceil and ladder by green :

paint the ceil and ladder by green

Paint the ladder in Paint the ceil in green

green

Bring  Problem solving Use by

theAnalogy :
Bring Use the Use the
the green in
the ladder
▪green
This process uses the solution method that was followed to solve another problemgreen
painting in to the
similar
green painting
problem to be solved. ladder
color color the ceil

The importance of representing the problem

▪ Is to represent the problem or express it in Different ways is important step in the solution.

 EX: Given: You have a chessboard as the shape, delete two squares and remain 62 squares if
you have 31 dominoes can you find a way to arrange the 31 dominoes so that they cover sixty-
two squares in the chessboard if you know that each domino is covered with two squares.

36 ‫ى‬
 Solution :

✓ Thirty-one dominoes
cannot cover 62 squares of chessboard because each domino must cover a colored square and a
white box. But what's available from the quadrants: 30 white squares and 32 colored squares so
you can't use 31 dominoes to cover the chessboard.

General strategy for finding a solution

1- Read the problem:
• note the terms and
keywords
• learn the context of
the problem
• select the unknown
• Rephrase the problem
with your style

2-plan of the solution:

• Draw a shape or
pattern
• Create a table
• Find a pattern

3-choose a strategy:

37 ‫ى‬
 • Find a problem that is
simpler
• Guess
• Create a temporary
assumption
• Assume a solution

4-implement a solution:
• implement the solution plan

5-Review the solution and verify it is correct

• Review your answer
• Find how you can improve the problem

38 ‫ى‬
 Unit 6

Creative Thinking

 Definition of creativity

 Creativity Ingredients

i. Fluency

ii. Flexibility method

iii. Authenticity

iv. Aware of the details

 Methods of developing creative thinking

i. Generate

alternatives

ii. Challenging assumptions

iii. Brainstorming

39 ‫ى‬
 Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is one of the finest types of human thinking so the human
does not need to think routine style but needs creative thinking.
 Any scientific or technological progress can't be achieved without the
development of the creative abilities of the human being.

❖ Definition of creativity :

▪ "Roshka" defines creativity as an activity or process that leads to an

experienced, authentic and valuable production for the community.
According to this definition, this new production can be shown in 2
ways: dependent and independent from its owner.

❖ Ingredients for creativity :

▪ Creativity includes four basic capabilities:
(Fluency-flexibility-originality - mastery of details)

◆ Fluency :
o Is the individual's ability to produce as many appropriate
responses as possible to a particular problem and fluency is
divided into several sub-capacities :

zIntellectual fluency :
▪ Refers to generating as
many ideas as possible in response to a situation or problem that
are appropriate in the meaning of an idea.

Associative fluency :
▪ is the ability to produce the largest number of relationships,
associations, or implications in the meaning of an idea such as
producing or writing the largest number of synonyms for a set of
words given.

Expressive fluency :
▪ Is the ability to produce
the largest possible number of ideas methods through what is
known of units of ideas.

40 ‫ى‬
 There is a difference
between expressive fluency and intellectual fluency. In intellectual fluency,
"ideas are generated only "as In expressive fluency, "ideas are formulated and
expressed in a new point of view ".

* Flexibility Method :

Is the ability of the individual not to continue to work according to limited patterns and a
fixed list of ideas. Rather, the individual can change these patterns and ideas and transform
them into new patterns and ideas.

❖ The basic criterion for fluency is "how many ideas, connections, or

expressions "The main criterion for flexibility capabilities is the "diversity
and divergence of these ideas ".

Flexibility is divided into two groups :

Spontaneous Flexibility :
It is the individual's ability to make a deliberate change in his
thinking to solve a specific problem without being asked to change
it. And it’s measured by asking him the unfamiliar uses for shapes.

Adaptive flexibility :
▪ It is related to changing
the way of thinking to solve a problem.
Originality :

It is the ability to reach a new, uncommon production. It is

one of the most important capabilities of creative thinking, as

innovation and lack of popularity are among the most

important characteristics of thinking.

Elaboration :

Is the ability to pay attention to all the necessary details

needed to complete the work or to solve a problem or

develop a plan.

41 ‫ى‬
 Thinking development methods

Generate alternatives :

Creative thinking is interested in revealing various ways to solve problems by

reorganizing and arranging the available information.

 Note that the reasonableness of alternatives controls the thinking of the

individual during the process of logical thinking but in innovative thinking it is

not necessary to have reasonable ideas because the goal is to freedom from the

cruelty of the rigidity of the dissonance and immobility. It’s preferred to

determine the number required of alternatives to keep developing it.

42 ‫ى‬
 EX : Describe the figure below :

 Alternatives :

✓ "L" shaped.
✓ Carpenter angle.
✓ Inverted gallows.
✓ Half-frame photo.
✓ Two rectangles fixed together and perpendicular.
✓ A large rectangle with a small rectangle.

43 ‫ى‬
  Thinking can go from just description to installation on some of the functions
of stuff.

 EX: How can you divide a square into four equal parts?

❖ Challenging Assumptions :

▪ When an individual deals with certain situations or problems, he may admit some
things. Makes assumptions that represent certain patterns. These assumptions
place restrictions on the individual that impede him from dealing with a solution
to these problems. To overcome this, the individual must reshape the patterns in
order to reach any better use of the information available to him.

 EX: How to get between the nine points in the following way, using four
straight lines and without lifting the pen from the paper.

✓ Solution :

44 ‫ى‬
 EX : Take four cubes and arrange them according to the following
processes :
1) Arrange the cubes so that each cube touches two other cubes
2) Arrange the cubes so that one of them touches one cube and the second
touches two cubes and the third touches three cubes.
3) Arrange the cubes so that each cube touch each other .

✓ Solution :

45 ‫ى‬
 Brainstorming :
This method was founded by Osborne in 1938 and is based on the industrial separation between
the production of ideas on the one hand and their evaluation on the other.

 Stages of the method :

is based on three stages:
Phase I: the problem is clarified and analyzed into primary elements, then these
elements are distributed and classified.
Phase II: It begins that the session leader or moderator explains the brainstorming of
participants how to do and the behavior they are required to abide by.

Participants must abide by :

Avoid any positive or negative criticism of any of the ideas presented
by the participants, because any idea that has run out loses his follow-
up and distracts him in order to reach a better idea.
Accept any idea, no matter how imaginary, because such ideas can be
a sign of self-liberation from intellectual limitations.
1. Give as many ideas as possible if the more ideas there are, the more
good ideas you can choose from.
2. Follow up on the ideas of others and how to build them and work to
put similar ideas together.

⧫ Phase III: is the stage of evaluating ideas and testing them and purifying them.

the most important points that should be taken into account:

1. Selecting useful ideas.
2. Drawing scientific ideas from wrong ideas.
Selecting ideas that solve the problem easily and
conveniently.
3. Selecting ideas that from multiple areas.

At the end of the evaluation session, three lists of ideas are

prepared :
Useful ideas or direct application.
Ideas for study and exploration.
New ideas and approaches to solve the problem.

Fields of usage of the brainstorming method :

This method is used with problems that require the presentation of the largest number of
possible solutions and is not used with problems that require an immediate decision.
46 ‫ى‬
This method addresses problems related to "technology, engineering, educational problems,
and advertising problems".

Session time :
The brainstorming session lasts from 15 to 60 minutes at an average of 30 minutes

number of participants :
• The number ranges from 12
to 15 individuals. As for Large groups can be divided into small groups.
I. Moderator :
• A brainstorming session
must be moderated by an experienced participant to run these
sessions.
• His main roles are:
avoiding conflict, keeping the session organized, giving a chance for
everyone to speak…

II. Secretary :
The session secretary's job is to record ideas either in writing or
recording them.

General principles " wills" :

No criticism.
Say whatever you want, no matter how wrong it appears to you.
Do not give a speech.
Listen to moderator.
Give a chance to the session secretary to record your thoughts.
Don't interrupt anyone else.
Complete the ideas of others and build on them.

47 ‫ى‬
THT IMPLEMENTATION OF Introduction and Unit (1)
Prof Dr. Gamal Abushanb
1- we can characterized the treatment which made the scientist as a rational
wizards when he:
▪ Does not believe in superstitions and magic ( * )
▪ Recognizing the principle of causation ( * )
▪ Warning of Sweeping generalization ( * )
▪ Believed that there is a inevitable relation between to incidents, as they happen
together. ( )
1- The difference between science and art:
▪ Science seeks laws and theories that allow for prediction. ( * )
▪ The art seeks to reveal the facts and laws that explain artistic phenomena.
( )
▪ There no similarity between the technical subjects, but there is between scientific
subjects. ( * )
2- The difference between since and religion meaning:
▪ Religion is a fixed fact and cannot be change ( * )
▪ Religion acquired by experiment and inferred experimental ( )
▪ Religion seeks the happiness of man in this world and the hereafter whiles the
science in this world only. ( * )
3- The difference between philosophy and science meaning:
▪ Science is objective, while philosophy is subjects insights and ideas ( * )
▪ Philosophy judgments are declarative, while science is normative ( )
▪ Science deals with topics from a qualitative perspective, while philosophy from a
quantitative perspective. ( )
▪ Science examines indirect causes, while philosophy indirect causes. ( )
4- The difference between science and technology meaning:
▪ Science is the body of organized scientific knowledge that
▪ Reflects the regularity of relations between, topics, problems and phenomena
( * )
▪ Technology is scientific discoveries that add to the legacy of new science.
( )
▪ Technology mean the practical application of science and include tools and
methods used for practical purposes ( * )
48 ‫ى‬
‫‪49‬‬ ‫ى‬
 Engineering means:
▪ A science and application specialized in designing, construction, building and
machinery ( * )
▪ Applied science is scientific and mathematical knowledge ( * )
▪ Science is midway between pure science and fine art ( * )
5- Generation in science meaning:
▪ Moving from a limited number of notes to general laws ( * )
▪ Depends on symmetry of particles and similar conditions ( * )
▪ The generalization that the viscosity of liquids increases rarely, the temperature
becomes less, true only if all particles are similar and have similar properties
( * )
6- Scientific accuracy is the expression of ideas in a precise quantitative language,
distinguished form the description that it depends on quantitative measurement
such as:
▪ Experiencing colors along their waves ( * )
▪ Expression of electricity, magnetic, sound and lights by waves of different lengths
( * )
7- The test of validity of results and generalizations depends either on actual
verification or possibility of actual verification results in experimental sciences
such as:
▪ The water contains of oxygen and hydrogen at the rate of 1-2 this can be verified
experimentally ( * )
▪ Fissile atom is an assumption that can be verified by experiment. ( * )
8- Steady progress in the inevitability of phenomena and accidents means:
▪ If the conditions are the same the results will inevitable be simila ( )
▪ It the condition are the same the results may he similar ( * )
9- Euclid's geometric theory, which began with the defining of point, straight,
angle and triangle:
▪ It depended on deductive thinking ( * )
▪ It depended on a measure of honesty standard ( * )
▪ It depends on whether the theory matches reality or not when applie( )
10- Research in natural sciences such as the phenomena of sound, light, electricity
and magnetic depends on:

50 ‫ى‬
 ▪ Inductive methods of thinking ( * )
▪ Internal honesty standard ( * )
▪ Demonstrate the truthfulness of the results the congruence of natures evidence
( * )
11- The system analysis methodology is based on a study on:
▪ Scientific discoveries and theoretical studies ( * )
▪ Engineering sciences, management and trade ( * )
▪ Study of open and closed systems ( * )
▪ (Question N2) put a check mark or wrong in front of the following statement
with explanation:
12- Management sciences rely in dealing with their topic's on deductive thinking and an
internal standard of honesty ( )
13- Applied sciences depend on methods of thinking and standards of honesty available
in addition to the criterion of honesty of benefit ( * )
14- Engineering sciences rely on inductive reasoning and external validity standard
( )
15- Theoretical sciences aim to theorizing and include three groups: mathematical,
philosophical, natural, and human sciences ( * )
16- The distinction between theoretical and applied sciences in the classification of
sciences depends on the difference in goal manner of thinking, stander of honesty,
and research methodology ( * )
17- Research on humanities such as: medicine, pharmacy, sociology, psychology,
economics, arts and languages depends on deductive reasoning and an internal
standard of honesty ( )
18- Contemporary science partly abandoned the idea of causation, and replaced it with
the correlation of the quantitative semantic relationship between the variables that
form laws to rely on in the process of prediction ( )
19- Test the validity of results and generalizations in experimental sciences is external
standard, but in mathematical sciences is internally depends on consistency and
lack of consistency between the parts of mathematical system ( )

51 ‫ى‬
20- Interpretation is an attempt to reveal the causes of phenomena and understand the
relation between them, such as the rise in temperature of a specific leg and the
movement of particles within it ( * )
21- The emergence of optics in AL- Hasan kin AL- Haytham, and then the emergence
of the technology of making glasses and colors and the art of photography represent
a horizontal expansion in stimulating phenomena in optics ( * )
22- The revival of the wave theory in the nineteenth century by "Ling", which "Higner"
brought, represents the seventh century, horizontal, in researching phenomena
previously studied, but form a new perspective ( )
23- Art uses induction and deduction approaches, and science uses descriptive and
experimental approaches ( )
24- The meaning that the researcher treatments are characterized by critical spirit,
integrity and impartiality so he is committed to the value of scientific accuracy
( )
25- Scientific humility represents a valve acquired by the scientist that does not be
deceived or transcendent, because it is know in the field of currency that knows
what he does not teach jealousy and trusts in his scientific capabilities ( * )
26- Sound light, heat, humidity and Archimedes principle represent mental images of a
set of phenomena and processes called concepts. ( )
27- Electrical resistance, difference in strength, power and energy represents
mathematical formulas and are called laws. ( )
28- The rotation of the earth around the sun once every quarter of 365 days represents
an occurrence or natural event that can be observed repeatedly for researchers
( * )

52 ‫ى‬
 ‫العمليات العقلية المعتمد عليها في دراسة العلم‬
‫الوحدة الثانية‬
Prof dr. gamal abushanb
Mental processes which we can depend in the field of science
The second unit
Analysis and construction :‫) التحليل والتركيب‬1(
:‫ التحليل هو االنتقال من المعقد إلى البسيط مثل‬-1
.‫ تحليل الكيميائي للماء بعنصرية األكسجين والهيدروجين ويمثل تحليل عقلي‬-
‫ئ سبرعة سبقوط جسبمين تفتلبو البوزن عنبد السبقوط‬ ‫ إرجاع الظواهر إلى أسبابها مثل معرفة سبب‬-
.‫ويمثل تحليل مادي‬
‫ تحليل عقلي ال يقتصر على الفيزياء بل يشمل الرياضيات أيضا مثل تحليل المقادير الجبرية إلى مقادير‬-
.14-13 ‫أبسط‬
IMPLEMENTATION N1 -
1- Analysis is transition from complex to simple such as
- Chemical analysis of water with elemental oxygen and hydrogen is considered
a physical analysis ( )
- Return the elements to their causes, such as knowing the cause of the equal
velocity of the fall of two bodies of different weight when falling, is considered
a physical analysis. ( )
- Mental analysis is not limited to physics, but also includes mathematics, such
as the analysis of algebraic amounts to the simplest amounts of 13-y 4 ( )
:‫عكس التحليل فأن‬ ‫ إذا كان التركي‬2-1
.‫ تعريض غازي األكسجين والهيدروجين لشراره كهربائية يمثل تركيبا عقليا‬-
.‫ يمثل تركيبا ماديا‬75ct ‫ وقانون شارول‬752 ‫أ‬/1 ‫ والقول بأن المعادلة العامة للغازات وفق قانون بويل‬-
IMPLEMENTATION N2 -
If the compositions opposite the analysis, then:
- Exposing the oxygen and hydrogen gases to an electric spook is a mental
synthesis ( )

53 ‫ى‬
 - To say that the general equation for gases according to Boyle's voc 1/p and
Charles's law voct represent a physical composition ( )
‫ حبدس حسبي يعتمبد علبى‬:‫ الحدس العلمي علمية عقلية ندرك به إدراكا مباشرا وله أشكال مفتلفبة كمبا يلبي‬-2
.‫الفيال مثل المهندس الذي يبتكر صور وأشكال ويدرك العالقات‬
.‫ حدس تعميم يعتمد على العالقات المنطقية والبديهيات الرياضية‬-
.‫ حدس عقلي يعتمد على عمليات االستقراء المستفدمة في العلوم الطبيعية‬-
IMPLEMENTATION 3 -
Scientific intuition is a mental process that we perceive directly, with different forms
as following:
- Sensory intuition bossed on imagination, like the engineers who carets
images and shapes and relationships ( * )
- Generalized intuition bossed on logical relationships and mathematical
spinners. ( )
- Mental intuition bossed on the induction processes used in the natural
sciences ( )
:‫ استفدام االستدالل في البرهنة يعتمد على مقدمات وله أقسام مفتلفة هي االستنباط واالستقراء والتمثيل‬-3
:The deduction ‫ االستنباط‬1-3
**‫اذن‬ ‫ االستنباط المباشر ويعني االنتقال من مقدمة إلى نتيجة محددة مترتبة عليها مثل أ> من‬1-1-3
.‫ بعض المعادن تمدد بالحرارة‬ ‫< من أ – كل المعادن تتمدد بالحرارة‬
‫ االستنباط الغير مباشبر و يعنبي االنتقبال مبن مقبدمتين أو أكثبر إلبى نتيجبة محبددة بفبرض صبد‬2-1-3
.‫المقدمات التي أدت إليها‬
IMPLENTATION4
The use of reasoning in evidence depends on the introductions, and have various
sections of it:
- Direct deduction means moving from one introduction which leads to a
result ( * )
- Indirect deduction means moving form two or more introductions leads to a
specific result by imposing truthfulness of this introduction ( * )
5- ‫كل معدن يتحدد‬ ‫كل الحديد يتحدد كل‬
‫بالحرارة‬ ‫بالحرارة حديد معدن‬
‫(أ) في القياس إذا قلنا أن كل معدن يتحدد بالحرارة مقدمه كبرى‬

54 ‫ى‬
 ‫مقدم صفري‬ ‫كل حديد معدن‬
‫ كل حديد يتمدد بالحرارة وهذه هي النتيجة وتعني‬
.‫ أن ذلك يمثل استنباط غير مباشر أفذ شكل قياس ويستدل على صحة نتيجتة من مقدمتين‬-
.‫ أن الحد األوسط الذي ظهر في المقدمتين ال يظهر في النتيجة ألن وظيفته هي الربط بين الحدين‬-
.‫ أن الحد األكبر وهو ما يتحدد بالحرارة قد ظهر في المقدمة الكبرى والنتيجة‬-
.‫ وأن الحد األصغر وهو الحديد قد ظهر في المقدمة الصفري والنتيجة‬-
‫ ولكى نبرهن على صحة النتيجبة يجب‬،‫ هذا القياس هو عملية يستدل بها عل صحة نتيجة من مقدمتين‬-
‫ اى انة‬.‫ان تكون المقدمتين صادقتين وهذا معناة انة انتقال من الكل إلى الجزء أي من العام إلى الفاص‬
‫يمثل تحليال وليس تركي‬
IMPLEMENTATION5 -
- Measurement is a process by which the validity of a result is indicated by two
introduction in order to demonstrate the validity of the result, the introduction
must be honest and it is a transition from the whole to the part, meaning that it
represent an analysis ,not a synthesis
- In syll0gism, which is one part of reasoning, is indirect deduction if we say:
every metal expands by heat” it is a is a biggest introduction “
every iron is a metal "is a small introduction"
then every iron expands by heat “ it is a is the result “ and it means:
- This represents a indirect inference that takes the form of measurement and
indicates the correctness of the result from the two introductions ( * )
- The middle term that appeared in the to two introduction did not appear in the
result, because its function is the link between the two .( * )
- The major term which is extended by heat has appeared in the major
introduction and the result ( * )
- The minor term "the iron" has appeared in small introduction and the resu) * (
- This Syllogism represents the analysis of a general result and not syntax
depending on to premises and transition from public to special ( * )

55 ‫ى‬
‫(ب) واالستدالالت الشرطية هي است نباط غير مباشرر يتكروم مرم يارايا بعارها هو كلهرا شررطية مت رلة هو‬
:‫منف لة واألمثلة كما يلي‬
"‫ "االستدالالت الشرطية المت لة‬:ً‫هوال‬
‫مقدمه شرطية أولى فيها السب والنتيجة‬ ‫ابتلت االرض‬ ‫ إذا أمطرت السماء‬-
‫مقدمة شرطية ثانية فيها السب والنتيجة‬ ‫نما الزرع‬ ‫وإذا أبتلت األرض‬
‫إذا أمطرت السماء نما الزرع استدالل شرطي غير مباشر اعتمادا على مقدمتين شرطتين‬
.‫مقدمه شرطية فيها السب والنتيجة‬ ‫ابتلت األرض‬ ‫ إذا أمطرت السماء‬-
‫أثبات‬ ‫السماء أمطرت‬
‫االستدالل شرطي غير مباشر اعتماد على قضيه واحدة باإليجا‬ ‫األرض ابتلت‬ -
‫قضية شرطية فيها السب والنتيجة‬ ‫ابتلت األرض‬ ‫ إذا أمطرت السماء‬-
‫نفي‬ ‫ األرض لم تبتل‬-
‫اسببتدالل ش برطي غيببر مباشببر اعتمببادا علببى قضببية‬ ‫ السماء لم تمطر‬ -
‫واحدة بالنفى‬
IMPLEMENTATION 6 -
Conditional inferences are indirect deduction consisting of issues of some or all of
them are continuous or separate conditionalities, examples are as follows:
• If the heavens rained the ground got wet " ‫"االستداللت الشرطية المتصلة‬
This is first conditional preposition have the cause and result
* if the ground got wet the plant grows
- This is the second conditional proposition have the cause and affect
*Then if the heavens rained the plant grows this is an indirect conditional inference
based on two conditional propositions ( * )
• If the sky is stretched, the earth is wet this is conditional issue which have the
cause and effect
- and the sky is raining this is positive
- Then earth is wet this is indirect conditional inference based on one issue by
proof ( * )
• If the sky is stretched, the earth is wet
- This is the conditional issue which have the cause and affect
- The earth not got wet this is negative
56 ‫ى‬
 - Then the sky did not rain this indirect conditional inference based on one issue
by negative ( * )
‫ "االستداللت الشرطية المنف لة" تعتمد على ياايا شررطية منف رلة وتسرتمدم اللفرم امرا وامرا للرربط‬:‫ثانيا‬
: ‫بينها مثل‬
IMPLEMENTATION 7
7 - Conditional inferences depending on separated conditional issues by using term
either or either such as::
- The number is either double either individual ( * )
The number (5) not double
-  Its Individual.
• The number is either double either individual ( * )
The number (6) not individual
-  Its double
• The number is either double either individual (* )
The number (7) not individual
-  Its double
• The number either double either individual ( * )
The number (8) double***
-  Its not individual
"‫"هيسام االستقراء‬
8- Parts of Induction:
‫ أي أنبه عمليبة‬،‫ االستقراء هو استدالل غير مباشر يتم االنتقال فيه مبن حباالت جزئيبة إلبى حباالت عامبة‬2-3
‫ واالستقراء الرياضبي‬،‫ ومن أمثلته االستقراء العلمي الناقص واالستقراء الصوري الكامل‬،‫وليس تحليل‬ ‫تركي‬
:‫الكامل‬
.‫ االستقراء هو استدالل غير مباشر‬-
‫ يتم االنتقال فيه من حاالت جزئية إلى حاالت عامة ومشابهة‬-
‫ االستقراء هو عملية تركي تبدأ من الجزء إلى الكل‬-
‫ االستقراء هو عملية تحليل تبدأ من الكل إلى الجزء‬-
IMPLEMENTATIO 8 -
- Induction is an indirect inference )√(
57 ‫ى‬
 - In induction we transition from partial cases to general cases ) √ (
- Induction is the process of assembling from part to whole ) √(
- Induction is the process of analysis from the whole to the part ) (
‫ وهو انتقال غير يقني من الحكم على الجزئيبات إلبى الحكبم‬،‫(أ) االستقراء العلمي الناقص هو استقراء غير تام‬
‫ ومن الحكم على الحاالت المشباهدة إلبى الحكبم علبى الحباالت الممكنبة التبي شباهد ناهيبا والتبي لبم‬،‫على الكل‬
.‫تشاهدها‬
Incomplete scientific inductive is non complete and include uncertain transition from
judgment on particles and states that we have seen to all and possible states that we
have not seen.Example:
Iron expand with heat .. copper expands by heat .. gold expands with heat..
Alumonum expands by heat … so all the minerals expand with heat.
IMPLENTATION 9
- This is incomplete inductive inference (* )
- It represent uncertain transition from particles to the general cases
- This represent assembling from part the whole ( * )
- Induction represent analysis from the whole to the part ( * )
- This judgment still valid otherwise we explore any metal don’t have this
judgment ( * )
- This judgment allow the production (* )
- IMPLEMENTATION 10
‫( ) االستقراء الصوري الكامل هو استقراء تام يقن ي كامل ويتضمن االنتقال من الحكم على األنواع إلى الحكم‬
‫ ويشترط إحصاء كل األنواع إحصاءا شامال بحيث‬،‫على الجنس أي الحكم على العام بما حكمنا به على الفاص‬
.‫ال يفلت أي نوع من المشاهدة والتجربة‬
The complete inductive inference have a complete certainty and includes the
transition from the judgment on the species to count all types.
Example: man breathes, animal breathes, plants breathe “ man Animal and plant are
all living things “. So all living things breath .
- This is incomplete inductive reference ( )
- This type of inductive is not sure ( )
- This includes the transition from the judgment on species to the sex ( * )

58 ‫ى‬
 - This includes the requirement to count all types (* )
‫ هو االنتقال من الحكم على بعض األعداد إلى الحكم على جميعهبا انتقباال يقينيبا‬:‫(ج) االستقراء الرياض الكامل‬
‫يعتمد على اإليمان بأنه ما يصد ألي عدد البد وأن يصد للعدد الذي يليه‬
Mathematical induction is the sure transition from the judgment of some numbers to
the judgment of all because whate is true of any number must be true of the number
that follows

59 ‫ى‬
Example:
- Number 2 accepts division by 2
- Number 4 accepts division by 2
- Number 6 accepts division by 2
- Number 8 accepts division by 2
- Numbers 2-4, 6-8 martial numbers.
- So all martial numbers are accepted by 2

‫ قياس التمثيل هو استدالل يتم فيه االنتقال من الحكم علبى حالبة سبابقة إلبى حالبة الحقبه لوجبود شببه ببين‬3-3
‫الحالتين اعتمادا على وجود عالقة بين الحالتين السابقة والالحقة‬
‫ هذا حادث سيارة وقد آلمني‬:‫مثل القول‬
‫هذا حادث سيارة أفر‬
‫اذن قد يؤلمنى‬
Measurement of representation is the transition from judgment on previous case to a
later case, because there in a similarity between the two cases, depending on the
existence of a relationship between the previous and the subsequent: such as saying:
- That this is a car accident and its has hurt me…
- This is another car accident.. so it might hurt me
:‫ويمكن تقوية االستدالل باستفدام قياس التمثيل عن طريق استفدام أما عالقات منطقية‬
.‫ مثل عالقة الجزء بالكل‬-
‫ عالقة التضاد‬-
.‫ عالقة السب والنتيجة‬-
‫ العالقة العكسية‬-
.‫ مثل العالقة الرياضية الجيومترية‬:‫أو عالقات رياضية‬
‫العالقة الرياضية الفيزيائية‬
Inside the inference, measurement of representation can be strengthened by wing
either logical relation ship such as: the relationship of the part to the whole, the
relationship of opposites, “the cause – and – effect relationship “, and the vertical
relationship – Or by using mathematical relationships either as geometric or physical.

60 ‫ى‬
Application:11
Measurement of representation is inference and meaning the transition from the the
judgment on previous case to a latter case because there is a relation of similarity
between the two logical or mathematical:
Such as saying:
The relation between Egypt and Alexandria like the relation
- Between: Paris and mosque ( )
- Mosque and Russia ( )
- Span and mdreed ( * )
- Manhattan and New York ( )
- The opposite logical relation between science and ignorance like the relation
between: light and ( (
* Lightning lighting and electricity ( )
River and stream ( )
- The logical relation of the cause to effect between ‫ التفريب والمبوت‬sabotage and
death like the relation between:
o ‫ الجراثيم والعدوى‬Germs and infection (* )
o ‫ الكحة والبرد‬Cough and cold ( )
o ‫ الكحة والعطس‬Cough and uicversa ( )
o ‫ الطائرة والهواء‬Airplane and air ( )
- The mathematical geometric relation between ‫ األسبطوانة والبدائرة‬cylinder and
circuit like the relation between:
Square and triangle ( )
Cone and circle )
Cone and rectangle ( )
The pyramid and triangle ( * )
- The logical contradiction relation between ‫ التوقب والتكببر‬humility and arrogance
like the relation between:
- Weakness and strength (* )
Agitation and distress ( )

61 ‫ى‬
ِ~ Slumber and bowler ( )
- The psychical mathematical ralation between decibels and light year like the
relation between: ( )
Distance and time ( )
Sound and distance ( * )
The year and lust or ( )
Fore and wheel ( )
-------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ‫ا‬
‫البحث فى العلوم الرياضية‬ ‫اسالي‬
PROF DR GAMAL ABUSHANB
Research methodology in mathematical science
The third unit
1 ‫ تعريو العلوم الرياضية‬-1
THE DEFINATION OF MATHEMATICS :

1 - Mathematics is the science based on making equations and numbers in accurate and
symbolic calcareous language
2 - Research methodology in mathematics ‫ منهج البحث فى العلوم الرياضية "المنهج الفرضى‬-2
" ‫االستنباطى‬
The mathematical science curriculum is the mental curriculum called the deductive
hypothesis method , and based on : the deduction and proof which are two complementary
and opposite in their attitude ,thus the deductive start from the premesis finishing to the
results ,but the proof start from the results in order to proof its validity with reference yo the
first introduction that 0bligated it .

APPLICATION 1 :
Mathematics is known as :
*science based on making equation and numbers written in in accurate and symbolic
calcareus language ( )

*Defined as a mental and abstract science does not care about the reality ( * )
*Mathematics does not deprive from external reality the forms and the relationships that
exist between them ( )
*Mathematics study subjects which exist in the external reality
APPLICATION 2 :
The study of mathematics science based on a method ;-
*have a mental character ( * )
*deductive hypothesis method which start from the result and finishing to the introduction (
*inductive method which care about the proof and the real validity of phenomenas ( )

: ‫ مراحل توظيو المنهج الفرضى االستنباطى‬- 3

62 ‫ى‬
The stages of employing the use of hypothesis deductive approach includes two stages :-

-: ‫ مرحلة وض المقدمات‬3-1
The first one :- the studies of introduction which includes the initial boundaries ,the
definitions and finally the postulates which include “ confiscations and exioms “-

: ‫ الحدود االولية او االمعرفات وهى مصطلحات لها فصائص محددة يعتمد عليه فى عملية التفكير ونها‬3-1-1

APPLICATION 3:
The initial boundaries are the nondefinition which are concepts have a certain characters
such as :
*it’s a concepts not explicit in our thinking and need more of explication ( )
*scientists do not consider them as boundaries from which to begin the process of defining
others ( )
*initial boundaries include length , width , and depth to begin the process of defining other(
*

‫ التعريفات هى توضيح لمعنى اللفظ او المصطلح ويتم ذلك بذكر الصفات التى تحدد هذا المفهوم الذى هو اشبة‬2-1-3
‫بمعادلة يضم طرفها ااالول الحد المراد تعريفة والثانى يضم العبارات الشارحة‬
APPLICATION 4 : the definitions are an explanation of the meaning of the word, and the
first part includes the desired terms, and the second includes the expressions sentience such
as :
*the point has no hight,width and depth,and have parts and amount ( )
*the surface has no depth and have length as a triangle and mirrors ( * )
*the size has a hight,width as the cup and vase
*A triangle is a surface surrounding by three straight lines ( * )
The mathematical expropriations and engineering axioms :-
-: ‫ المصادرات الحسابية والبديهيات الهندسية‬3-1-3
They are a primary propositions, has their sincerity, and not need to proof. but the difference
between them in the basis of recognition of the honesty, because confiscation is assumption
og sincerity, in the level of the general science such as arithmetic which include
engineering. The example is the assumption of LOPCHHISK about the place as the internal
surface of the cylinder or the external surface of the ball .
Therefore the same sentence may be arithmetic confiscation or engineering axioms in the
same time, if we used it in two different levels of sciences the example of equal between the
amounts called called confiscation in the field of mathematic, and axiom in the field of
engineering .
EXAMPLE : 2km of paper=2km of meet
This is the mathematical confiscation .
But if we said that all right angles in each of square and triangle are equal then this is a
engineering axioms such as :
APPLICATION 5 :
*the whole is large from part…thus the theoretical structure of the mathematical science is
large from the low of dynamics ( * )
*the two amounts which are equal to another third amount are equal two ( * )
*the thing equal the same ( * )
*if we add equal amounts to another equal amounts then the results while be equal two ( )

63 ‫ى‬
APPLICATION 6
Examples for some confiscations in the field of “ECLEDS” engineering :

*it is possible to draw straight line between two points B . --------------- . A ( *)

*it is possible to extend a straight line of any length |----------------------------- ( *)
*the two parallels do not meet no matter how long they span A -------- B
G --------- D ( * )
*all right angles are equal ( * )
*the two strait lines meet at one point ---- |----- ( )
‫ وهى مرحلة اتمام البناء الفرضى الرياضى باستفالص ما يترت علبى‬: ‫ مرحلة استنباط النظريات‬2-3
‫المقدمات التى تشمل " التعريفات والمصادرات والبديهيات " وذلك للوصول الى النظريات المبرهنة‬
The stage of deductive theories is the stage of completing the mathematical hypothesis
bulding , and extracting their implications of the introductions that include “ definations,the
confiscations and axioms “ in order to reach the proven theories , thus we can say that ;-
*The truth of the theories or its falsehood linked to their consistency with the assumpations
from which they were drown ( *)
*the truth of the theories or its falsehood not linked to their consistency with reality ( )
*it is not proven that it is correct to say that the sum of the proverbs is equal to180 degrees
in Euclid,s mathematical pattern with introduction from the other geometric pattern
“Lubashivsky” which say the place is a flat surface ( * )
*the straight line connecting from the center to the circle to the middle of any string in it ,
It is not perpendicular on it ( *)

‫اسالي البحث فى العلوم الطبيعية‬

Unit number four

RESEARCH METHODS IN THE NATURAL SCIENCE

PROF DR GAMAL ABUSHANB
The fourth unit

: ‫يمكن تعريو العلوم الطبيعية بانها‬

1- We can define the natural sciences as the following :-
*it is the sciences that studies physics, chemistry, life sciences, medical and astronomy,
this is the definition by the exams the ( * )
*it is the sciences that studies all living things and nonliving matter in the universe, and
this is the definition of the topic (* )
*it is the sciences which based on the inductive method in order to reach the general
lows ( * )
*it is the sciences that relies on the deductive method to give consistency to general
theory ( )
2- The definition of inductive as :- ‫ تعريو االسبتقراء‬-2

*inductive is the transfer of thought from several provisions related to multiple subjects
to a general rule that includes those topics ( * )
64 ‫ى‬
*induction is the mental process through which we reach a general ruling that applies to
these and other similar cases ( * )
*Iron extended by heat…Alomeneum extended by heat…coper extended by heat…the
Gold extended by heat
Iron cooper alomeneum and Gold are mineral
Then all minerals extended by heat
-this is an incomplete scientific induction and an uncertain transition from the judgment
of particles to the judgment of wholl (* )
3- Iduction properites : ‫ فصهئص االسبتقراء‬-3
*induction issues which are introductions and results are expert and can be tested for
honesty or falsehood through realistic experiment (* )
*induction is characterized by generalization that is the transation from judgment on
what is privates partial or singular to judgment on what is general or overall results ( * )
*the induction includes a process of proof that is the veracity of the general results
depends on the truth of the partial premises that led to them (* )
*if induction beginning with individual issues which related to observable topics this
applies to human phenomena, that are subject to observation such as human behavior ( *
)
: ‫ "فطبببببببببببببوات المبببببببببببببنهج االسبببببببببببببتقرائى "او " مراحبببببببببببببل المبببببببببببببنهج الجريبببببببببببببببى‬-4
Steps of inductive approach or stages of the experimental approach are three steps :-
‫شببببببببببروط اجببببببببببراء المالحظببببببببببة العلميببببببببببة والفببببببببببر بينهببببببببببا وبببببببببببين التجربببببببببببة‬1-4
4-1 observation and experiment
4-2 formalation of hypotheses ‫مرحلة وض وتشكيل الفروض العلمية‬2-4
4-3 checking assumptions or testing their validity ‫مرحلة تدقيق الفروض وافتبار صدقها‬3-4
----------------------------
4-1 the observation condication : " ‫" شروط اجراء المالحظة العلميبة‬
*the observation is not transient and is related to the analysis of phenomena such as
the movement of the moon in its relation to the earth and the sun,or interpretation the
relationship of attraction between the withdrawal of electronics and the nucleus inside
the atom ( *)
*the scientific observation must be structured and intended to reveal and explain pheno
mena (* )
*that the observation be objective and away from the personal appreciation and passion
and express its issues quantitatively and qualitative (* )
*it must be rely on accuracy by using machines and tools such as Telescope or Close-up
Microscope of the size of cells
*scientific observation differs from irregular observation because it has it has a gool,
approach and tools, that It uses to record phenomena (*)
*quantitative observation is no longer limited to expressing its phenomena using
mathematics in physics chemistry, and astronomy rather it extended to plant and animal
sciences using mathematical statistics
4-1-4 the difference between observation and experiment :
‫ الفببببببببببببببببببببببببببببببر بببببببببببببببببببببببببببببببين المالحظببببببببببببببببببببببببببببببة والتجربببببببببببببببببببببببببببببببة‬4-1-4
*even the researche in the observation awaits the phenomenon in nature, but in the
etxernal it’s the one who produces the experiment and sits preconditions
To verify the validity of the hypothesis ( * )

65 ‫ى‬
 *in observation the researcher cannot analyze the phenomenon into their initial
elements but in the experiment he can analyze what he verify by returning to its elements
such as oxygen ( *)
*in experiment the researcher can install what he cannot compose and control in the natural
observation because it is not repeated ( * )
*in experiment the researcher can repeat an experiment and verify its results unlike the
natural observation because it is not repeated ( *
4-1-3 causes of error in conducting observation and experiment :-
‫ اسبا الفطا فى اجراء المالحظبة والتجرببة‬1-2-4

*The differences of senses and accuracy with each researcher ( * )

*not relying on scientific tools to correct the senses,s error ( * )
*not realizing that each researcher has its own return time such as the response time of hand
to see the eye ( * )
*the researcher should choose what is observed and tested only without paying attention to
which out side his atteention
( )
*the researcher is not affected by his moral and religious affection and any ideological ideas
( )

4—2 Stages of formulation the hypothesis:-

4-2-1 the condition of formulating the hypothesis : ‫ مرحلة وض الفروض العلميبة‬2-4
*its based on observations and experiments and is not fictional and it supports or rejects by
experimentation and observations ( *)
* it must be clear accurate specific and inconsistent before submitting an experiment( *
*scientific hypothesis may contradict any natural law that validates knowledge such as
saying that the heart is the only vain that pushes blood into the arteries ( )
*its not imperative that the scientific hypothesis permit the interpretation of all phenomena
that have been set up to explain them then and can be maximized in this case ( )
4-2-2 The scientific functional of hypothesis: ‫ وظائو الفروض العلمية‬2-2-4
*the scientific hypothesis raises experiment and observations in order to get from them the
laws that are the strait point in every experimentation induction ( * )
*assumpation have a dual function: the first is to reveal the relationships and laws to which
any phenomena and the second is confuse laws that have been discovered ( * )
*directing researchers to reveal law and provid explanations about the changing facts if
they turn into laws ( * )
*wrong assumpations have functions because they serve science if they are placed under
observation and open the way to form new honest assumpation ( * (

: ‫ مرحلة تدقيق الفروض وافتبار صدقها‬3-4

4-3 stages of testing hypothesis and their validity depending on three experimental way
oh research :-
: ‫ طريقة االتفا وتعنى‬1-3-4
4-3-2 Method of agrement
*there is the causal relation between the cause and the effect ( * )
*what is not present in the result is delated as it is not a reason for its existence ( * )

66 ‫ى‬
 *whenever the cause is found it is followed by the result X each time with numbers of
possible causes :BCMOSN such as food poisoning and the type of food we share is fish
along with their mixing up with other items ( * (
: ‫ طريقة االفتالو وتعنى‬2-3-4
4-3-2 d Difference method :-
*if the cause is removed the result will disappear if we prevent the pressence of fish, the
result will be removed , which is poisoning, because the relationship exists between the
cause and the result both agreement and negatively (* )
*ABCD =followed byXYZ
BCD =followed byYZ
Then A eating fish is the cause for X poisoning

( * )

‫طريقة الجم بين االتفا واالفتالو‬

*Whenever A is found it is the fish that results X which is poisoning and whenever there
is a missing X..Then A becames the cause of X ( * )
- this is the approach of combining agreement ( * )
*if we notice that whenever you drink coffe we get insomnia, this is the way of
agreement and if we refrain from drinking it, we sleep quiety then this is the way of
diference ( * )
-: ‫ طريقة التالزم فى التغيراو التغير النسبى‬4-3-4

4-3-4 THE method of correlation in change or relative change says

* whenever there is the changing in A in phenomena ABC to A1-A2-A3 and that was
accompanied by a change in element X in phenomena XYZ. then we can say that there is
the causal relationship between X and A (* )
*THE examples of the method of relative change explain the change in the relationship
between pressure and volume in the case of gases BOYL,S law or temperature and volume
Charles law or increase in pressure and temperature PRESSURE LAW or between
temperature and increased friction ( * )

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

67 ‫ى‬
 The six unit
Prof Dr Gamal abushanb
THE CREATIVE THINKING
: ‫تعريف االبداع‬.

: ‫هو العملية التى تتيح الجديد واالصيل والقيم ويظهر فى صورتين‬

It is the process that produces the new, thoroughbred and values and it appears in two
pictures
‫انتاج محسوس مستقل نسبيا عن صاحبة فى هيئة اد وفن وموسيقى وافتراع‬

*tangible production relatively independent from the owner in the form of literature art
music and invention (* )

‫انتاج غير مستقل عن صاحبة مثل دور االوركسترا وقيادتها ودور الممثل‬
Production not independent of the owner such as the role of the actor and the leadership of
the orchestra ( * )
: ‫مكونات االبداع‬
‫هببببببببببببببببببب بى " الطالقبببببببببببببببببببببة والمرونبببببببببببببببببببببة واالصبببببببببببببببببببببالة وادرا ك التفاصبببببببببببببببببببببيل‬
The components of creativity are: fluency flexibility originality and
perception of details:

‫) – الطالقة تعتمد على قدرة الفرد عى انتاج اكبر عدد من االستجابات المالئمة تجاة مشكلة معينة من فالل العديبد‬1(
: ‫من القدرات التالية‬

1-Fluency:depends on the individuals ability to produce the largest number of appropriate

responses to a particular problem throught many of the following capabilities:
‫" الطالقة الفكرية " وتعنى القدرة على توليد العديد من االفكار استجابة لمشكلة ما تمثل نتنبائج مترتببة علبى سبؤال مثبل‬
* : ‫ماذا يحدث لو لم يولد اطفال او ما هلى االستفدامات المتعددة وغير العادية للقلم الرصاص‬
" Intellectual fluency " means the ability to generate many ideas in responses to a problem
and represents the consequences of a question such as what happens if no children are born
or what are the multiple uses of pencil (*
) ‫" الطالقة الترابطية " وهى القدرة على انتاج اكبر عدد من الترابطات او الترادفات لمجموعة مبن الكلمبات مثبل‬
‫ذكببببببببببببببببر اكبببببببببببببببببر عببببببببببببببببدد ت الكلمببببببببببببببببات الرادفببببببببببببببببة لكلمببببببببببببببببة سببببببببببببببببال م‬

" Associate fluency" is the ability to produce the largest number of inter connections o
synonyms or groups of words such as synonyms of the word peace ( * )
‫" الطالقة التعبيرية " هى القدرة على كتابة العديد من الجمل التى تتكون من ارب كلمات محددة الحرو االول منها مثل‬
‫ ذ كر ارب جمل االولى تبدا بحرو ع والثانية تبدا بحرو ج والثالثة تبدا بحرو‬:
Expressive fluency is the ability to write many sentences that consist of four words, the first
letter of the first sentences with the letter K, the second letter S, and the third with the letter
C, and the fourth with the B (* )
‫والفر بين الطالقة الفكرية والطالقة التعبيرية ان االولى تولد االفكار والثانية تصيغ االفكار‬
The difference between intellectual fluency and expressive fluency is that the first generate
ideas and the second forms ideas ( * )

68 ‫ى‬
‫ فان المرونة هى القدرة على تنوي هذة‬، ‫) – " والمرونة " فى مقابل " الطالقة " التى تهتم بالقدرة على توليد االفكار‬2(
: ‫االفكار وتنقسم الى فئتين‬

(2) – In contrast to fluency which is concerned with the ability to generate ideas flexibility
is the ability to diversity these ideas and is divided two categories ;- (* )
‫" المرونة التلقائية " هى القدرة على احداث تغيير مقصود ولحل مشكلة معينة دون ان يطل ذلك التغيير مثل السؤال‬
* ‫عن االستفدامات المالوفة لالشكال مثل حقيبة السفر والكتا والكرسى والقلم الرصاص‬
Automatic flexibility is the ability to make an intended change to solve a problem without
requiring that change when the familiar use with shapes such as : a travel bag , seat chair ,
and pencil ( * )

‫"المرونة التكيفية " هى القدرة على تغيير االتجاة او زاوية التفكير عند حل مشكلة ما‬

“adaptive flexibility” is the ability to change the direction and angle of thinking to solve
problem ( *(

‫) – " االصالة " هى اهم القدرات فى التفكير االبداعى وتعنى الوصول الى انتاج جديد غير شائ ويقاس من فالل‬3(
‫ثالث محكات هى ادراك عدم الشيوع والمهارة والتداعيات البعيدة‬
(3) – Originality is the most important ability in the creative thinking which means reaching
new uncommon production measured by three criteria ; lake of popularity , skill and far
reaching implications (* )

‫) – " ادراك التفاصيل " ومعناة االثراء واالهتمام بكافة التفاصيل الضرورية الالزمة النجاز عمل ما او حل مشكلة‬4(
‫ ساعة او تحول االنسان الى شيئ غير مرئ او توقفت وسائل‬48‫او وض فطة ما مثل ك ماذا يحدث لو اصبح اليوم‬
‫االتصال عن العمل‬
Being aware of the details means getting rich and paying attention to all the details
necessary to accomplish something , solve problem , or devise a plan like ; what that
happens if the day is48 hours , or people turn into something invisible and the means of
communications stop working ( * )

: ‫اسالي تنمية التفكير االبداعى‬

“The methods of developing creative thinking are Generated alternatives , challenging
assumptions and brain storms “ ( * )
-)1( generated alternatives ‫" اسلو توليد البدائل " هو تفكير منطقى يبحث فية الفرد عن الوصول الى اكبر عدد‬
‫من البدائل وليس افضلها اثناء التعامل م المشكالت بهدو التحرر من من قسوة االنماط وجمودها وتصلبها وال يتوقو‬
‫عندما يصل الى افضل بديل من وجهة نظر‬

(1)- It is logical thinking in which the individual searches for access to the largest number of
alternatives not the best during the problems solving , with a view to freedom from the
rigidity of patterns , and does, not stop when he comes to the best alternative from the point
of view ( * )
Examples the description of geometric shape . letter description L in English or its
compositions
" ‫ " اسلو تحدى االفتراضات‬-)2(
(2)-Challenging assumptions
‫هو احد اسالي التفكير االبداعى الذى يعتمد على تفطى الفرد االفتراضات السائدة والمعلومات المعطاة فى حل‬
‫المشكالت عن طريق اعادة فحص الموقو وتفطى هذة الحدود ومحاولة اعادة تشكيل االنماط ليتوصل الى افضل‬
‫استفدام للمعلومات المتاحة‬

69 ‫ى‬
(2)-It is one of the methods of innovative thinking that depends on the individual surpassing
assumptions and information cover by the way to reexamine the situation and try to reshape
patterns in order to reach the best use of information when solving problems
Examples
*-using geometric shapes to create a new shape that facilities a recipe (*)
*-how to get between the nine points using four straight lines without raising pen (*)

" ‫ " اسلو العصو الذهنى‬-)3(

“Brainstorm “
‫م بهدو الفصل الصناعى بين انتاج االفكار من جهة‬1938 ‫هو احد اسالي التفكير االبتكارى الذى اسسها اوزبورن عام‬
‫ " االولى " يتم فيها توضيح المشكلة وتحليل عناصرها الولية وتبوي هذة‬: ‫وتقويمها من جهة افرى وفقا لمراحل ثالثة‬
" ‫العناصر وت صنيفها " والثانية " يوضح فيه مدير الجلسة للمشتركين كيفية العمل والسلوك المطلو الذى يلتزموا بة‬
‫والثالثة " يتم فيها تقويم االفكار وافتبارها وتنقيتها من فالل المشاركين باعتبار ان هذة االفكار تكون منتقاة ومفيدة فى‬
‫حل المشكلة بسهولة ويسر وتجم بين افكار من مجاالت متعددة كما هو فى حالة تصميم ملعقة شاى او عملة معدنية او‬
‫سقو جديد للمساكن والمصان او تصميم مساحة جديدة للزجاج االمامى للسيارة‬

*It is one oh the innovative thinking methods that OSBORN founded in1938ad (*)
*with the aim of industrial separation between the production of ideas on the one hand and
their evolution on the other hand according to three stages ( * )
*The first- in which the problem is clarified and the primary elements are analyzed (*)
*and the second in which the moderator for subscribers how to work with the behavior
required which is comments to (*)
*finally the third stage in which ideas are evaluated , tested , refined and selected by the
participants as useful ideas in solving the problem easily and combines multiple areas as it
is in the case of designing a teaspoon coin or new roofs for housing and factories in front of
the ca (* )

----------------------------

70 ‫ى‬
‫‪71‬‬ ‫ى‬