The success of instruction greatly depends on the nature of the learning processes

that are taking place in the classroom. To enable the teachers to conduct learning
processes that will ensure effective instruction, they should be informed about the
nature of the learning cycle, levels of learning, and alternative approaches to learning.
The principles/guidelines of learning will also help teachers in planning, executing and
evaluating student learning. These concepts shall be discussed in this module to
equip the teachers with the knowledge of content, strategies and skills needed during
the learning processes that are taking place in the classroom.

Educators are aware that the most important thing that students should learn in
school is" how to learn". Teaching students how to learn is not easy. Teachers need to
be equipped with knowledge and understanding abilities and skills coupled with great
determination in developing learning processes that will enhance instruction in the
classroom. The learning processes need to develop higher order thinking skills
( HOTS) considering that learning is a consequence of thinking. During the learning
process, students develop new insights and understanding which are translated into
behavior-enhanced instruction.

Teachers need to become familiar with different alternative forms of learning. Using
various approaches to learning with accompanying theoretical design invites students
to learn properly and judiciously.

1. What then are the 6 alternative approaches to learning? Describe each.

The six alternative approaches to learning are:

1. Authentic Learning
2. Mastery Learning
3. Experiential Learning
4. Observational Learning
5. Hands-on and Minds-on Learning
6. Meaningful Verbal Learning

Authentic Learning
- Educators encourage employing teaching strategies that will promote authentic
learning.
- A requisite to authentic learning is the utilization of materials drawn from various
fields of learning that will have application in the students lives.
 - Authentic learning takes place when students truly know the information and can
perform tasks consistently based on that information.
- It assures that students understand the materials and that they can use them in
real world tasks (Tileston, 2004).
- Used to distinguish between the achievement of significant, meaningful, and
useful knowledge and skills from those that are trivial and unrelated to students'
lives (Eby & Martin,2001).

Mastery Learning
- Allows students to progress at their own rate, particularly in a unit of study.
- They believe that students can learn if the task fits their aptitude and they are
given sufficient time to master the new skill or concept.
- The theoretical model for mastery learning was inspired by John Caroll’s (1963)
observation that students with low aptitude for a particular subject could still
learn that subject, although it will take them more time to do so.
- By and large, students have different learning rates rather than different ability
levels.
- Allows students to actively learn new materials and skills on a continuous basis.
- Teachers assume that motivation to achieve is increased because students work
at their own pace and have the prerequisite skills necessary for success.
- Likewise, since testing is done individually and opportunities are provided to
repeat what they did not learn, students suffer less embarrassment when making
mistakes.
- The effective goal of mastery learning programs is to help students become
independent and self-directed learners (Eby, Herrell, & Jordan,2006).

Experiential Learning
- This form of learning is based on three assumptions (johnson & Johnson, 1994):
(1) that learners learn best when they are personally involved in the learning
experience
(2) that knowledge has to be discovered by the learners themselves if it is to
mean anything to them; and
(3) that a commitment to learning is highest when learners are free to set
their own learning goals and actively pursue them within a given
framework.
- Car Rogers (1994) expounds that experiential learning addresses the needs and
wants of the learners.
- To Rogers, all human beings have a natural propensity to learn.
- With this in mind, teachers need to set a positive climate for learning; clarify the
learning process of the learners; make available the learning resources; balance
 the intellectual and emotional components of learning; and share feelings and
thoughts with learners.
- Rogers further states that learning is facilitated when students participate
completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction.

Observational Learning
- Also called Social Learning.
- According to Albert Bandura (1986), its main tenet is that one can learn a lot by
watching others.
- He maintains that for observational learning to be effective, learners must attend
to someone’s behavior, retain what they have observed, imitate or reproduce the
behavior they saw, and experience reinforcement or satisfaction as a
consequence.
- Learners are most likely to model after persons who are somewhat like
themselves and whom they perceive as competent, warm, or powerful
(Cruickshank, Bainer, & Metcalf,1999).
- Arends (2004) posits that much of what humans learn come through the
observation of others through a three-step process as:

a. The learner has to pay attention to critical aspects of what is to be

learned.
b. The learner has to retain or remember the behavior.
c. The learner must be able to reproduce or perform the behavior.

Hands-on and Minds-on Learning

- When students are made to process information using hands-on and mind-on
learning, they are learning by doing and are thinking about what they are learning
or doing.
- Virtually, this approach to learning helps students construct and reconstruct their
perceptions about an activity by engaging in questioning, thereby turning the
learner’s mind on.
- Simply put, hand-on and minds-on learning develop the questioning skills of the
learners by devising ways and means of investigating satisfactorily.
- However, there are instances where students simply answer questions.
- Kellough emphasizes the two-fold instructional tasks of teachers, which are

(1) to plan hand-on experiences, providing the materials and the supportive
environment necessary for students meaningful exploration and
discovery; and
(2) to know how to facilitate the most meaningful and longest-lasting learning
 possible once the learner’s mind has been engaged by hands-on learning
(Kellough, 2003).

Meaningful Verbal Learning

- This form of learning refers to the acquisition of ideas considering that at any
point, a learner has an existing “organization”and clarity of knowledge in a
particular subject mother field (Ausubel, 1963).
- This organization which Ausubel calls the cognitive structure determines the
learner’s ability to deal with some new ideas and relationships.
- More importantly, meaning can emerge from new materials only if they tie into
existing cognitive structures of prior learning (Arends, 2004)
- Occurs when the ideas in a new schema are connected not only to each other,
but also to previously established schemas.
- It involves the study of how new information can be most effectively organized,
structured, and taught so that it might be used in problem solving situations
(Eggen & Kauchak, 2001).

2. What are the 3 educational goals and the 3 learning Domains? Discuss each.

Educational goals address three learning domains, namely, cognitive, affective,

and psychomotor. Each learning domain needs to be addressed appropriately in
planning instruction.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) explain the significance of the three learning domains
as follows:

1. Cognitive domain
- center on the intellectual growth of the individual.
- They include the acquisition of basic skills such as reading, writing, and
mathematics, as well as higher-order goals, such as the ability to solve
problems, identify relationships, examine cause and effect, and other
abilities described as understanding.
- The goals that address the development of the students intellect and
understanding are in the cognitive domain.

2. Affective domain
- considers a student’s self-concept, personal growth, and emotional
development.
 - It deals with students' attitudes and values.
- Teachers who work in this area focus on helping students understand who
they are, and diagnose and find solutions to personal and social problems.

3. Psychomotor domain
- learning is concerned with the development of muscular skill and
coordination.

3. What are the levels of learning? Explain each.

Levels of Learning

A. Cognitive Domain

Level 1: Knowledge (refers to the simple recall or recognition of previously-learned materials)

Level 2: Comprehension (the first level of understanding)

Level 3: Application (entails putting learned information to use in reaching a solution or

accomplishing a task)

Level 4: Analysis (breaking down complex material into its component parts so it can be
better explained)

Level 5: Synthesis (occurs when components are combined to form a new whole)

Level 6: Evaluation (giving judgment to the value of materials or ideas)

B. Affective Domain

Level 1: Receiving (being aware of and willing to attend freely to stimuli and messages in the
environment)

Level 2: Responding (requires active participation; freely attends to stimuli and voluntarily
responds to those stimuli)

Level 3: Valuing (refers to voluntarily giving worth to an idea, a phenomenon, or a stimulus)

Level 4: Organization (refers to building an internally consistent value system; the individual
takes on value positions and is willing to defend them)

Level 5: Characterization by a value or value complex (the person displays individuality and
self-reliance)

C. Psychomotor Domain

Level 1: Fundamental Movement (those that form the basic building block for the higher level
movements. Example: the ability to track objects, grasp objects, or crawl and walk.

Level 2: Generic Movement (the ability to carry out the basic rudiments of a skill when given
directions and under supervision; at this level, effective motor patterns, turning, and
coordination are being developed and referred.)

Level 3: Ordinate Movement (marks the competence in performing a skill ably and
independently. Conscious effort is no longer needed; the skill has been mastered and
there is precision of performance.)

Level 4: Creative Movement (calls for the ability to produce and compose, which serves the
personal purposes of the performer)
4. What is the three-phase learning cycle?

Three-Phase Learning Cycle

- Guides teachers in understanding the conceptual development of lessons that is
anchored on Piaget’s theory of learning.

5. What are the 4 classification of learning styles?

Classification of Learning Styles

1. Imaginative Learner
2. Analytic Learner
3. Common Sense Learner
4. Dynamic Learner

6. What are the 10 principles/guidelines of learning?

Principles/Guidelines of Learning
(Stephen F. Foster, 1986)
 1. Learning by doing is good advice.
2. One learns to do what one does.
3. The amount of reinforcement necessary for learning is relative to the students
needs and abilities.
4. The principle of readiness is related to the learners stage of development and
their previous learning.
5. The students’ self-concept and beliefs about their abilities are extremely
important.
6. Teachers should provide opportunities for meaningful and appropriate practice
(rehearsal).
7. Transfer of learning to new situations can be horizontal (across subject matter)
or vertical (increased complexity of the same object).
8. Learning should be goal-directed and focused.
9. Positive feedback, realistic praise, and encouragement are motivating factors in
the teaching-learning process.
10. Metacognition is an advanced cognitive process.

7. What are the 4 principles of social learning/Observational learning?

Principles of Social Learning /Observational Learning

(Albert Bandura, 1986)

1. Use strategies to gain students’ attention.

2. Ensure that observation is not too complex.
3. Link new skills to students’ prior knowledge.
4. Ensure a positive attitude toward the new skill, so students will be motivated to
reproduce or use the new behavior.

8. What are the 5 guidelines to follow student interest and Learning styles

Guidelines to Follow Student Interest and Learning Style

(Paul R. Burden and David M. Byrd, 2003)
 1. Build assignments around students’ interests.
2. Tailor instruction to take advantage of the student’s strongest learning modality.
3. Use various forms of instructional materials to reduce the need to learn only
printed materials.
4. Let students do extra credit work in areas of interest.
5. Discuss the students’ occupational plans and help them see that academic skills
are required in those occupations.

9. What are the 7 cognitivists' guiding principles to gain and hold learners' attention?

Cognitivists’ Guiding Principles to Gain and Hold Learners’ Attention

(Donald R. Cruickshank, Deborah L. Bainer, and Kim K. Metcalf, 1995)

1. Learning experiences should be pleasant and satisfying as possible.

2. Whenever possible, lessons should take into account the interests and needs of
students.
3. The attention of learners can be gained and held longer by making use of
different sensory channels and through movement.
4. Learners can attend for only so long, and they differ in their abilities to attend.
5. Since it is easier to maintain attention when learners are alert, schedule work that
requires intense concentration during the morning and work that may be more
intrinsically interesting and/or may require less concentration in the afternoon.
6. Distractions interfere with attention.
7. Learners can attend to only so much information at any one time.
10. What are the 9 basic principles of classroom instruction and learning?

Basic Principles of Classroom Instruction and Learning

(Richard D. Kellough and Noreen G. Kellough, 2003)
1. Although students differ in their styles of learning and their learning capacities,
each can learn.
2. Learning is most meaningful and lasting when it is connected to real life
experiences.
3. No matter what else you are prepared to teach, you are primarily a teacher of
literacy and thinking, social, and learning skills.
4. Physical activity enhances learning. It is advisable that every lesson include, to
some degree, activities involving the kinesthetic learning modality.
5. Students must be actively involved in their own learning and in the assessment of
 their learning.
6. Students need constant, understandable, positive, and reliable feedback about
their learning.
7. Students should be engaged in both independent study and cooperative learning,
and give and receive tutorial instruction.
8. To a great degree, it is the mode of instruction that determines what is learned
and how well it is learned.
9. You must hold high expectations for the learning of each student (but not
necessarily identical expectations for every student) and not waiver from those
expectations.

Submitted by:

Vanessa D. Arañez