Relative Age Dating

Comparative Records of Time

• Nature of the rock record
• principles of stratigraphy:
• deposition, succession, continuity and correlation
• Stratigraphic tools
• biological succession of life: biostratigraphy
• magnetic reversals: magnetostratigraphy
• progression of sedimentary rocks from
changes in sea level: sequence stratigraphy
• temporal excursions and sequential changes in
chemical characteristics: chemostratigraphy
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Principles of Stratigraphy

Depositional Succession 100 years

• Sedimentary rocks of sediment

• deposited as beds or
horizons in rock units
• record and preserve continuous erosion for renewed
deposition 50 years deposition
depositional events
• beds often discontinuous unconformity

• beds can be eroded or lost 150 year gap

• result: a gap in the 150 years =

temporal record known as 100 years lost
+ 50 years of resultant
an unconformity or hiatus erosion rock record

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 Unconformities: Grand Canyon

Characteristic Features
• Distinct change in rock type,
age, orientation “great”
or structure unconformity

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Principles of Stratigraphy

Laws Governing Stratigraphic Relationships

• Superposition
• relative ages from sequence of rock deposition
• Initial Horizonality
• orientation of beds when deposited
• Lateral Continuity
• spatial correlation of individual
horizons and rock units
• Cross-Cutting Relationships
• sequence of events record in
rock relationships Nicolaus Steno

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 Law of Superposition

Order of Layered Units youngest

• Definition: layer
oldest
• A rock unit is younger layer
than the one below
and older than the
one above
• Stratigraphic Column
• temporal succession of rock
units
• deposition not necessarily
continuous, but sequential
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Law of Initial Horizontality

Contraints on Original Orientation

• Sediments are deposited as horizontal beds
• Principle applies to sedimentary rocks formed in
an aqueous environment
Grand Canyon: horizontal strata

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 Law of Initial Horizontality

Evidence of Deformation
• Non-horizontal sedimentary rocks
• Modified by post-depositional
events, e.g. folding
folded
rock units

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Law of Lateral Continuity

Spatial Relationships
• Sediments form as
continuous layers
• Individual horizons
or layers thin or end
only when the
environment of
deposition changes
• Enables correlation
of beds with specific
Correlation of
characteristics rock units

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 Cross-Cutting Relationships

Event Sequence younger intrusive rocks

• Younger units
cross-cut older
units
eroded surface
• erosion surfaces (C; unconformity)

• intrusions fossiliferous
sedimentary
• unconformities rocks (D;
horizontal)
Recorded Sequence of Events:
1. Deposition of fossiliferous sediments (A)
2. Folding (deformation) of A igneous deformed
3. Intrusion of igneous rock (B) intrusion fossiliferous
4. Erosion to create surface (C) (B) sedimentary
5. Deposition of fossiliferous sediments (D) rocks (A)

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Stratigraphic Correlation

Columns H?
• Sequential order of G’/H’?
G
deposition determined
F
by correlation of E

separate, related E D F

stratigraphic records
• Unconformities may C’
C” C

be recognized,
B
uncertainties may hiatus
persist A

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 Stratigraphic Methods

Biostratigraphy
• Relative ages determined from fossil assemblages
• Biotic changes are a function of extinctions and
evolutionary processes
• Datums record timing of biotic changes
• first appearances
and last appearances Site A
Site B

• age-dependent
characteristics
• boundaries calibrated
by absolute ages
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Biostratigraphy

Temporal youngest
Records of layer
oldest
Life layer

• Recognition
of species
unique to
particular
time
intervals
• Index
fossils
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 Stratigraphic Methods

Magnetostratigraphy
• Approach based on intermittent, irregular reversal
of the polarity of Earth’s magnetic field
• Rocks record field at time of formation (cooling)
magnetic
axis

N N
tic
magne
equator

S S

axis of rotation

Normal Polarity Reversed Polarity

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Stratigraphic Methods
Magnetostratigraphy
• Magnetic signals preserved in stratigraphic
sections show alternating sequence of polarity
• Series of polarity
shifts:
normal
• normal (modern)
• reversed (opposite)
• Polarity intervals are: reversed

• independent of
lithology
• of varying duration

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 Stratigraphic Methods

Magnetostratigraphy
• Sequence of polarity normal

reversals recognized
• major intervals reversed

• minor intervals
• require excellent
stratigraphic resolution minor

• Globally uniform series of

time-dependent reversals
• Ages determined by
absolute dating

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Stratigraphic Methods

Magnetostratigraphy
Cretaceous Magnetic Records
• Record compiled
from multiple,
overlapping
sequences
• Correlations to
stages often
based on
biostratigraphy
• palynology -
plant remains
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Sequence Stratigraphy: Principles

Controls on the Sedimentation Process

• Sediment production and accumulation is
controlled by:
• sea level – water depth, accommodation space
• tectonic subsidence - accommodation space
• climate - weathering rates, grain production
• Cycles in these variables operate over different
time scales
• Result from multiple studies of these cycles:
• a temporal record of changes in sea level

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Sequence Stratigraphy: Principles

Parasequences
• Shallowing upward sequences
produce
defined
patterns
of
sediments
• Rock
record
indicates
shallowing

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Sequence Stratigraphy: Principles

Spatial Arrangement of Stratigraphic Units

• Lateral and vertical relationships in parasequences
• Predicable, recognizable sequences develop

landward
oceanward

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Sequence Stratigraphy: Principles

Stacking of Parasequences
• Vertical sequences record sea level change:
• Progradational: shallowing-upward
• Aggradational:
constant, static
• Retrogradational:
deepening

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Sequence Stratigraphy: Principles

Depositional Sequence
• Sequential order of characteristic elements:
• sequence boundary, lowstand systems tract, transgressive
surface, transgressive systems tract, maximum flooding
surface,
highstand
systems tract,
sequence
boundary
• Relevance:
• defines sea
level changes

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Stratigraphic Comparisons

Correlation of
Stratigraphic
Records
• Magneto-
stratigraphy
• Biostratigraphy
• Sequence
stratigraphy
• Cenozoic
• 2- 65Ma

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Stratigraphic Methods
Chemostratigraphy or Isotope Stratigraphy
• Stratigraphic variations in specific chemical or
isotopic characteristics
• stable isotopes: C (!13C), O (!18O), S (!34S)
• isotopes: (87Sr/ 86Sr)
Tarfaya,
• molecules Eastbourne,
Sussex
Pueblo, CO Morocco

• organic
matter
Excursion in !13C in
black shales across
Cenomanian/Turonian
boundary

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Chemostratigraphy: Examples

Strontium Seawater Evolution

• Changes in 87Sr/86Sr related to sources of Sr
• increasing trend for past 150Ma
87Sr/86Sr ratios
of ocean change
with Sr sources:
new crust (low)
vs. weathering
(high). Ratios can
be age diagnostic
for much of
Cretaceous (K)
and Tertiary (T)

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