Farm Machinery Design Principles and Problems D N Sharma Complete PDF

•.. -~:,,,~WJ!W,%"w r . . ,.
'
Farm Machinery Design

-Principles and Problems·
.. ·.,...., ... ,..

D.N. SHARMA
M.Sc (Canada)
Professor & Estate Officer-Cum-Superintending Engineer,
Department of Farm Power and Machinery
College ofAgricultural Engineering and Technology
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004
Haryana
S.MUKESH
M.Tech
Assistant Scientist
Department of Farm Power and Machinery
College ofAgricultural Engineering and Technn',:,gy
Chaudhary Charan Singh HaryanaAgricultural University, Hisar-125004
Hisar-125 001
Second Revised and Enlarged Edition
Pusa Agri Books Service

L\ >:i. New DelMi-12.
2010 ~:,, .. ~~ 1'i -2584 ·104'8
pus a.agrl@gmlllil.com
JAIN BROTHERS (New Delhi)

16/873, East Park Road, Karol Bagh,
NEW DELHI-110 005
Phone : (011) 23618426, 45097398
E-mail : jain_bros@holmail.com
Website : www.thejainbros.com
Published by :
SUNILKUMARJAIN
for
JAINBROTHERS(NEW DELHI)
16/873, East Park Road,
New Delhi-I 10 005
Tel: (Ol 1)23618426,45097398
Distributor for South India :

1 Sun ii Book Service
Fatima Nagar, Kazipet-506004
Phone: (0870) 2459617
E-mail : kpkulshrestha@yahoo.com
2. Mis Jain Brothers
Vidya Vihar, Pilani (Raj.)
Phone:(01596)242144
©Copyright Reserved with Authors, 2008

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher and authors both.
First Edition :2008

Second Edition : 20 l 0
~rice : Rs. 29?-.00
ISBN : 971-81 -8360-142-9
Published by Sunil Kumar Jain for Jain Brothers 16/873, East Park Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-I 10005 and
typeset by Niyati Graphics, 754/23, Khajodr Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-I 10005 and printed at G. Print
Process, Daya Basti, Delhi-I 10035.
Preface to the Second Edition
The encouraging response to the first edition of book "Fann Machinery Design- Principles and
Problems" from the user community has prompted the authors to make it more useful to the students,
field workers, design engineers and others engaged in the design of agricultural machinery to present
this second revised and enlarged edition of the text. One new chapter on design of plant protection
equipments has been added in the book. Various suggestions received from readers have been considered
and relevant additions have been incorporated especially design of rigid tyne harrow, safety devices,
ridge furrow planting machinery, groundnut digger etc. Most of the chapters have been reinforced with
additional material wherever it was felt necessary.
Authors are thankful to Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers for rewarding this book with Best
Book Award for the year 2008.
Suggestions for the improvement of the book will be highly appreciated.

D. N. Sharma
S. Mukesh
June, 2010
e-mail : dnsharma@hau.ernet.in
mukeshjainhisar@rediffmail.com ,Ir•,
Preface to the First Edition

Agricultural mechanization means more than the availability of tractors and modern equipment in
agriculture which increases agricultural production, improves the productivity and income of rural
population and attracts industry to rural areas. It is a complex subject and involves several components
such as design, development, testing, manufacturing, operation, repair and maintenance of farm
machinery. Farm mechanization is a dynamic process as the need and type of machines required
continue to undergo a change with the development of agriculture in terms of new crops variety,
cropping pattern, inputs used, availability of shift in power source, increase in the income of the
farmers as well as general development of an area. This requires a continuous use of human energy,
draft animal energy and mechanical power. Tools, equipment and simple machines are necessary to be
designed and developed for effective utilization of farm power sources.
We take immense pleasure in presenting the book entitled, Farm Machinery Design: Principles and
Problems. In teaching the farm machinery and power aspects over a number of years, the authors have
felt a great need of a book on farm machinery design written in simple language so that subject-matter
can be introduced to the students on modem machinery. The authors have tried to cover the gap in the
field of design of crop production machinery.
iv CONTENTS
This is the first book of its kind to address systematically the design problems involved in farm
machinery-offers comprehensive coverage of design principles. The book is fully illustrated with drawings
and photographs depicting working components and operational features of the machinery, and written
after more than three decades research and teaching experience in the field. It describes fundamental
princ,iples and procedures in design _of a new fam1 machine. The contents of this book are divided in
eleven chapters depicting principles of farm machinery design, constructional material, importance of
clearances and tolerances in design and production of farm machinery, design principles of power
transmission, elements of farm machines, detailed design of tillage, sowing, planting, intercultural,
harvesting, and threshing machinery. It also contains the reliability aspects of farm machinery design
which describes methods for estimating the reliability of agricultural machines and its development
during manufacturing and formulation offann machinery project report as entrepreneurial activity has
been covered in this book. Apart from basic theory and design principles a number of solved examples
have been included to solve the design problem.
An attempt has been made to deal with special subject on farm machinery design in a comprehensive
way for the students of B. Tech (Agril. Engg) and postgraduation programmes of agricultural colleges
and universities and for those aspirants appearing in various competitive examinations related to entrance
tests for higher studies or related to different services such as National Eligibility Test (NET), Graduate
Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE), Agricultural Research Services (ARS) and Indian Engineering
Services (IES) etc. This publication will not only serve the purpose of textbook, it will also spell out
the engineering principles that design engineers, manufacturers, construction personnel and technician
should consider in the design of improved crop production machinery. The book is intended for specialists
engaged in principles of soil working tools and designers for soil working machines.
During the preparation of the manuscript of this book, the authors have invited suggestions from
different sources and they have been incorporated in the book. Authors express their deep sense of
appreciation and gratitude to the faculty, colleagues and students of the College ofAgricultural Engineering
and Technology, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar for their constructive
suggestions. The authors shall be most grateful to their fellow teachers of agricultural engineering for
their frank criticisms and suggestions for further improvements.
Authors are thankful to our publisher M/s. Jain Brothers (New Delhi) for their keen interest in
publication of this book. Authors are also thankful to their family members for their patience and
continued encouragement in preparation of manuscript of this book.
September, 2008 D.N Sharma

e-mail : dnsharma@hau.emet.in S. Mukesh
mukeshjainhisar@rediffmail.com
Contents
1. Farm Machinery Design Principles ................................. 1-21

1.1. Engineering Design ......................... ..... ... ... .... ........ ... .. ... .. .. ...... ..... ..... ................. .. 1
1.2. FannMachine:ryDesign ....................................................................................... 3
1.3. Design Parameters ofFann Machinery ................................................................. 5
2. Material of Construction for Agricultural Machinery,

their Composition and Heat Treatment Process .......... 25-30
2.1. Constructional Details ofDifferent Fann Machinery ............................................. 27
3. Design of Power Transmission Components and

Systems in Agricultural Machines ................................. 31-81
3 .1. V-Belt Drives ..................................................................................................... 31
3.2. ChainDriveDesign ............................................................................................ 55
3.3. GearDriveDesign ............................................................................................... 63
3.4 Combination Drives ............................................................................................ 73
Exercise ........... ....... ..... .. ........... ..... ...... ... .... ........ .......... ....... .... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. .. .. 81
4. Design of Tillage Implements ....................................... 82-130

4 .1. Design Procedure for Mould Board Plough ........................................................ 82
4.2. Design Procedure for Disc Plough ......................... :·· .. ···.. ···· .............................. 101
4 .3. Design Procedure for Tractor Drawn Rotavators ............... ,... .... .. .... ...... ... ... ... .. 110
4 .4. Overload Protection/Safety Devices for Drive Lines ... .. ... ........... .... .. ...... .... .. ... .. 120
4.5. Design ofDisc Harrows .................................................................................... 125
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 129
5. Design of Sowing and Planting Machines ................ 131-189
5.1. Design of Seed-cum-fe1tilizer Drills ................................................................... 131
5 .1 .1. Design of manually operated seed cum fertilizer drill .................................... ................ 134
5.1.2 Design of a tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . ... . . . ... . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . 142
5.2. Design of Planters ............................................................................................. 157
5.2.1. Designofmanuallyoperatedplanters ............. ................................. ............ ................ 157
5.2.2. Design of sowing machine for ridge-furrow and flat-bed system .................................. 163
5 .2.3. Design of sugarcane cutter planter ... .............. .............................................. ................ 181
Exercise ............ .............................................................. ~..................................... 187
6. Design of lntercultural Tools and Implements ......... 190-208

6.1 Design of Wheel Hand Hoe .....................................................................~···· .... 190
6.1.l Design of Cutting Blade .............................................................. ................................ 191
6.1.1 . l. Size of cutting blade ............................................................................................. 192
6.1.1 .2. Apex angle or blade angle (2 8) ........................................................................... 193
6.12 Design oftyne ............. ................................................................ ... ............................ 193
6.1.3 Design ofhandle ...................... ... .. ............................ ................................. ................. 195
6.2. DesignofCrustBreaker ................................................................................... 196
6.2.1 Number of pegs ........................................................................................................... 198
6.2.2 Fraine .............................................. :........ ..... ................ ............. ................................. 198
6 .3 Design ofHigh Clearance Cotton Cultivator Suitable for 30 hp Tractor. .. .. .. ....... 198
6.3.l Apex angle of blade ................... ................ ................ ................................................. 203
6.3.2·· Design of shank ...... ,................................. ................................... ............................... 203
6.3.3 Design ofrigid tooth zig-zag harrow ........................................................................ ... 205
Exercise ............................................................................................................... 208
7. Design of Plant Protection Equipments ........ :.......... 209-237
7 .1.Field Capacity of Sprayers· ............................................................................... 412

7.2. Volume Application Rate (A) ............................................................................ 2 12
7.3. Nozzle Discharge Rate (D) ......,......................................................................... 212
7.4. Speed of Operator (S) ........................... .......................................................... 21 3
7.5. Spray Droplet size ............................................................................................ 2 13
7.5.1 Volume mean diameter(v.m.d.) .........................................................·······:····················· 213
7.5.2Numbermeandiameter(n.m.d.) ..................................................................................... 213
7.5.3 Optimum droplet size (m.m.d.) ....................................................................................... 213
7.5.4 Dropletdensity(No. ofdroplets/cm2) 214
..........................................................................
7.6 UniformityofSpray Application ......................................... :.............................. 214

7.7 DesignofSprayerComponents ........................................................................ 216
7.7.1 DesignofSprayerTank ................................................................................................. 216
7.7.2 Pump ............................................................................................................................. 217
7.7.3 Strainers and Screens .................................................................................................... 222
7.7.4 Design of Nozzles .......................................................................................................... 222
7.8 DesignofDusters .........................................·................................ .................... 225
7.8.l Airoutputofduster(Q) ................................................................................................ 225
7.8.20rificediameterofduster(d0 ): .. .... ........ .... .. ... . .. ....... . ................................. . .......... ... .... . 225
Exercise ........................................................................................................... 23 7
8. Design of Crop Harvesting Machines ....................... 238-304

8.1. Design ofVertical Conveyor Reaper (VCR) ...................................................... 238
8.1.1 Forces acting on cutter bar of a reaper .......................................................................... 240
8.1.2. Selection of cutting unit ofVCR ............................................................. ...................... 241
8.1.3 Design of crop lifter and divider .................................................................................... 243
8.1.4. Design of crop conveyor .............................................................................................. 244
8.1.5. Total power required for operation ofmachine (Wm) ........................................... 245
8.2 ·oesign ofCombine Harvester .. ............... ............................................. ............. 276
8.2.1. Design considerations .................................................................................................. 281
8.2.2. Design ofheader .......................................................................................................... 281
8.2.3. Design of crop conveyor ............................................................................................. 282
8.2.4. Threshing mechanism ......... ......................................................................................... 282
8.2.5. Cleaningmechanism .............................................................................. ...................... 286
8.2.6. Power requirement for combines (Wc) ............................................................. 290
Exercise ............................................ .............................................................. ..... 302
9. Design of Threshing Machines .................................. 305-316

9.1 . Design ofRasp Bar Threshers ................ ................ .......................................... 308
9.2. Design of Spike (peg) Tooth Thresher ............................................................... 311
Exercise .......................................................... ........... ..... .......................... .. .... ..... 316
10. Manufacturing Limits, Fits and Tolerances in Farm
Machi ne ry ..................................................................... 31 7-3 24
10.1. Fann Machinery Manufacturing Processes ..................................................... 317
10.2. Tolerances ............................................... ...................................................... 318
10.3. Fit ............................................................................................................... 320
Exercise ........... .................................................................................................... 324
11. Material Bill and Construction Cost in Farm

Machinery in Farm Machinery Project Design ........ 325-335
11.1. Salient Features of the Machine ....................................................................... 335
11.2. Detailed Technical Specifications ofthe Machine .............................................. 330
11.3. Project Profile ................................................................................................. 331
11 .3.1. Assumptions for manufacturing of equipment in small scale sector .......................... 331
11 .3.2. Land and building requirements ................................................................................. 331
11.3.3. Machine and tool requirements ................................................................................. 331
11.4.MaterialBill .................................................................................................... 332
11.5. DetailAnalysis ................................................................................................ 333
12. Reliability in Farm Machinery ..................................... 336-354

12.1. Definition ofReliability .................................................................................... 336
12.2.Areas ofReliability ................................ .......................................................... 336
12.3. hnpmtance ofReliability ................................................................................. 337
12.4. Tenninology Related with Reliability ................................................................ 33 8
12.5. Development ofProduct Reliability .................................................................. 343
12.6. System Reliability ............................................................................................ 346
12.7. QualityofFannMachines ............................................................................... 353
Appendices ............................................................................................ 355-378
Appendix- I: Fann Machinery Design Projects ....................................................... 355
Appendix-II: ListofTables ................................................................................... 357
Index .......................................................................................................... 379-399
CHAPTER 1
Farm Machinery Design
Principles
1.1. ENGINEERING DESIGN

Engineering design is the process of devising system, component, or process to meet desired needs for
the satisfaction of human being. In other words it is the process of applying the various techniques and
scientific principles for the purpose of defining a device, a process, or a system in sufficient detail-to
permit its realization. It is a decision making process in which basic sciences, mathematics, and engi-
neering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. The main ele-
ments of engineering design process are listed below:
Establish objectives and criteria

Synthesis
Analysis
Construction
Testing
Evaluation
Engineering design process: In early stages of design process the designer uses his ingenuity and
imaginative thinking power for definition and understanding the design problem as shown in Table 1.1
and Fig. 1.1. ·
Table 1.1: Engineering design process
Steps Process Steps Process
l. Understand the problem 6. Develop details- construction
_I 2. Gather information 7. Test the solution
3. Analyze- Establish objectives and criteria 8. Finished design- evaluation
4. Synthesize solution- analysis 9. Modify solution
5. Select the best solution I 0. Understand the modified problem
2 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
Understand the problem
Modify solution Gather information
Finished design
Test the solution Synthesize solution
Develop details Select the best solution
Fig. l.1: Engineering design process

Engineering design procedure: In engineering design process the designer is creator and decision
maker. The judgement in decision-making is one 9f the most vital characteristics of good designer. The
deign process and procedure adopted by the designer is given in Table 1.2.
Table 2.1: Engineering design process and procedure
Step Process Procedure
I. Identify need Ill defined and vague statement of problem.
2. Background Fully define and understand problem.
3. Goal Reasonable and realistic statement of what is needed.
4. Tasks Description of functions or what needs to be done (not how) and
scope is limited.
5. Synthesis Identification and invention step.
How tasks are to be met?
Put together many alternative designs or solutions.
.6. Analysis Carry out actual analysis of the problem and solutions.
7. Selection Select the best solution.
8. Detailed design Calculation and prediction of modes and conditions of failure of each
element, designing of element to prevent failure, calculation of stresses
and deflections under static and dynamic loadings. Preparation of de-
tailed specifications and drawings.
9. Prototyping and testing Development of prototype based on designed parameters and its lab
and field performance testing.
10. Production Actual production of the designed machine
FARM MACHINERY DESIGN PRINCIPLES 3
The difference between scientific method and design method is as follow~:

Scientific method Design method
Existing knowledge State of art
Scientific curiosity Identification of need
Hypothesis Conceptualization
Logical analysis Feasibility analysis
Proof Production/implementation
1.2. FARM MACHINERY DESIGN

The creation of appropriate farm machinery that works safely, reliably and well under actual field
conditions on the farm. It concerns with the mechanisms required to convert the output of machines to
the desired fonn. The design may lead to entirely a new machine or an improvement over the existing
machine. Thus, farm machinery design is creation of right combination of correctly proportional mov-
ing and stationary components so constructed and joined together to perfonn desired fann operations
with the help of power sources e.g. human, animal, mechanical (tractor, engine or power tiller).
Goal in farm machinery design: Size and shape of parts, selection of appropriate material, selec-
tion of appropriate manufacturing processes for the development of farm machines.
Farm machinery design involves:

l. Calculation and prediction of modes and conditions of failure of each element, designing of
element to prevent failure.
2. Predicting failure: Calculation of stresses and deflections under static (forces, torques, mo-
ments) and dynamic (inertial, time dependent) loadings.
3. Analysis: To decompose and resolve the machine assembly into constituent parts.
4. Selection: Selection of most promising solution for more detailed analysis.
5. Detailed design: Determine loading, draw free body diagram, select failure criterion, select
factor of safety which is the ratio of two quantities of same units i.e. strength/stress, critical
load-applied load, maximum cycles/applied cycles, size of the element. Completion of final
details of engineering drawings, vendor identification, manufacturing specifications etc.
6. Prototyping and testing: Construction of working model of fann machine.
7. Production: Construction in quantity-manufacturing.
8. Iteration: Development of successful designs of fann machines require moving backward
and forward among all these steps in all possible combinations.
Currently, the anola pricking is being carried out primarily by hand methods. Fruits are small and the
process is slow resulting in high cost. Mechanical machines are not available.
Solutiou:
Goal statement:
Statement-I
Develop a machine to mechanically prick the anola fruits.
Goal: Prick fruit.
Functional requirement: Uniform pricking of anola fruits.
Statement-2
Establish criteria for mechanically pricking of anola.
Goal: Define anola fruit properties (physical and mechanical)
Functional Requirement: Pricking of anola fruit for preservation and value addition.
Physical properties
• Size range of fruits.
• Shape of fruits.
• Maximum and minimum dimensions.
• Colour.
• Surface texture.
Results from physical properties
• Anola fruits could be grouped according to several size classifications.
• Dimensional measurements show variation in..size.
• Anola had a consistent stable position orientation due to shape.
Results from mechanical properties
• Mechanical properties: Force-pricking tests.
• Force required for proper pricking of fruits.
• Penetration of needles required in the fruits.
Tests
• Test different sizes of anola.
• Test for different fruit orientations.
• Test for different load application rates.
Results from quantifying mechanical 1properties
• Pricking occun-ed when operating lever was pressed fully.
• Rate of loading did not affect pricking quality.
• Maximum force required to prick the fruits.

• Maximum length of needles required.
Establishing design criterion leads to solutions
• Data provided basis for selecting methods to prick anola.
• Selected dual half spherical cells for testing.
• Dimensional data provide information for setting space between pricking needles.
• The dual half spherical shells were placed above each other to provide for different spacing
between different fruits sizes and loading of anola fruits.
Examples of Farm Machinery Design Problems
1. Design of multipurpose ridge-furrow and flat bed crop seeding machine.
2. Design of animal drawn Vertical Conveyer Reaper.
3. Manually operated paddy seeder.
4. Ber plucking hand tool.
5. Manually operated multipurpose hand tool carrier.
6. Manually operated fertilizer broadcaster.
7. Automated plant table handling for large commercial vegetable nursery farm.
8. Dust recovery at a seed processing plant.
9. Manually operated cotton seed acid delinting plant.
10. Irrigation system design for demonstration farm at KVKs.
1.3. DESIGN PARAMETERS OFFARM MACHINERY
A farm machinery design engineer must consider
,.· the following factors before designing a machine:
I . Power requirement of machine and source of power availability.
2. Functional requirements of machine and its interrelationship of various components.
3. Optimum expected life of the machine: working life 2000 hours.
4. Strength requirements of its various components.
5. Material substitution and selection based on analysis of forces, market availability of raw
materials.
6. Wear characteristics of various components.
7. Ease of operation of various components of a machine.
8. Reliability of components and the machine.
9. Possibility of designing a multipurpose machine combining more than one function into a single
machine.
10. Cost of machine and farmer's paying capacity.
11 . Economy commensurating with its quality.
12. Ease of operation and adjustment of machine and its maintenance.
13. Safety aspects.
14. Human factors in design.

15. Aesthetic appeal and durability of the machine.
I 6. Cultural requirements of the community for exportable produce.
17. Suggestions and feedbacks from the users.
18. Other competitive product in the market.
The design offarm machine differs from other machines

I. A farm machine should be capable of performing its function under a variety of conditions. The
variation in conditions may be due to geographical location of field, crop growth and season,
specific needs of farmer, farm size and production trends of the machine. The design of crop
production machines and particularly the methods of their control and adjustments should be
adequately simple. The machines should be easy to operate, reliable in action and precise in
function.
2. The normal life expectancy of a farm machine is about 2000 hours of use. Many machines are
used only for a few hours in a year i.e. sowing/planting machinery. The designer should aim at
lowest cost of construction of the machine.
3. A farm machine comes to work rather work coming to machines. Most of farm machines per-
fonn various functions in motion mostly on uneven or bumpy grounds e.g. rotavators, combine
harvester, vertical conveyer reapers, root crop harvesters etc.
4. Safety: Proper engineering design of agricultural machines can reduce the number of accidents
on the farm. For safety of operator sharp corners and edges near the path of operator should be
properly shielded or eliminated. Steps for climbing to operator's platform for the purpose of
inspection, lubrication or adjustments should be provided with handholds and non-skid. The
controls of the machine should be well within easy reach of operator and should require minimum
efforts to avoid dangerous slips or tiredness. The springs should have adequate provisions for
release of energy before their removal during tepair and maintenance. The warning signs should
be displayed prominently to discourage the clogging of machine while its components are rotat-
ing. Moreover, reversing controls operable from operator's seat should be provided in the ma-
chine.
5. Majority of agricultural machinery manufacturers have volume of production less than 5000 units
per year that makes economic design d ifferent from the other machines.
6. Human factors in farm machinery design: Several environmental. variables and machine pa-
rameters can materially affect a person's performance while operating a machine in actual field
conditions. Some of these factors are:
I . Air temperature, humidity and purity.
2. Noise level.
3. Vibration.
4. Seat design.
5. Arrangement of work space.

6. Placement of controls and instruments.
7. The shape and coding of controls.
8. The amount of physical efforts required for controls and overall visibility of machine com-
ponents and functions that needs to be watched.
Equipment designed with proper application of human factor principles can lead to following per-
formance results:
• Increased efficiency and productivity.
• Increased reliability.
• Improved safety.
• Decreased operator's efforts.
• Improved flexibility.
• Increased comfort and better operator and consumer occupancy.
Standardization and location of controls improve both convenience and safety of operator. Power
steering on self-propelled heavy machinery and self-propelled combines and powered controls for ma-
chine adjustments minimize the physical efforts needed to operate the machine and ultimately reduce
operator's fatigue.
Visibility is an important consideration in designing self-propelled machines such as grain combines,
high clearance sprayer. The d,esigner should determine which parts of the machine and surroundings the
operator needs to see, the frequency and degree of visibility required in each situation. The instruments
should be located in such a way that those most frequently observed required the least amount of
transfer of vision from the normal line of sight.
Use of enclosed cabs on grain combines, some other self-propelled machines and tractors ~re the
latest innovations of improving operator's comfort. These cabs provide partial isolation from noise.
Moreover, comfo11able seat designs reduce the effect of vibrations and bumpy field conditions.
7. Draft and power requirements: The draft and power requirements of farm machinery vary
from one farm to another farm and on the same farm from location to location, season to season
and from year to year. However, common ranges available from literature c~n be used. Starting
inertia and velocity fluctuations in PTO drives line and clogging may cause power peaks of
several times the average requirements.
8: Design of frames of farm machines: The frame of farm machines must be as light as possible
to reduce cost, soil compaction and propelling power but strong enough to resist the shocks due
to rough fields or obstacles. Tubes or closed box sections are strongest for their weight and arc
welding of connecting members makes it possible to take full advantage of their strength in both
torsion and bending. They serve well as' a central frame member to which various functional
arms, axle brack~ts, hitch pivots etc. can be attached e.g. M:B plough, Disc plough, Seed-cum-
fertilizer drills etc. Cold drawn steel tubing is usually stronger for its size than pipe, even with the
FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
same composition of steel, because of effects of cold working. Light frame construction leads to
considerable deflection and thereby self-aligning bearings are necessary. It is difficult to predict
functional forces on frames of farm machines in advance. However, with field experience stresses
due to weight arrived may be calculated with reasonable accuracy.
Design Features/Considerations of Farm Machines

The designed machine should have following impo1tant features for its satisfactory performance at
the user level:
I. The farm machine should make/efficient use of power source.
2. It should make efficient use of human power in doing work:
(i) Minimum number of man should be required for operation .
(ii) Minimum of time loss obtained by designing controls and adjustments, freedom from clog-
ging.
(iii) Minimum chances of accidents.
3. The quality of work done by the machine should be best possible with minimum cost.
4. The machine should have parts of adequate strength.
5. The machine should have correct, easily workable and machineable and cheaper; minimum of
material.
6. Fewer pa1ts should be used to reduce cost and complexity of the machine.
7. Standard and interchangeable parts should be used as far as possible.
8. The construction of the machine should be simple to ave1t least complication in• manufacturing.
9. It sho,uld offer resistance to mechanical wear due to friction:
(i) Bearings of proper load and capacity should be provided.
(ii) Dirt should be excluded from bearings and gears.
(iii) The wearing parts of the machine should be made of wear resistant material.
(iv) It should have facility for easy and adequate lubrication.
10. It should offer resistance to chemical deterioration. The components of the machine should be
made of corrosion resistant materials or protective coatings or treatments for vulnerable parts
should be used.
11. The machine should be provided with appropriate safety devices.
12. Lt should have low cost of repair:
(i) Existing components should be preferred.
(ii) There should be adjttstinents to compensate for wear in the components.
(iii) The machine should be designed to permit for easy replacement of worn out parts.
(iv) There should be provision for exchange of worn out assemblies.
1.4 MODERN FARM MACHINERY
Bullock drawn disc harrow

It is a single acting gang type disc harrow suitable
for secondary tillage operation. The harrow is
provided with an operator's seat and a transport
wheel which aids in easy transportation. The
operator's seat enables the operator to ride instead
of walking, which helps in deeper penetration and
reduce drudgery.
Mould board plough

It is used for primary tillage operation. It cuts trash
and buries it completely. It is also used for turning
green manure crop for decaying under the soil, which
adds humus to the soil.
Reversible Mould Board Plough

With this plough, ploughing can be done without
formation ofridges (back furrow) or hallows (dead
furrow or valley). Thus, the layout of the field is not
disturbed and unidirectional ploughing (putting the
furrow slice on one direction of the field) can be
achieved.
Disc plough
It is used for primary tillage and is especially useful
in hard and dry, trashy, stony or stumpy land
conditions and in soil where scouring is a major
problem.
Tractor mounted subsoiler

It is used to break hardpan ofthe soil, loosening ofthe
soil and helps the water to seep into the soil for
improving drainage. A mole ball can be attached to
create a small tunnel in the soil, which serves as
drainage channel for water.
Plough harrow (Power harrow)

This equipment is similar to rotavator but the blades
rotate in vertical direction. The depth of penetration
is midway between a primary tillage implement like
mould board plough and secondary tillage implement
like disc harrow. That- is-why, the name plough
harrow is given to this equipment.
Tractor mounted offset disc harrow

It is used for secondary tillage operation. This
harrow can be offset to the right or left, thus enabling
soil to be thrown towards or away from the trees. It is
ideal for field disking, especially in orhards,
plantations and vineyard. It is suitable for working
under close to bunds and fence posts
Spring loaded cultivator

Cultivators are used for seedbed preparation both in
dry and wet soils. It is also used for interculturing
purpose by adjusting the tynes in wider row crops. It
is also used for puddling purpose. The purpose of the
springs is to save the cultivator tynes from breaking
when some hard objects comes in contact with the
shovel orunder the tyne.
Rigid tyne cultivator

It is used for loosening and aerating the soil and
preparing seed beds quickly and economically. It is
useful for subsoil cultivation and also eliminates the
use ofplough even for hard soils.
Cultivator with pulverizing roller

Pulverizing roller is used as an attachment to the
commercially available cultivator. It is used for
puddling as well as dry seedbed preparation in two
runs, and creates good puddle.
Laser land leveller

It is used for precision levelling. It consists of bucket
scraper operated by hydraulic system of the tractor,
laser transmitter, laser receiver and hydraulic control
unit. The cost of this unit as on 2008-09 is about Rs.3
lakhs.
:1
il
II Tractor bund former

I: It is used for making bunds in the field. This
I'
' implement is mounted type and operated in tilled
soil. The bund former consists of mild steel angle
iron frame, hitch system and two discs.
Tractor drawn sp_iked clod crusher

It is used as a combination tillage tool with tractor
1
drawn harrow or cultivator. It is suitable for breaking
t,•:
and segregation of clods for seed bed preparation
after paddy harvest.
Bullock drawn puddler

It is a rectangular blade type puddler suitable for
puddling operation under wet land condition. The
blades on the implement rotate and impart a lateral
and turning action on the soil particles, thus
achieving a good puddle.
Tractor mounted rotary puddler

It is a puddler with inclined blade suitable for
puddling operation with the help oftractor.
Tractor operated rotavator

It is suitable for preparing seedbed in a single pass
both in dry and wet land conditions. It is also
suitable for incorporation of straw and green manure
in the field. It consists of a steel frame, a rotary shaft
on which blades are mounted, power transmission
system and gearbox.
,
.
Manual paddy seeder

It is manual pull type implement useful for sowing
pre-germinated paddy in puddled fields. The seeder
is capable of sowing 8-rows at 200 mm row to row
spacing. It has a lugged ground wheel and two skids.
The pre-germinated paddy seeds are kept in four
drums which have peripheral openings at two ends
for seed discharge.
Manual paddy transplanter

It is a manually operated equipment suitable for
transplanting mat type paddy seedling in puddled
soils in six rows.
Self-propelled paddy transplanter

It is used for transplanting of mat type paddy nursery
in the puddled field in eight rows. It is self propelled
r
?: !.!if' §}f_;r) ,_ i i riding type machine fitted with diesel engine. It
...(;_;Y consists of a float which facilitates the transplanter to
-~,.
-~.. . I.
slide over the puddle surface.
Tractor drawn ridger

It is used for making furrows and ridges for
sugarcane, cotton, potato and other row crops. The
ridger body consists of two mould boards, share point
and tie bars to vary the wingspan of ridgers. The
ridger is operated in tilled soil by a tractor, the share
point penetrates in the soil, ridger body displaces the
soil to both sides and a furrow is created.
Zero till seed cum fertilizer drill

Zero till seed cum fertilizer drills are used for sowing
wheat crop in unprepared field after harvesting of
paddy. The main difference between zero till and
conventional seed drills is that it has narrow shovels
known as inverted T-type furrow openers instead of
hoe type furrow openers.
Tractor mounted ridger seeder

It is a tractor drawn implement which forms ridges
and furrows and carries out sowing either on the
ridge, a side of the ridge or in the furrows as desired.
For kharif crops seeding is done on the ridge in paired
row system and for rabi crops seeding is done in deep
furows. It is suitable for planting raya, gram and
bajra seeds.
:;*' m"' ~otT'~~~~-c'~~-=· ~- - - -
·--.:,.:.::: :;.=_:\(·.·
-:~: . FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
16
Multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill

It is used for sowing ofwheat and other cereal crops in
already prepared field. It consists of seed box,
fertilizer box, seed metering mechanism, fertilizer
metering mechanism, seed tubes, furrow openers,
seed rate adjusting lever and transport cum power
transmitting wheel. The furrow openers are of
reversible shovel type.
Bed planter
It makes bed and sow crops simultaneously and
suitable for wheat, maize, peas etc. Vegetable seeds
can also be sown by the planter. This machine makes
two beds. It can sow two or three rows of wheat on
each bed. The draft requirement of the machine is
reduced due to roller type bed shaper.
Automatic potato planter

It is used for sowing of potato tubers. The automatic
potato planter has a hopper, two picker wheels for
picking the tubers, seed tubes, furrow openers, three
bottom ridgers to form two ridges, a fertilizer
metering system and a frame.
If '"
~~
II
I
:~E
m
I
I
BtCotton planter
This planter is exclusively used for sowing of Bt
(Bio-technical) cotton hybrid seeds. With this
i
~
planter, low seed rate of 1.5 to 2 kg/ha can be
9 achieved.
I&%
~
Ii
j
~$
II Sugarcane planter
It is a tractor mounted implement suitable for cutting
i.I and planting sugarcane setts and application of

granular fertilizer in single operation. The machine
accepts whole cane for planting. It consists of two
I ridger bodies for furrow opening, cane feeding chute
:1 and sett cutting mechanism, chemical tank and
J fertilizer box with metering system and sett covering
soil compaction device, three point linkages, all
mounted on a rigid frame.
Vegetable transplanter
It is used for transplanting vegetable seedlings like
tomato, brinjal, cauli flower etc. Provisions are also
there to apply water or chemicals. Now-a-days,
vegetable transplanters are also available which
forms bed and transplanting is done on the bed.
Crust breaker
The hand operated crust breaker is used for breaking
the crust formed in the crop due to frequent rains
during rainy seasons. Thus, it will be mainly used in
kharif crops i.e cotton, sorghum (jowar), pearl millet
(bajra), green gram (moong), guar, etc.
Three tyne wheel hand hoe

It is used for weeding and interculture of vegetables
and other crops sown in rows. It is long handled tool
operated by push and pull action.
High clearance cotton cultivator

High clearance cotton cultivator, as the name implies
has more ground clearance and it is used for doing
interculture operation in tall crops like cotton.
19
Power weeder
It is a self propelled weeder consisting of 2 to 3 hp
engine. The power from the engine is transmitted
with the help of belt pulleys and chain sprocket to the
rotary and ground wheels for rotating the blades and
propelling the machine fotward. The rotary blades
are the soil working tool for weeding or seedbed
preparation.
Aeroblast sprayer
It is useful for spraying on horticultural trees and
crops like cotton, sunflower etc. The machine
consists a tank of 400 litres capacity, pump, fan,
control valve, filling unit, spout adjustable handle
and spraying nozzles to release the pesticide solution
into stream of air blast produced by centrifugal
blower.
Self-propelled high clearance sprayer

It is a self-propelled unit suitable for spraying on tall
crops like cotton. This four wheel riding type
machine consists of two rear steering wheels, two
front wheels powered with a 20 hp diesel engine
through a gear box, tank, hydraulic pump and boom
fittd with 15 nozzles.
Manually operated vertical conveyor reaper

It is used for harvesting of crops mostly at ground
level. It consists of crop row divider, star wheel,
cutter bar, and a pair oflugged canvas conveyor belts.
This type of machine cut the crops and conveys
vertically to one end and windrows the crops on the
ground uniformly. Collection of crop for making
bundles is easy and it is done manually.
Power tiller operated vertical conveyor

reaper windrower
It is a power tiller front mounted, walking type reaper
windrower. The reaping attachment consists ofcutter
bar, crop conveyor belt, crop row dividers and star
wheels. The cutter bar and conveyor belt are driven
by engine through belt-pulleys and safety clutch.
Self-propelled vertical conveyor reaper

It is an engine operated, walking type harvester
suitable for harvesting and windrowing cereals and
oilseed crops. The engine power is transmitted to
cutterbar and conveyor belts through belt pulleys.
Tractor front mounted vertical conveyor

reaper windrower
It is a tractor front mounted reaper suitable for
harvesting and windrowing of paddy and wheat
crops. The reaping attachment consists of cutter bar,
crop conveyor belt, crop row dividers and star
wheels. Lifting and lowering is done by using tractor
hydraulic system. Different mechanisms of the
vertical conveyor reaper is run with power from
tractor PTO through a shaft beneath the tractor
chassis.
}iRM MACHINERY DESIGN PRINCIPLES 21
Reaper binder
Reaper binder is a self propelled equipment used for
harvesting and binding of wheat, paddy, oats, barley
and other grain crops in a single operation. It has I 0
hp diesel engine. The height of cut can be
maintained from 2 cm to 5 cm.
Forage harvester
Forage harvester is a self propelled equipment used
for harvesting and windrowing of fodder crops like
berseem, lucem, mentha etc. It has 10 hp diesel
engine.
Brush cutter
It is a light weight engine operated equipment used
for cutting fresh or dry grass on ground, lawn fields
and equally suitable for cutting small bushes,
bamboos, sugarcane and cereal crops like wheat,
paddy with minor modifications in the cutting blade.
·Tractor mounted potato digger elevator

It is tractor rear mounted single row unit consisting of
digging blade, endless rod chain conveyor and gauge
wheels. The elevator is driven by tractor PTO. It is
suitable for digging and exposing htbers.
High capacity multicrop thresher

The high capacity multicrop threher consists of a
spike tooth cylinder, aspirator, cleaning sieves and
feeding system. It is suitable for threshing wheat,
soybean, maize, pigeon pea, sorghum, gram,
sunflower, mustard etc. It can be operated with 35
tractor or 20 hp electric motor.
Self-propelled combine harvester

The combine harvester consists of cutting unit,
·' threshing unit and cleaning and grain handling units.
It is operated by an in-built engine of 90-110 hp. It is
used for cutting, threshing and cleaning of cereal and
~ --..,.,._ other crops in one operation.
Tractor mounted combine harvester

It is a tractor mounted' combine harvester used for
cutting, threshing and cleaning of cereal and other
crops in one operation. Any tractor of about 60-70 hp
can be used for this purpose. It consists of cutting
unit, threshing unit and cleaning and grain handling
units .
....
_._
Straw combine
It is used to recover wheat straw after combine
operation. A reciprocating cutter bar is used for
reaping the standing stubbles and the portion of the
straw left uncut by the combine harvester. Straw
which passes through the concave is aspirated by a
blower and fed into a trolley on rear side covered by a
. •, wire net. For recovering the left grains from the
· straw, a sieve system is provided below the concave.
Hay rake
It is a tractor PTO operated equipment used to collect
the straw/grass and windrows the same for easy
collection or straw baling.
Straw baler
The tractor PTO operated machine consists of reel
type straw pick up assembly and straw compaction
and tying units. It automatically picks up the residue
straw from field with the help of reel which is
transferred into bale chamber with the help of feeder.
Then, the straw is compressed with reciprocating ram
into a compact bale of variable length. It also ties a
knot using a rope automatically.
24 .·· FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
Sugarcane harvester
The sugarcane harvester is a mechanized solution for
sugarcane harvesting. The user friendly operation
enables a combined result of sugarcane harvesting,
stripping and collection. Suitable for harvesting of
different conditions of lodged, semi lodged or fully
lodged cane. Results in easy removal of only tops
and trash / leaves without damaging cane stalk.
Approximate cost of machine is Rs. 90 lakhs to
Rs.110 lakhs depending upon size.
.I
Forage harvester
It is a tractor PTO operated equipment used for
harvesting of fodder crops like sorghum, berseem,
maize etc.
Happy seeder
It is used for direct sowing of wheat after harvesting
of paddy without doing any tillage operation. It is
similar to zero till seed drill but flail type blades are
used in front of the furrow openers which removes
the straw coming in front of the furrow openers and
thus straw clogging is minimized.
CHAPTER 2
Material of Construction for
Agricultural Machinery their
Composition and Heat
Treatment Processes
~'strength, durability and effective performance of farm machinery primarily depends on:
r~t.Its design.
}f Kind and quality of materials used in its manufacturing.
_),ere has been heavy demand imposed by the design engineers on the materials of farm machines
''s:.to derive maximum benefits taking into account the various aspects like safety, reliability,
~.
•
I1i \·• .
·
Hdrnics and production and even the aesthetic look of the machine. Resistance to abrasive wear of
thine elements can be improved by design measures by reducing abrasive action by selecting
}able materials and methods for their strengthening. Agricultural engineers must be careful in
igning the surface microstructures and the surface coating. Most important ways to improve the
'.••, :, resistance of the agricultural components is surface coating through chemical heat treatment,
j
~
°'L . ·nfal spraying and hardening.
.. :{t'Ci:'i!:~:\~ .·.
; ~tff~,' t~igh quality m~terials may increa~e the cost but there shou!d be co~promise between cost,
~,, ,;\ ua!tty and predominance of the machine. Moreover, use of qualtty material becomes all the more
_oitant as the agricultural machine has to work under severe hazardous and heterogeneous
I
- C;'"
I.
Jronmental conditions. Material should be selected based on specific use of the machine. The main
~ ___ors to be considered in the selection of material for farm machinery are:
i~ ' ·. •••
1
.
Ff Weight and strength of material.
I . ' 2. Corrosion resistance.
I
WI
) J. Wear and abrasion quality of the material.
).~ • 1- Availability of material in local market.
I 5. Easily workable by the rural artisans and local manufacturers.
j 6. Lesser cost/cheap and easily available.
II .. Special environmental requirements.
_: ?~·,
I
I
, --';,.!-,·
26 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEM~
8. Tribology or lubrication requirements of interacting surface materials.

9 . Loading requirements.
I 0. Operating speed requirements.
The general properties of critical components of farm machienry are given in Table 2.1.
Table. 2.1: General properties of critical components of farm machinery
No. Category of equipments Critical components General properties

1. Soil working tools Khul'pi, spade, parts of ploughs High toughness and _strength,
such as share, gunnel, land side, abrasion resistance, self-sharp-
mould board, coulter, agricultural en ing, good scouring, lighl
discs and their scrappers, blades weight and technological!;
of rotary, rotavator, potato and workable and economical!)
groundnut diggers, sub-soiler, viable.
lawn mower, shovels and sweeps,
furrow openers of seed-cum-fer-
tilizer drills, blades of levellers and
laser levellers, auger of po~t hole
digger, ridger/furrower for ridger
seeder, bed planter, cultivator
tynes etc.
2. Equipments for agricultural Seed and fertilizer boxes for seed Anti-corrosive to chemicals.
chemicals and fertilizers cum fertilizers, fertilizer drills and light weight, strong and durable,
crop planters, seed and fertilizer technoeconomically feasible.
metering rollers, insecticide/pes-
ticide tanks for sprayers and
sugarcane planters, pumps,
nozzles, booms and spray lances
for sprayers, sprinkler nozzles,
emitters for drip irrigation system,
container for chemical duster, fer-
tilizer spreaders.
3. Equipments handling Seed metering roller of seed drills, Resistance to corrosion and
biological materials seed plates of crop planters, cut- abrasion, high toughness and
ting blades of sugarcane cutter strength, self-sharpening, lighl
planter, potato seed clamping de- weight and techno economical!)
vice for automatic planter, knife feasible.
section/guard of cutter bars of
mowers, reapers and combines,
blades of lawn mower, sugarcane
hand chopper, cutting blades of
straw chopper, serrated and plain
hand sickles, cutting blade of
scythe, hand sears, chaff cutter
blades, secateurs etc.
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION FORAGRI. MACHINERY ..... . 27
Farm machine should have correct, easily workable, machineable and cheaper with minimum
material. The wearing parts of the machine should be made of wear resistant material. The
components of the machine should be made of corrosion resistant materials or protective coatings or
treatments for vulnerable parts should be used.
2.1. CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DIFFERENT FARM MACHINERY

Table 2.2: The constructional details of different farm machinery.
. MOULD BOARD PLOUGH
Part Material Composition Heat treatment
Share HCS/chilled cast iron/ 0.8 to 1.5% C + 11-14% Mn Case hardening, tempering,
Manganese steel 350-450 HB Carburizing
Mould board HCS/chilled cast iron Cigrade20 Case hardening, tempering
Land side Soft center steel
Frog Mild steel Iron+ 0.16 to 0.2% C
Beam Cast iron More than 2% C
Plough bottoms Soft center steel Case hardening
Standard Mild steel Iron+ 0.16 to 0.2% C
Handle Mild steel Iron+ 0.16 to 0.2% C
Mounting brackets Ductile cast iron Mg alloy+ molten iron Tempering
Nuts, bolts and rivets Wrought iron Pure iron+ slag (0.25-0.5%)
'.J
I
'.;.~ ..
Gauge wheel Mild steel Iron+0. l to 0.2% C
I
.
'.
i
.·-.
..
DISC PLOUGH
Part Material Compositio1t Heattreatme,,t
II
Frame Mild steel Iron+O. l to 0.2% C
Standard Mild steel Iron+o. l to 0.2% C
Discs High cazbon steel C75, C80 with 353-421 HB Tempering, hardening
Weights Cast iron > 2%C
Lift crank Mild steel Iron+ 0.1 to 0.2% C
I Hitch bolt Mild steel Iron + 0. 1 to 0.2% C
I ifil
Crown shaft
Gauge/Rear wheel
Mild steel
Cast iron, mild steel
Iron + 0.1 to 0.2% C
> 2% Cl Iron + 0. 1 to 0.2% C
Hardening, tempering
;""
;~ SPRING TYNE CULTIVATOR
I
f
i Part Material Composition Heat treat111e11t
"';/),~ Tynes Spring steel 235-310 HB Tempering
Ii Frame
Springs
Mild steel
Chrome-vandium steel
Iron + 0.1 to 0.2% C
0.15 to 1.10% C + 0.15 to Hardening, tempering
"'~
0.30%Va
I Reversible shovels Chrome steel (HCHCr) 0.5 to 2%Cr + 0.1 to 1.5% C Case hardening, tempering
I
'.ti
High carbon steel (EN3 1) 350-450 HB Hardening, tempering
"I Sweeps Carbon steel C55, 350-450HB Hardening
~ Rivets, nuts bolts Wrought iron Pure iron + slag (0.25-0.5%)
I
l
Weights Cast iron > 2%C
I
I
Table 2.3: Material of construction of components of different agricultural machine
.: No. Nameof Compo11e111 Material specifications

impleme11t
I. Rotavator Blade Carbon steel, tool steel, silica manganese steel, 0.7 to 0.85% C, Hardened:
edge-564 HB and Shank- 32-45 HB
2 Disc harrow
tractor drawn Disc Carbon steel-C75, C80, Silica-manganese steel Mn 90, 0.7 to 0.95% C
and 0.5 to 3.0% Mn, 353-421 HB
Bullock drawn Disc C-75
3. Bakhar Blade Carbon steel 0.7-08% C, 0.5 to 0.8 % Mn, 350-450 HB
4. Lawnmower Blade 0.5 to 0.6% C, Mn 90, hardened to 28-45 HRC
5. Wheel hoe weeder Weeder blade Carbon steel 0.5 to 0.6%C (C-55), 350-450 HB
6. .BD seed drill Beam Seasoned wood sal, kala alaria,kaith, bijasal, karal, mesua, mahua, babul
7. Crop harvester Blade and ledger Carbon or tool steel with 0.7 to 0.85% C, 0.5 to 0.8% Mn, T-80, Mn 65,
plate Hardness: edge 50-60 HRC and other portion 25-37 HRC
8. . Crop harvester Knife guard Malleable cast iron (Fs-218), steel casting, steel forging, 163 HB
9. Sickle Blade C-80, 0.75 to 0.85% C and 0.5 to 0.8% Mn, hardened to 38-45 HRC
10. Chaff cutter Blade Carbon or alloy steel, 0.60 to 0.90% C, C-65, T-70, MN-65, T-75, T-80,
h: T-85, Hardness 26-50 HRC
i: 11. Cutting knife Knife High carbon steel, C-75, C-80, C-85, T-75 Mn-65, Hardness: 460-51 0HB
I•
Ii 12. Pruning saw Sawblade Carbon steel more than 0.7% C, T-75, T-80, T-85, Hardness: 45-48 H~C
13. Scateui, Cutting blade High carbon steel, 0.7 to 0.9 % C, 0.5 to 1.0% Mn, C-75, C-80, C-85, Cr2.
Mn 20, 37 Si2, Mn 90, 32 Mn Hardness: 425-450 HB
14. Power thresher Chute Mild steel sheet thickness not less than 1.6 mm
., Canvass or rubber or steel slats (BIS 210)
Conveyer
Driving roller Cast iron (BIS 210)
Pressing roller . Cast iron (BIS 210)
Feed rollers Cast iron (BIS 2 I 0)
Tension spring Spring steel, BIS 4454 (Part- I)
Clutch lever Mild steel (BIS 2 10)
Gears Cast iron (BIS 210)
Gearbox Cast iron or Mild steel (BIS 21 0)
Gear shaft Mild steel (BIS 210)
i
i
1
!Ii:
.l
. CHAPIER3
Design of Power Transmission
Components and Systems
in Agricultural Machines
Main power transmission components employed in agricultural machines are:

\ I. V-belt drives,
2. Chain drive,
( 3. Gear drives, and
4'. Combination of belt and chain, belt and gear and gear and chain drives .
.-elt drives are frictional drives. They transmit power by contact between the belt and the driving and
}iven pulley. The ability of belts to transmit power depends on tension holding the belt to the pulleys,
'ic of contact and friction between belt and pulleys and speed of belt. Belts are normally used to
fahsmit power between two parallel shafts but they can also be used in a variety of other ways. The
~lfowing types of belts are generally used:
,.(:
• V-belt,
• Flat belt, and
• Round belt.
,-belts are the most common means of driving light loads between short range pulleys. The pulleys
'ave high, steep flanges so that the belt cannot slip off. V-belts are small in cross-section to reduce
riction and heating. They have a greater load capacity at high speeds than do flat belts. The
-"' "terminology related with the V-belts are given below:
Belt forces: Main forces acting in a belt drive are given by
In[Ti -Tc]= /a/sin,% (3.1 ) ·

T2 - 1',;
(3 .2)
FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEl\i
centrifugal force, WV2Jg, kg or N

f coefficient of friction between thlbelt and the pulley surface
T1 = Tight side tension, N ·
T2 = Slack side tension, N
W = belt weight per unit length, N/mm
V belt velocity, m/sec
g == acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
ex arc of belt contact, rad
Tension ratios in belts (RA= T1IT2): The allowable tension ratio relates the tight side tension to th,
slack side tension of a drive.
R A= exp [ (0.5123)01t] (For V-belts)

180
(0.2917)07t]
RA =exp [ (For flat belts)
180
where, R,1 == allowable tension ratio
8 = arc of contact, deg.
1t = 3.14159 rad
Torque in belt: The torque in the belt is given by
TR= (T1 - T2) DR/2 (3.5)
TN== (T1 - T2) DN/2 (3.6)
where, T 1 == tight side tension, N
T2 = slack side tension, N
Tn = driver pulley torque, N-mm,
TN= driven pulley torque, N-mm
DR = driver pulley diameter, mm
DN =driven pulley diameter, mi;n
(T1 - T2 ) == effective pull, N
Length of belts: The length of belt is given by

I
For open-belt drive

L = 2C + 1t [DR+ DN]/2 + (Dn - DN)2/4C, mm (3.7)
For crossed/closed belt drive
L = 2C+ 1t [DR+ DN]/2 +(DR+ DN)2!4C, mm (3.8)
where, L = length of belt, 1nm
C = centre to centre distance between sheaves, mm
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS .....• 33
(a) Open belt drive
(b) Cross-belt drive
Belt speed (V): The speed of belt is given by

V RPM x D/19100 (3.9)
where, V = belt speed, m/sec
RPM = shaft speed, rpm
D pitch diameter of sheave, mm
Power transmitted by belts (P): The power transmitted by the belt is given by
P = (T1 - T2) VII 000 (3.10)
or (T1 - T2) =1000 x PIV (3.11)
P =power, kW
V = belt velocity, m/sec
Design of power transmission unit of manually operated vertical conveyor reaper (Fig.3.1).
Isometric, side and top view of the same is given in Figs. 3.2(a), 3.2(b), and 3.3 respectively for
reference.
Solutio1t: The ground wheel acts as the driving force to operate the cutting and conveying
mechanism of the machine, with 30 cm cutterbar width.
According to Campbell (1990) the power of useful work done by human being is given by
HP = 0.35 - 0.092 log I
where, t is time in minutes.
For four hours continuous work, HP developed by man = 0.13 hp.

We know that,
HP= Push (kg) x speed (m/sec)
75
Let the speed of operating the machine be =0.8m/sec.
Therefore,
75x0.13
Push=---= 12.19 kg= 12.5 kg (say)
0.8
Fig. 3.1: Manually operated vertical conveyor reaper
Now, using the formula
Hp = _2_7tN--=-g--'Tg=-- (3.12)
4500
where, Ng = r.p.tn of ground wheel
Tg = torque developed by ground wheel, kg-m
Now,
V = 1tDNg
60
where, V Operating speed of reaper ==0.8 m/sec (in present case)
D = Diameter of ground wheel (let it be 40 cm)
Ng = r.p.1n. of grourid wheel
Therefore,
0.8x60
Ng=---= 38.2 r.p.m
1tx0.40
Putting the values in eqn. 3. 12, we get

$1't3N OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . .... . 35
T,g -_ H.P x 4500 0.13 x 4500 -2 43 k

- . g-m
2xrcxNg 2x1tx38.2
or, Tg = 250 kg-cm ~say)
'Thus, the torque in ground wheel = 250 kg-cm.
pesign of ground wheel shaft:
\ Now, using the formula
Tg =(Ti -T2 )xr1
Tg = torque on ground wheel = 250 kg-cm

T1 = tension in tight side of belt, kg
T2 = tension in slack side of belt, kg
r1 radius of ground wheel pulley, cm (let r 1 =10.5 cm)
Therefore,
(3.13)
Also,
(3.14)
2µ
µe=~
sm..,
(3. 15)
µ = coefficient of friction (0.3 for rubber belts)
e = angle of contact, radians
13 = groove angle of pulley, 38°
Therefore,
· -1(D1 -D2)
e =re - 2 sm
2C
D1 = diameter of ground wheel pulley, cm (let it be 21 cm)

D2= diameter of counter shaft pulley, cm (let it be 7 cm)
C = centre to centre distance between two pulleys, cm (let 25cm)
FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEM
Intermediate shaft pulley
Ground wheel
Drive wheel
pulley
Pitman wheel
Fig. 3.2: (a) Isometric view ofV-belt drive of manual vertical conveyor reaper
E
0
0
lO
I. 84cm
-I
Fig. 3.2: (b) Side view ofV-belt drive of manual vertical conveyor reaper
:s
~$iGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS ..•.. ~ 37
0
(0
0
"<t
0
M
IO
CN
All dimensions in cm. J

Fig. 3.3: Top view of manual vertical conveyor reaper
FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEI\
0 =n- 2 sm . -1(21-7)
--
2x25
0 = 7t - 32·52°
1
0 = 7t - 32.52° x - (- radians
180°
8=n -0. 181t
0 = 2·58 radians (since 1° = n/180° radian)
Putting the values in the eqn. 3.14, we get,
Ii_= e2.58x0.974 =12 _21 kg

(3.16~
T2
Solving the eqns. 3. I3 and 3 .16 for T1 and T2 we get,
T1 = 25.93 kg
T2 = 2.12 kg
Ti + T2 = 28.05 kg
Maximum bending moment on the ground wheel axle shaft (MG) is given by
Ma = (T1 + T2) x over hang
Ma = 28·05 x 4 (Let the over hang be 4 cm)
MG = 112.2 kg-cm
Also, torque on ground wheel shaft (TG) = 250 kg-cm
Therefore, the equivalent torque (Te) is given by
T,; =✓TJ + MA
/ 2
T,; = v250 + 112.22 = 274.02 kg-cm
Let us take factor of safety to be 3

Therefore, Te= 274.02 x 3 == 822 kg-cm (say)
Using the formula,
7t 3
1'e = x Fs xdg (3.17)
16
where, Fs = allowable stress (Let Fs= 550 kg/cm2)
dg = diameter of ground wheel shaft, cm
Putting the values in eqn. 3.17, we get,
822 = -2:. x 550 x d/

16
dg = 1.967 cm = 20. mm (say)
r:·:.
SIGN
.,,.,.,.
OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . ... . .
...., ....,.
'~
39
\fctffor equivalent bending moment (Me)

?' The equivalent bending moment is given by
I
Mc =-[112.20+274.02]
2
Mc =193 .11 kg-cm

} Therefore, Me= 193.11 x 3 = 579 kg-cm (say)
.::...-:.,:,::.
_ lJsing the formula,
7r 3
Me= xF, xdg (3. 18)
32
F1 = allowable tensile stress (Let Fr 1150 kg/cm 2)
dg = diameter of ground wheel shaft, cm
U5,i,ng the eqn. 3.18, we get
7[ 3
579= xtl50xdg
32
dg = 1.72 cm= 18 mm (say)
;, Thus, the design is safe.

__ · Hence, diameter of ground wheel shaft (dg) = 20 mm (Considering the available size of fittings and
· bearings)
;,_ 2. Design of counter shaft: Let the ratio of diameter of drive wheel pulley on ground wheel shaft
''"(b 1) to the diameter of counter-shaft pulley (D2) be 3.
Speed of counter shaft(Nc) = 3 [sinceNgDI =NcDi]

Speed of ground wheel (Ng)
The torque transmitted to counter-shaft (Tc) is given by

TgxNg
Tc=~-~ (3.19)
Ne
where, Tg = torque in ground wheel=250 kg-cm
Ng r.p.m. of ground wheel=38.2
NC rpm of counter-shaft {Ne = 3 x Ng= 3 x 38.2 = 114.6 rpm}
_,:..,: .•. .,·:
40'.':··"'• •·•· .,,...,...,,..... FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
GROUND WHEEL PULLEY

(Di =21 cm)
40cm
GROUND WHEEL
4 cm overhung
·D=40 cm
lg =250 kg-cm
N,=38.2 rpm
,-----+------------- Shear force
28.05 kg
112.2 kg-cm
Fig. 3.4: Shear force and bending moment diagram of ground wheel
T = 250x 38 ·2 =83 .33 kg-cm

C l J4.6
IGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . ... . . 41
'bus, the torque in counter-shaft = 83.33 kg-cm.

Tc = (T3 - T4 ) x 13
Tc = torque on counter-shaft = 83.33 kg-cm
r3 = tension in tight side of belt, kg
,-3 = radius of counter-shaft pulley, cm (let r3 = I 0.5 cm)
· herefore,
T, )_ Tc _ 79k
(
'T'
.L3 - 4 - - =83-.33
-- · g (3.20)
13 10.5
T3 = eµ"e (3.21)
T4
2µ
µe = sinp
µ coefficient of friction (0.3 for rubber belts)
0 = angle of contact, radians
p = groove angle of pulley, 3 8°
µe = 2x0.3 =0.974
sin38°
0 = 7t - 2 SITI
. -1(D3-D4l
2C
D3 = diameter of counter-shaft pulley, cm (let it be 21 cm)

D4 diameter of main shaft pulley, cm (let it be 7 cm)
C centre to centre distance between two pulleys, cm (let it be 35 cm).
. -1(2
0 =1t- 2 sm -1--
'7)
2x 35
0 = 7t - 23.07°
0 = 1t - 23.07° x
7180 radians
0=n-0.401t
0 =1.88 radians (since 1° = 1t/l 80°) radian
FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEII
Putting the values in the eqn.3.21, we get,
_T3 = el.88x0.974 = 6_24 kg

(3.2:
T4
Solving the eqns. 3.20 and 3.22 for T3 and T4 , we get,

T3 = 9.41 kg
T4 = 1.51 kg
Thus,
Maximum bending moment at point A and B

Maximum bending moment on the counter-shaft (Mc) at point B (Refer Fig. 3.5) is given by
Mc = (T3 + T4) x over-hang
Mc = l 0.92 x 4 (Let the over-hang be 4 cm)
Mc= 43 ·68 kg-cm
Also, torque on counter-shaft (Tc)= 83.33 kg-cm
Therefore, the equivalent torque (Te) at point B is given by
Te;; Jr(! +Mt
Te = ✓83.33 2 + 43.682 =94.08 kg-cm

Now,
Maximum bending moment on the counter-shaft (Mc) at point A (Refer Fig. 3.5) is given by
Mc = (T1 + T2) x over hang
Mc = 28.05 x 4 (Let the over hang be 4 cm)
Mc= 112·2 kg-cm
Also, torque on counter-shaft (Tc)= 83.33 kg-cm
Therefore, the equivalent torque (Te) at point A is given by
Te = ✓Tf +Mf
Te ::; ✓83.33 2 + 112.22 = 140 kg-cm
It is clear from Fig. 3.5 and calculations, that section A of shaft is more critical. Therefore, th
shaft is designed on the basis of critical section.
Let us take factor of safety to be 3.
Therefore, Te= l40 x 3 = 420 kg-cm (say)
,,s
SIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . .... . 43
D, = 7 cm
N,~ =114.6 rpm
2) 'l~ =83.33 kg cm
_ D,=20mm
t
A
COUNTER SHAFT
4 cm over-hung 4 cm over-hung
Shear force
10.92 kg
28.05 kg
Bending moment
43 .68 kg-cm
112.2 kg-cm
Fig. 3.5: Shear force and bending moment diagram of counter shaft
Using the formula,

7t 3
Te =
16 xF_~ x dc (3.23)
Fs = allowable stress (Let F/'' 550 kg/cm 2)

de == diameter of counter-shaft, cm
Using the eqn. 3.23, we get,
420 = ~x 550 x d/
16
de = 1.57 cm= 16 mm {say)

Check for equivalent bending moment (Me)
The equivalent bending moment is given by
Me=½[ Mc + ✓Mf +Tf]

I
Me = -[112.2 + 140]
2
Me= 126 kg-cm

Therefore, M/"126 x 3 = 378 kg-cm {say)
Using the formula,
7t 3
Me = 32 x F; x de (3.24)
where, F1 = allowable tensile stress (Let Fi= 1150 kg/cm 2)

de = diameter of counter-shaft, cm
Using the eqn. 3.24, we get
378 = ~ x ll50 xde3

32
de= 1.5 cm
Thus, the design is safe.

Hence, Diameter of counter-shaft (de)= 20 mm
(Considering the available size of fittings and bearings)
3. Design of main shaft: Let the ratio of diameter of counter shaft pulley (D3) to the diameter of
main shaft pulley (D4) be 3.
Speed of main shaft (Nm) _ [. ND -N D]

- 3 smce c 3 - m 4
Speed of counter-shaft (Ne)
The torque transmitted to main shaft (Tc) is given by
(3.25)
It{{i
·J!;;_,., DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS .. ... . 45
T@:f where Tc = torque on countershaft = 83.33 kg-cm

<;;~[t Nc = r.p.m. of counter shaft= 114.6
N 111 = rpm of main shaft {N111 = 3 x Ne= 3 x 114.6 = 343.8 rpm}
T :;;; 83.33 x 114.6 = 27 _77 kg-cm

m 343.8
Thus, the torque in main shaft= 27.77 kg-cm.

Also,
The torque in the main shaft (TM) is given by
TM :;;; Tcon + Tcon + Tcrank (3.26)
'.' where Tcon = torque in conveyor ( 2 conveyors are provided)
Tc,ank :;;; torque in crank
Now, torque in crank is given by
Tc,ank = P, x re
where P1 :;;; tangential component of force resisting the motion of knife on wheat (let it be 5.5 kg)
re = radius of crank, cm (let it be 4 cm)
Therefore,
Tc,ank = 5.5 kg x 4 cm :;;; 22 kg-cm
Putting the values in eqn. 3.26, we get
27 . 77 = Tcon + Tcon + 22
2 Tcon 27.77 - 22 = 5.77
Tcon 2.9 kg-cm
Tcan =(T5 - T6 ) x rcon
·•· where, Tcon = torque in conveyor = 2.9 kg-cm
T5 = tension in tight side of belt, kg
rcon = radius of conveyor pulley, cm (let rcon:;;; 7.5/2 cm= 3.75 cm)
Therefore,
Tcon 2.9
.( T5 -T6 ) = - =-==0.77 kg (3.27)
rcon 3.15
Also,
(3.28)
2µ
and µe = sin~
where, µ coefficient of friction (0·3 for rubber belts)
0 angle of contact, radians
~ groove angle of pulley, 38°
Therefore,
= 2x 0.3 = 0.974
µe . 380
sm
• -1(Deo112C
0 =7t- 2 sm -Deon)
and
where Deon= diameter of conveyor pulley, cm (7.5 cm) (two pulleys are provided)
C = centre to centre distance between two pulleys, cm (let 24 cm)
. -1(7.5-7.5)
0 = 7t- 2 SIO
2x24
0=1t-0
0 = 1t radians
0=1t
0 = 3.14 radians ( Since IO =½soo radian)
Ts = e3.14x0.914 = 2 1.3 3 kg
(3.29)
T6
Solving the eqns. 3.27 and 3.29 for T5 and T6 , we get,
T5 = 0.81 kg
T6 = 0.038 kg
Thus, T5 + T6 = 0.848 kg
Maximum bending moment in the main shaft due to driving pulley at point C (Refer Fig.3.6) is
given by
M_v = (T3 + T4) x over hang
My = I0.92x 8
M_v = 87.36 kg-cm (Let the over-hang be 8 cm)
Similarly, maximum bending moment in the main shaft due to conveyor pulley Band Eat point C ·
and D respectively (Refer Fig. 3.6) is given by
, ESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS .. ... . 47
Mx = (T5 + T6) x over-hang
Mx = 0.848 x 4 (Let the over-hang be 4 cm)
Mx = 3 ·4 kg-cm
Therefore, the combined moment at point C is given by,
Mc = ✓M;+M;
Mc = ✓3.4 2 +87.36 2
M c -:;; 87.43 kg-cm
Maximum bending moment M= due to crank drive mechanism at point D is given by

M= = P,angential x over hang
M= = 5.5 kg x 8 cm {Let the over-hang be 8 cm)
M= = 44 kg-cm .
. It is clear from the bending moment diagram of Fig.3.6 that maximum bending moment is at the
int C. Therefore, design will be based on the critical section i.e. Section at C
Therefore, the equivalent torque (Te) at point C is given by
/ 2 2
Tc =yTM +Mc
Te= ✓27.77 + 87.43 2

2
=91.73 kg-cm

!~erefore, Te= 91.73 x 3 = 275.19 kg-cm
,l{sing the formula,
7t 3
Te =-x Fs x dm (3 .30)
16
· re, Fs= allowable stress (Let F/= 550 kg/cm 2)
dm = diameter of main shaft, cm
7r 3
275.19 =-x 550x d 111
16
d111 = 1.34 cm= 13.4 mm say 14 mm
. ck for equivalent bending moment (Me)

! he equivalent bending moment is given by
M~ =½[Mc +.JMl: +T~]

~
.,..
CXI
Main shaft dia. D.,= 20mm Bending

~1 1---- Bending moment
moment due to due to main
T~ conveyor pulley shaft pulley
T3
T,. =27.77 T1 + T~
4cm Kg-cm = 10.92 kg
4cm I T.:on = 2.9

Kg-cm I T5 + T6
=0.848 kg
~. = 3.4 kg-cm A~.,= 87.36 kg-cm 90.76 kg-cm
Combined bending
Conveyor
I I I I I I
pulleys
Dcon=7.5
11
I I I
24cm
I
Torque
I
Shear force
I I
I
mome11t
47.4 kg-cm
i
~
:I:
z
m
T000 =2.9 T_, + T6
4cm I Kg-cm = 0.848 kg ::!!
C
m
(f)
c5
Taank=22 ;.;:
pc.ni;,,nI = 5.5 kg '"O
4cm Kg-cm
I 2!
z
(')
Bending Bcndi11g
;;
r-
moment moment
Crank pulley
due to due to rn
)>
rCon =3.75 cm conveyor crank
z
r,,>nk = 22 kg-cm pulley drive C
mechanism '"O
~
Cl]
r-
m
Fig. 3.6: Torque, shear force and bending moment diagram of main shaft E:
(f)
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS ... . . . 49
I
M e =-[87.43+91.73]
2
Me =89.58 kg-cm

Therefore, Me = 89.58 x 3 = 268.74 kg-cm (say)
Using the formula,
(3 .3 I)
where F 1 = allowable tensile stress (Let Fi= 1150 kg/cm2)

d 111 = diameter of main shaft, cm
Using the eqn. 3 .31, we get
268.74 =_2:_ xl 150x

32
d:,
dm = 1.34 cm :a: 13 .4 mm
Thus, the design is safe.

, Hence,
Diameter of main shaft (dm) = 20 mm
(Considering the available size of fittings and bearings)
4. Length of open belt: Let us provide 'V', belt between ground wheel pulley and- counter shaft
pulley. The length of belt (L 1) between the ground wheel drive pulley (D 1 = 21 cm) and the counter-
shaft <I.riven pulley (D2 = 7 cm) when the centre to centre distance between these pulleys is 25 cm
is given by
1t (21- 7)2
Li = 2 x 25 + -(2 I + 7) + -'-------'-
2 4 x 25
L 1 = 50 + 43.98 + 1.96 =95.94 cm
Li = 96 cm (say).
5. Length of cross belt: Let us provide V-belt between count~r shaft pulley and main shaft pulley.
•· The length of belt (L2 ) between the counter shaft pulley (D 3=2I cm) and the main shaft pulley
(D4 = 7cm) when the centre to centre distance b~tween these pulleys is 35 cm is given by
n(D3 + D)
LI= 2c +- (D3 +D4)2
4 +-~-~
2 4C
2
L I= 2 X.J. ., 5 +-
1t (21
+ 7) + I +-7 )-
( 2-
2 4x35
L1 = 70+43.98 +5.6 = 119.58 cm
L1 = 120 cm (say)
6. Length of lugged belt of crop conveyor:

(a) Speed of lugged belt and diameter of pulley
For lugged belt conveyer (Fig. 3.7) the belt speed is given by
Vb= DPNPl60 (3.32)
where, DP = Diameter of lugged belt pulley, m
NP = rpm of lugged belt pulley
Vb = Peripheral speed of flat belt, mis (l.33 to 1.5 mis)
Assume,
NP = 267 .3 rpm
Since, same shaft is used for conveyer which is used for driving the crank shaft having rpm of
300 to 400
So, NP= 400 rpm
VP= 1.5 mis
DP= Vb x 60INP = 7.2 cm say 7.5 cm
So, diameter of 7 .5 to IO cm may be used for driving conveyer belt of the reaper.
(b) Length of lugged belts
Let us provide flat conveyor belts (Fig. 3.7) with lugs between the two conveyor pulleys. The
length of conveyor belt (L3) between the conveyor pulleys (Deon=7.5cm for both pulleys) when the
centre to centre distance between these pulleys is 40 cm (since the width of cutter bar is 30 cm) is
given by
2
,_ =2C+~(D +D )+(Deon-Deon)
~J con con C
2 4
752
L:J = 2 X 40 + ~(7.5 + 7.5) + (7 .5 - -)
2 · 4x 40
L3 = 80 + 22 + 0 = I 02 cm
L3 = 102 cm.
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS .. ... . 51
V.,.t
Fig. 3. 7: Lugged belt Conveyor

7. Design of pitman and its bearings: The maximum torque transmitted by the crank driving
shaft rotating at 400 rpm is given by
Ter=Tm + T1
where, Ter = torque on crank shaft, kg-cm
Tm = torque on main shaft, kg~cm
T1 = inertia torque due to crank rotation, kg-cm
We know, T,11 = 27. 77 kg-cm
and T1 = pit x re
PIT = tangential component of inertia force due to crank rotation, kg
re = radius of crank, cm
For determination of T1, the inertia force due to crank rotation is given by
P1 =mrci ( 1- ;)
when x = r, P1 = 0, and at x = 0, P1 is maximum
P1 max= mrco2
For cutter bar of a reaper, P1 can also be expressed as,
We +W .KSsin0.
P1 = P x rro 2 cos ec + " - K cos 20c:
g r
r (3.33)
K = --===
✓v -s 2
P1 inertia force due to cutter bar and pitman weight on the cutter bar, kg
g acceleration due to gravity, kg/cm2
r-. I
,l·'·•.'•.!·~·•.·
52 FARM Mf'CHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
r radius of crank, rn (0.04 m)

S height of crank shaft between the plane of connection between cutter bar and pitman
!:·(1
1
(assume= 0)
L = length of pitman (30 cm)
't
.
\i:i:;J
[j ['1i! ! We weight of cutter bar, kg
WP = weight of pitman acting on cutter bar
1 ro = angular velocity of crank, rad/sec (41.89 rad/sec)
· !1\lf 1 ec angle of crank rotation, degree
K 0.133.
11111:.'
ii .l'
Il.,.I::]
1i
!j·.;•
i!. Also, let the density of stainless steel (rp) = 0.0078 kg/cm 3
Let the diameter of pitman shaft (dP) = 2: cm
'I' '·'''
1C ? .
WP = xdp xlp xpp
4
1i1r:, WP= x2 2 x30x0.0078
7r
4
WP =0.735 kg.
!::' i!
'l·•·'I
:,,,. Also weight of cutter bar/metre length = 2.2 kg
!l!f l Therefore, We for 30 cm length of cutter bar= 0.7 ~g
At ec
= 45°
Putting the values in above eqn. 3.33, we get.
:1;!:\i
+
0 7 0 735
P1 = [( -
9.8
- ) x 0.04 x 41.89 2 cos45°]
·
+[<0·133 x0.04
Ox sin
450
) l-[0.133 cos 2( 45°)]
J
P1 = 7.255 kg and P1 max.= 10·267 kg

!~i.:/
1.:::,1
·::1·1 The tangential component of inertia force
l
·_;·!.r1·1_1
sin(0c -0p)
f>J, = P1 _ _ _..,__
[::'1,
;; .:
cos0p
!r :
l . >ff where, ep = angle of pitman above horizontal= 0°
P11 = 5.132 kg
Ul'
:i ':
iI,.; :•.t,
Torque produced due to tangential component of P1 is given by
Ii j ! r, = P,, X re
Therefore,
ii[!! r, = 5.132 x 4 = 20.528 kg-cm
Also, Ter -T
- 111 +TI
1r:11
:1'·. ;1
1
•11l_·
t
~:~
.DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS ANO SYSTEMS . .. . . . 53
Tc,.= 27.77 + 20.528 = 48.29 cm

Taking F.O.S. =3
Tcr = 144.884 kg-cm
Now, using the formula,
7t 3
Y'cr =-xfs xdc (3.34)
16
where, fs = allowable stress (Let Fs= 550 kg/cm2)
de = diameter of crank shaft, cm
Using the eqn. 3.34, we get
144.884=.2:_x550xd/
16
de = 1.095 cm = 11 mm (say)
Therefore, the diameter of crank shaft (de) is
de= 1.095 cm= 10.95 mm
·.··• .·. Taking crank diameter of 15 mm, the diameter of bearing for pitman end should be equal to the
diameter of pin. So, 15 mm bearing should be used for pitman ends.
i 8. Design of pitman: Since pitman is subjected to both tensile and compressive stresses altema-
of
")ively during the operation machine, the pitman should be designed for buckling.
\ ,,, l'Jow, using Euler's relationship for design of hinged columns.
P, =mc2EJ
C L2 (3.35)
pc = critical load acting on the column or the pitman, kg

n = end fixidity constant ( 1 for both ends hinged)
E = Modulus of elasticity (2.1 x 106 kg/cm2)
I Second moment of inertia, cm4
L = Length of pitman, 30 cm
Now, Pc= Pi max+ P
<where, P1 max= Maximum inertia force of knife section, Nor kg
P = Total resistive force acting on the cutter bar, N or kg
P 78·3 N [Refer solved example 8· l]
Pc 10.267 + 78.3/9.8 1 = 18.365 kg.
, . The factor of safety for a machine part which is alternately under tensile and compressive force is
8 to 10 (Let lis take F.O.S.= I 0)
Modifying the eqn. 3.35, we get,
2
I= PcL
nn 2 E
d4
Also, J === _!!_ === (for round section)
64
4
d I 8.365 x 302 x I0
_p_::::------
64 1xn2 x2.lx l0 6
dp === 0·845 cm = 8·45 mm
Check for whipping stress CFw)
2 2
F. = N rcAL
w 14400 Z
where, Fw = maximum bending stress due to whipping action, kg/cm 2

N = crank speed, rpm (400)
,.
C
crank radius (4 cm)
A area of cross-section, cm2
p = density of mild steel, 0.0078 kg/cm 3
z section modulus, cm 3
Putting the values in the above equation, we get,
Fw = 7.4 kg/cm2.
The permissible bearing stress in pitman for low speed (less than I 000 rpm) cutter bar crank
mechanism is 75 - 100 kg/cm 2. The calculated value of whipping stress is far below the maximum
limit. So the design is safe.
9. Design of crank pin: The crank pin is assumed to be a cantilever beam supported on one end.
The dimensions of pin would depend upon the strength required to with stand all the forces and
torque acting on the pin.
Take length of pin = 4 cm
Let us assume that the forces are acting at the centre.
Torque transmitted to pin = torque on main shaft
TP =Tm= 27.77 kg-cm
Forces on pin due to torque (Fp) = T/rc = 27.77/4 = 6.94 kg
Centrifugal force due to crank rotation (Fe)
Wc+W 2 05+07 2
Fe;:;;; P XlcXW =-·- ··- · x4x41.89 =8.586 kg
g 981
Also, a component of inertia force due to cutter bar moment will act on the crank pin
P/max = 10.267 kg
<DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . .... . 55
sin(0e-0p)
Fs ;;;; I} max ;;;;: -----=--
cos 0P
For 0e = 45° and 0p ;;;;: 0°
Fs;;;; 7.259 kg
. Total force acting on pin (F1)
F 1 = force on pin due to torque (Fp) + centrifugal force (Fe)
+ component of inertia force CFs)
Fl ;;;; 6.94 + 8.586 + 7.259 kg
= 22.785 kg.
Bending moment on pin (M~ = F 1 x distance ;;;;: 22.785 x 2 = 45.570 kg-cm
Taking factor of safety (F.O.S.) = 3.0
MP= 136.710 kg-cm
Now, using the formula, (3 .37)
1t 3
Mp =-xFs xde
16
Fs ;;;; allowable stress (Let Fs = 550 kglcm2)
de = diameter of crank pin, cm
136.710 = ~x550 x
16
d:
de = 1.265 cm = 13 mm (say).
Take diameter of crank pin as 15 mm for fitting ball bearing of 15 mm diameter.
Ans. The specifications of the designed manually operated vertical conveyor reapers are
summarized below:
1. Diameter of ground wheel shaft =20 mm
2. Diameter of counter shaft = 20 mm
3. Diameter of main shaft =20 mm
4. Length of open belt ;;;;: 96 cm
5. Length of cross belt = 120 cm
6. Diameter of crop conveyor pulley = 7.5 cm
7. Length of crop conveyor lugged belt = 102 cm
8. Diameter of pitman shaft and bearing = 15 mm
3.2. CHAIN DRIVE DESIGN
Chain drive consists of an endless chain whose links engage the teeth of sprockets keyed to the shafts
of driving and driven mechanisms. The basic function of a chain drive is to transmit power and ,to
synchronize motion or maintain a fixed speed ratio between rotating shafts. Following types of chains
are available:
· FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
• Detachable chain,
• Pintle chain,
• Engineering steel chain,
• Inve1ted tooth or silent chain, and
• Roller chain.
Roller chain: Roller chain (Fig.3.8) is made up of alternate roller links _and pin links with pins. The
bushings are free to turn. Roller chains are used where there is heavy loads at low speeds between
shafts that are far apatt. Various terminology related with chain kinematics is discussed in detail in this
section.
Average chain velocity (JI): The average chain velocity is given by
V=N X p X RPM (3.38)
where. V = chain speed, m/min
N = number of teeth on the sprocket
p = chain pitch, m
RPM= revolutions of sprocket per min.
Speed ratio of chain: The relation between the number of teeths and revolutions between two
sprockets is given by
RPM1IRPM2 == NifN 1 (3.39)
where, N 1 number of teeth on smaller sprocket
N2 = number of teeth on larger sprocket
Fig. 3.8: Chain drive

ESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . ... . . 57
jf Chain load or force (Fc): Total load on driving side of the chain is given by
Fe= F+ Fc+Ff (3.40)
Fc = total chain load, N
F = load due to power transmission, N
Fe = centrifugal load on chain, N
Ff = frictional load, N
, Also, F= Power (kW) x 1000 N, N (3.4 I)
Horse power transmitted by chains: The horse power transmitted by the chain is given by
HP= P, x V/75 (3.42)
HP = horsepower transmitted
v· = chain speed, mis
P1 = chain pulls (tension side), kgf
Also,
HP= Q. VI (4500 x sfl x f.o.s) (3.43)
Q = maximum breaking load, kg
V = chain speed, m/min
Sf 1 = chain service factor
f.o.s = factor of safety
_Chain length (Le): The length of the chain is given by
, LP= 2CP + (N1 + N2)!2 + {(N2 -N1)!21t}2!CP (3.44)
LP = chain length in pitches
CP = center to center distance between sprockets in pitches
N 1 = number of teeth on smaller sprocket
N2 number of teeth on larger sprocket
Also, Le = m x p (3.45)
m = number of chain links
m 2Clp + (N1 + N2)!2 + p (Nr N1)2I 4n2C
p = chain pitch, mm
'ep-. by step design procedure

·-._ Step-1: Service factor
, Consider service factors for chains as under:
• Consider service factor for chain loading (SF1).
• Consider service factor for atmospheric conditions (SF2)_
· Step-2: Computation of design power
.Compute design power for the chain drive by using following equation:
Pd = P x SF1 x SF2 (3 .46)

where, P = Power of drive, kW
Step-3: Final selection chain and sprocket
From chain pitch selection chart or chain tables which is available in the design handbook, the
tentative required chain pitch is selected based on design power and small sprocket RPM.
Step-4: Final selection of chain and small sprocket
From power rating table based on design power which is available in the design handbook, select
the number of teeth on smaller sprocket.
Step-5: Selection of large sprocket (N2 )
Number of teeth (N2 ) of larger sprocket of chain drive is calculated as under:
N2 = N, x RPM/RPM2 (3.47)
Step-6: Chain length (L): The chain length is calculated from following equation
Le = 2cP + [(N1 + N2 )t2] + (N2 - N1)2t4p 2 cP (3.48)
Step-7: Correction of center distance (C)
The corrected center distance is calculated from equation 3.48 by putting adjusted length of
chain.
Design chain drive for a tractor drawn sugarcane planter (Fig. 3.9).
Main shaft
Main sprocket -
---- Axle sprocket

Ground wheel
Fig. 3.9 Chain drive of tractor drawn sugarcane planter

Solution: The chain drive froi:n ground wheel of the sugarcane planter consists of following parts:
/. Axle; 2. Chain a11d sprockets; 3. Tra11smissio11 shaft; 4. Bevel gears; 5. Chain mu/ sprockets for
fertilizer.
I. Design of axle
Forces acting on the axle of the machine are:
(i) Weight of machine
(ii) Force due to chain pull
(iii) Reactions of ground through steel hub.
.!:$1GN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS ..... . 59
; Assume weight of machine= 430 kg. (25% weight of machine is taken by hydraulic lift and 75%
'}the ground wheels during working condition).
Therefore, maximum weight on both axles= 0.75 x 430 kg= 322.5 kg
Weight on each wheel =322.5/2 = 161.25 kg.
oad on axle (shaft) due to chain drive

Coefficient of rolling resistance of wheel= 0.3
Therefore, rolling resistance force= 0.3 x 161.25 kg= 48.375 kg
'. Assume ground wheel diameter of machine is 60 cm.
' Radius of ground wheel =60/2 30 cm or 0.3 m
§Torque produced by the ground wheel (Tw) = 48.375 kg x 0.3m = 14.513 kg-m
} Now, HP at machine wheel = 21t NwTj4500
here, N..v = RPM of ground wheel
J;v = Wheel torque, kg-m
Assume that forward operating speed of planter is 2.4 km/hr
Therefore, wheel speed (Nw) = 2400/60 x 100/(n x 60) = 21.22 rpm
HP= 21t x 21.22 x 14.513 /4500 = 0.430 hp
· ~ow for chain drive from ground wheel to main shaft
HP=P1 x V/75
HP = horse power transmitted by chain drive
V = chain speed, mis
P 1 = chain pulls (tension side), kgf
P 1 = HP x 75/V = 0.430 x 75/ 0.084 m/s
P1 = 383.93 kgf
we know that chain load (Q) = K 1 x P1
K1 = 1.15 for mild steel
Q = 1.15 x 383.93 = 441.52 kgf
'• Since: the chain drive is acting at an angle 0 = 34.5° with the horizontal,
Qv = Q sin e = 441.52 kgf X sin 34.5°

= 250.08 kgf
. Therefore, maximum bending moment in the axle is given by
Mb = (Weight on wheel x overhung) + (Q11 x over-hung)
~Iii' i
'
,,
'
,1
Assumption
Over hung of wheel = 17 cm
IIII1 1
:, "f Ii
l Over hung of sprocket
Therefore, Mb
Mb
=6 m
= I61.25 x 17/100 + 250.08 x 6/100
= 27.41 + 15.005 = 42.42 kgf
Now,
Equivalent bending moment (M/ + M/)0.5
= {(42.42)2+ (l 4.51 )2} 0.5 (M, = torque in shaft or axle)
(1799.5 + 210.54) 0-5 = 44.83 kg-m.
Now, allowable shear stress (-c5) in axle is 600 kg/cm 2
Therefore,
or,
d3 = l 6ht x 1/600 x 44.83

or d = (0.3799) 113
= 3.43 cm say 3.5 cm.
Take length of ground wheel axle as =30 cm and number of axles = 2.
Two axles are provided for wheels on both sides.
2. Design of chain and sprockets: This type of drive for the machine is selected because:
I. Drive is transmitted to parallel shafts.
2. It does not slip and give positive drive.
3. It is most ideal for medium centre to centre distance between two shafts.
4. It gives smaller load on the chain than the belt drive.
5. It has high transmission efficiency (98%).
Now, for 2.4 km/hr speed of tractor the rpm of axle of ground wheel is given by
Nw = 2400160 x I 00/(n x 60) = 2 I .22 rpm
Assume speed of main shaft is 15 rpm
Speed ratio = N 11/ Nshaft = 21.22/ I5 = 1.4
Assume number of teeth on sprocket of axle Na = 15
Number of teeth on sprocket of main shaft Ns = N a x 1.4 = 21
Assume t hat a roller chain with chain pitch p = 19.06 mm is used in the cha in drive.
'' eslGN OF POWE,R TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS .. ... . 61
- --··· . .
Chain speed (JI): The chain speed is given by

V=NxpxRPM
V = chain speed, m/min
N = number of te~th on sprocket of axle
p = chain pitch, m
RPM = revolutions of sprocket per min.
V 15 x 19.0611000 x 21.22
6.67 m/min or 0.01 mis.
:, Therefore, from the chain table of Design Handbook, simplex Roller Chain No. I 2, B- l Roll on
ith'following specifications is selected.
p = 19.06 mm, wt.Im = 1.17 kgf
· -Minimum breaking load (Q) = 2950 kgf
J Width between inner plates (w) = 11.7 mm
-"' Now, assume service factor for chain S.fl = 2.34 and factor of safety= 3 - 5
orse power transmitted by the chain

HP= Q. VI (4500 x s.fl x f.o.s) = 2950 x 6.671 (4500 x 2.34 x 3)
= 0.623 hp
, 0.623 HP is greater than 0.43 hp hence, the selected chain is safe.
'_Iculation of chain length (L)

. Since the chain drive of the machine ~sat an angle 34.5° with the horizontal, take vertical dist,ince
cm and horizontal distance as 32 cm.
Therefore, center to center distance between the two sprockets would be
''! C = (3202 + 2202) 112 = 388.33 mm.
·•·•• ~pproximate center to center distance in number of chain pitches is
CP = 388.33 mm/19.05 mm= 20.38 pitches
Chain l<:._ngth . _LP = 2CP +(Na+ Ns)l2 + {(Ns - Na)/2p} 2ICP
.· re, Na - 15 and Ns - 21
LP = 2 x 20.38 + (15 + 21)/2 +{(21 - 15)/ 2n} 2120.38
= 58.805 take the pitches in whole number so 60 pitches.
Corrected center to center distance of chain sprockets is
· C = e + {(e2 - 8m) 11214} x p
= LP - (Na+ Ns)/2 = 60 - 18 = 42
m = {(Na-Ns)l2n} 2 = 0.912
C = 42 + (422 - 8 x 0.912)''214 x 19.05
C 399.636 mm or 400 mm
·rn·:.
·•" i.·nl
[·!):; it
II l ;fP.
~! 1[,,l!i
1
l!,f~;i 62 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
Pitch diameter of sprocket

Diameter of smaller sprocket da = P/sin ( 180/Na), mm
= 19.05/sin (180/15) = 9.16 cm
Diameter of larger sprocket d5 = P/sin (180/N5 ), mm

= 12.78 cm.
A rotary type power tiller is to be operated by 10 kW diesel engine. The speed ofengine shaft is 970 rpm
and that ofrota,y is to be 330 rpm. The minimum centre distance benveen engine and rotary shafts is to
l:
i
:;>
be 550 mm. Calculate a suitable chain drive for the rotary.
Sol11tio11: Since the speed of diesel engine in the present case is not very high, so we may take lower
chain velocity and a roller chain is selected for the drive.
I. Determine velocity ratio .(VR): The velocity ratio of drive can be determined by following
equation
VR = RPM/RPMr = 970/330 = 2.94
Now, from the chain table which is available in the Design handbook for a velocity ratio of2.94 or
say 3.0, the number of teeth in the pinion is equal to 25
So, Ne= 25
and Nr = Ne x VR = 25 x 2.94 = 74 teeth,
which is within the maximum limit for a roller chain drive.
2. Calculation of chain pitch (p): Chain pitch can be selected by using the relationship
p = Cl (30 to 60) = 550/ (30 to 60) = 18.33 to 9.17 mm.
Now, from the table which is available in the Design Handbook we may select a standard chain
pitch as 12.7 mm.
Also from the Tables of Design Hand Book, we may select a roller chain 08 B with 12.7 mrr
:111ri~ • chain pitch.
3. Chain velocity (JI): The chain velocity is given by
V = p/1000 x RPM/60 x Ne, mis
l'~J11:,
11
where, .p = chain pitch, mm
Ir jlii I 1 RPM rpm of sprocket
1 Ne number of teeth on engine sprocket
V 12.7/1000 x 970/60 x 25 = 5.12 mis
4. Calculation of load in ch~in (Fc): Total load on driving side of the chain is given by
11111 Fc= F+ Fe + Ff
where, Fc = total chain load, N
F = load due to power transmission, N
.. 1:ll!liii
. DESIGN OF POWERTRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS ..... . 63
Fe = centrifugal load on chain, N

F
1
= frictional load, N
Now, F power (kW) x 1000 /V, N
= IO x 1000/ 5. 12 = 1960 N
. and Fe = w.V2lg= 13.6 x (5.1 2)2/9.81
(Because w = 13.6 Nim for duplex chain)
Fe = 36.3 N
Fl k1 w.c
:!
(For inclined drives, ~ = 2.0, horizontal drive, k = 4.0 and vertical drive, kl= 1.0)
1
Then, F = 2.0 x 13.6 x 0.55 = 14.5 N
1
. Therefore, Fe = 1960 N + 36.3 N + 14.5 N = 2010 .8 N.
Now, check for the loading strength of the chain. From the chain table which is available in the
Design Handbook for 088 duplex chain minimum breaking load = 31.8 kN .
and Factor of safety = F 11 (breaking load)/ F c (chain load) = 31.8 x 1000 NI 20 IO N
= 15.8 (which is greater than I 1.0)
Therefore, the chain selected for the rotary is safe.
Therefore, the chain selected for the drive is 08B-2, BIS-2403 .
"~· Calculation of chain length (Le)
l; Tl;e chain length is given by
Le= m x p
m number of chain links
m = 2Clp + (Ne + Nr)/2 + p (N,. - Ne)21 41t2C
P = chain pitch, mm
.. Putting the values we get,
m = 2 x 550/ 12.7 + (25 + 74)/2 + 12.7 (74 - 25)2/41t2 x550
= 137.3 pitches
The nearest even number of pitches for the chain is 138
.· Therefore, revised or corrected length of chain is Le = 138 x 12.7 = 1750 mm and exact center to
.·· enter distance between the sprockets is
.• C = p/4 (m - (Ne + N,.)12+ [{m - (Ne + N,.)/2 }2 - 8(N,. - Ne)2! 2n] 112
= 12.7/4 (138 - (25 .+ 74)/2 + [{ 138 - (25 + 74)/2}2 - 8(74 - 25)2/2n]l/2
= 553 mm ,
· . Also allow for chain slack, so a centh to centre distance of 540 mm is selected.
"' ._3. GEAR DRIVE DESIGN

. ears are toothed wheels or multi-lobed cams used to transmit power and motion at a constant ratio
rorn one rotating shaft to another by means of the positive contact of sucessively engaging teeth.
Gear tooth load: The load on the gear tooth is given by

F 1 =2TID=19. IxI0 6 x kWIDN
= 4500 x HPhtDN = 4500HP/Vm (3.58)
where, F, = tangential force, N
T = torque transmitted, N-m
D = pitch diameter, mm or m
N = RPM of gear or shaft
Vm = pitch line velocity, mpm
Bending strength: The bending strength of gear tooth is given by
cr = 6Mlbh 2 = FB/6bt!h 2
or cr = 6FBtlbh2 (3 .59)
where, M = Bending moment in gear teeth, N-mm
F 8 = bending load in gear teeth, N
b = width of gear face, mm
h = thickness of tooth, mm
= height of tooth, mm
s = maximum allowable bending stress, µ Pascal.
HELICAL GEAR DESIGN
The teeth of a helical spur gear are cut obliquely across the perimeter of the gear instead of straight.
Engagement between two teeth starts at the tooth tip of one gear and rolls down the teeth to the
trailing edge. This angular contact tends to cause side thrusts which the bearings must absorb.
Helical spur gears are quieter in operation and have greater strength and durability than straight spur
gears as the contact area of helical teeths are more. The forces acting on the helical gears (Fig. 3.12)
are given below:
F,
Fi -....., , !
Fa ~ ~ ~J,i;
Fig. 3.12: Forces acting on helical gear

Tangential force (F1): The tangential force acting on the helical gear is given by
Ft = 2T/D = 2M/D =19.1 x 106 x kW/ON (3.60)
= 4500 x HPhtDN = 4500 HP/Vm
Separating force (Fr): The separating force acting on the helical gear is given by
Fr= F1 tan$ (3 .6 I)
Thrust force (F"): The thrust force acting on the helical gear is given by
F0 =-F1 tan « (3.62)
-' DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . .... . 67
· where, q> pressure angle measured in a plane perpendicular to the axis of gear
a. = helix angle measured from the axis of gear.
BEVEL GEAR DESIGN

Plain bevel gears ( Fig. 3 .13) are used to transfer the po'"'.er at right angle. The gear teeth are cut
•straight on a line with the shaft but at some angle between perpendicular and parallel to the shaft. The
two gears are generally called the 'ring gear' and ' pinion gear' which are driven and driving gear
' respectively. The plain bevel gears are used in slow speed applications which are not subjected to
high impact forces. Spiral bevel gears are used where higher speed and strength are required while
, changing the angle of power flow. The various forces acting on the bevel gear are given below:
. Mean tooth load (F1,,): The mean tooth load is given by
F,,,,= 2T/dm (3.63)
Axial force (Fn): Axial forces acting on the bevel gear is given by
Fn = F,111 tan q> sin_ a. (3 .64)
Driven gear
Drive gear
Fig.3.13 Bevel gear drive

Radial force (FR): Radial forces acting on the bevel gear is given by
FR = F1111 tan q> cos a. (3.65)
where, F1m =mean tooth load, N
q> = angle between F,111 and F11, and
a. =cone angle of bevel gears.
PLANETARY GEAR DESIGN
Planetary gears are gear sets in which an outer ring gear has internal teeth which mate with teeth on
smaller planet gears. These gears in turn mate with a center or sun gear. Many changes in speed and
torque are possible, depending on which pa1ts are braked and which are driven. Planetary gears are
widely used in transmission because each set is capable of more than one speed change. The gear
ratios of planetary gear sets are given below:
I. Planet stationary sun rotating
rg = RPM/RPMr= SJS,. = -G,JGs (3 .66)
2. Ring stationary sun rotating
rg = RPM/RPMc = G,JGs + 1 (3 .67)
3. Sun stationary ring rotating
rg= RPM,JRPMc= G/Gr + 1 (3 .68)
where, Ss and S,. = speeds of sun and ring gears
Gr == inner diameter of ring
Gs diameter of sun gear
RPMS = RPM of sun gear
RPM,. = RPM of ring gear
RPMC = RPM of carrier gear
Pinions
Front view
Fig. 3.14: Planetary gear unit
Pinion pitch diameter (Dp)
DP= (2 CD)/ (I + R) (3.69)
where, DP = Pitch diameter of pinion or small gear
CD = Shaft center distance
R = Gear ratio larger than I
Pitch diameter of larger gear (Dg)
Dg=2CD-DP (3.70)
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS ..... . 69
Gear design involves:

1. Adjustment of shaft center distance (CD),
2. Number of teeth on both gears,
3. Gear width,
·· 4 . Pressure angle,
5. Helix or spiral angle,
6. Optimization of gear set ( Both tooth bending and surface compression stress near maximum
allowable),
7. Gear ratio, and
8. Noise control.
In a 12 kW power weeder, spur gear reductions with a drive pinion 250 mm pitch circle diameter and
speed of350 rpm is supported by bearings. Assume gear pressure angle of20°, calculate the total load
due to above power transmission.
So/11tio11:
Given
P 12 kW
D = 250 mm or pinion radius = 125 mm = 0.125 m
N 350 rpm
Now, we know that
Power (P) = (2nN1)/ 60 x 103, kW
or T = (60 x 103 x P)I 2nN
Putting the values, we have
T (60 x 103 x 12kW)/ 2rr x 350
T = 327.2 N-m
Also, we know that in a gear
F 1 = 2TID or Tlr
327.2 N-m/ 0.125 m
2617.6 N
Since, the gear teeth pressure angle (j) is 20°
Therefore,
Total load due to power transmitted through gear drive is
F = F 1 / cos<j>
or F = 2617.6 NI cos 20°
F = 2784.68 N. Ans.
A spur gear drive from electric motor to threshing cylinder is provided. Speed of driving and driven
shafts is 1440 and 720 rpm respectively Distance between both the shafts is about 75 cm. Modulus ol
spur gear tooth is 6 mm. Determine exact center to center distance. Also determine the hp transmilled to
driven gear if tangential force transmitted by the driving gear is 400N.
Solution:
Given
Speed of driving shaft N 1 = 1440 rpm
Speed of driven shaft N 2 = 720 rpm
Center to center distance between driving and driven shafts
CD= 75 cm
Load transmitted by driving gear = 400 N
Let us assume that D 1 and !52 are the pitch circle diameters of driving and driven gears
respectively.
Now for gears we know that
2 CD=D 1 +D2
or (3.71) .
Also we know that

D 1ID2 = T1IT2
or D 11D2
= 2D 1 (3 .72)
Solving eqns. 3.71 and 3 .72, we have
150 Di+ 2D1
or, D 1 = 50 cm and D2 = 2 x 50 cm =100 cm
Now, we know that
Tooth modulus (m) = DIT 0.6
or, Ti = Difm = 50/0.6 = 83.33 say 83 teeth
and T2 Di/0.6 = 100/0.6 = I 66.67 say 167 teeth
Now, exact gear diameters are
Di m T 1 = 0.6 x 83 = 49.8 cm
and, m T2 = 0.6 x 167 = 100.2 cm
Now, = (D 1 + D 2)/ 2 = (49.8 cm+ 100.2 cm)/2

75 cm Ans.
Now, 21tNif60
or, 21t x 1440/60 = 151.2 rad/s
Also we know that,

Peripheral speed of gear
V = (1)1 x Di/2
= 151.2 X 0.498/2
= 37.8 mis
and, Power transmitted by gear drive= P.V/1000, kW
= (400 N x 37.8 m/s)/1000
= 15.12 kW. Ans.
In a tractor drawn rotavato,; the input torque to bevel pinion is 16 kg-m. ff the output torque of
intermediate shaft is to be kept at 145 kg-m, what would be the gear ratio of bevel gear drive? Assume
transmission efficiency as 95%.
Solution:
Given
PTO shaft input torque = 16 kg-m
Driven bevel gear torque = 145 kg-m
Transmission efficiency of drive = 95%
Now,
Drive pinion torque = Input torque x efficiency
= 16 x 0.95 = 15.20 kg-m
Now we know that,
N2T2
or, TifT1
= 145 kg-m/ 15.2 kg-m = 9.54:1 Ans.
In a self-propelled paddy transplante,; a 5 hp diesel engine has reduction between it and drive wheel as
shown in Fig. 3.15. Efficiency ofeach reduction is 95%. lfrated engine speed is 1800 rpm. What are the
rpm and torque of drive wheel ofpaddy transplanter. Also, if the gear change is I. 4 and final drive is
3.86 what would be the power developed at the drive wheel of the machine?
Solution:
Given
Engine power = 5 hp
Engine rpm = 1800
Transmission efficiency _of reduction units = 95%

Gear,change = Rgl = I .40
Final drive = Rgl = 3.86
Now, we know that
HP = (2nNTe)l4500
or, ·5 = (27t x 1800 X Te)/4500
T = 5 x 4500/ (2n x 1800) = 1.99 kg-m
Now, T/Te = 'llt x Rgl = 0.95 x 1.40
·or, Tg 0.95 x 1.40 x Te= 0.95 x 1.40 x 1.99 kg-m
= 2.65 kg-m
Driving
gear Engine
Gear--~
transmission
1====1- Lug
Driven gear
Lugged ground
wheel
Fig. 3.15: Gear transmission of paddy transplanter
Similarly, T\/Tg = 11, x Rg2 = 0.95 x 3.86

or, ~v = 0.95 x 3.86 x Tg = 0.95 x 3.86 x 2.65 kg-m
= 9.705 kg-m
Also, we know that drive wheel speed is given by
~v = N/ (Rgl x Rg2) = 1800 rpm / ( 1.40 x 3.86)
= 540.4 rpm
Considering transmission efficiencies of.the reduction unit
Niv = 540.4 x 0.95 x 0.95
Now, drive wheel power or drawbar power is given by
Wheel power (hp) = (21tNwTw)/4500
= 27t X540.4 ; X 9.705/4500
= 7.32 hp.
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS .•.... 73
3.4 COMBINATION DRIVES

In this section problems related with combination drives like Y-belt and chain drive, V-bel t and gear
drive, and chain and gear drives as per loads and requirements are explained through solved examples.
. ·iat!~iA~~~Il\t) . ,
Design power transmission system of tractor PTO operated rotavator (I. 0 m length). The tractor PTO
· power is transmitted to the rotavator shaft through 90° bevel gear box and chain sprocket drive as
shown in Fig. 3.16.
·. • So/11tio11: Design power: The system is designed for an input PTO power of 40 hp as the power
<"required for rotary implement is 1.0 hp/2.5 cm width of implement ( Kepner et. al., 1978).
From PTO
Intermediate
shaft
Sprocket-
. _ Bevel gear box
Cutting blade
Sprocket-
Fig. 3.16: Power transmission system of tractor drmvn rotavator
Bevel gear drive design
Torque to be transmitted by PTO shaft of tractor -is

Tpto = PTO HP x 60 x 75/ 2nN
Tpto = 40 x 60 ·x 75/(27t x 540) = 53.02 kg-m
where, N = standard PTO speed, 540 rpm.
Now, torque in input shaft Tin shaft= Tpto = 53 .02 kg-m
Assume the speed ratio of bevel gear box is 2.5: 1
Let, teeth in driving pinion is 14
Teeth in driven bevel gear is = 14 x speed ratio= 14 x 2.5 = 35 teeth
Therefore, speed of driven shaft = 540 x (14135) = 216 rpm

Now, torque in driven shaft = T;11 shaft speed ratio= 53.02
x x 2.5
= 53.02 x 2.5 = 132.50 kg-m.
Sprocket-chain drive design
Now, Speed of driven shaft = 216 rpm

Torque in driven shaft (T) = 132.50 kg-m
Speed ratio of chain drive is = 1.4 to 2: I.
According to Sharma and Aggarwal ( 1996) for above velocity ratio a smaller sprocket of 9-10
teeth may be taken. So, sprocket of 10 teeth is selected. The design details of the chain are as
follows :
(a) Pitch of roller chain (p) The roller chain pitch may be taken as:
p = Cl20 to Cl30 for pulsating loads
where, C : center to center distance between two shafts = 500 mm
So, p = 25 to I 6.66 mm
But, standard pitches in this range are I 9.05 and 25.40 mm
Considering pulsating load, a higher value of chain pitch i.e 25.40 mm is taken.
(b) Roller chain speed (JI)
V = p.n.ZI (60 x I 000), m/s
where, p = chain pitch, 25.40 mm
n = shaft rpm, (2 I 6 rpm in present case)
Z = number teeth on sprocket
or, V= 25.40 x 216 x 10 / (60 x l000) = 0.914 mis.
(c) Driving force in chain (F11): Total circumferential/driving force acting on chain (F1; is given
by
Fl/ =2 x p x 1000 x Tl (Z x p) =2 x 1000 x TIZ
=2 x l000 x 132.50/10 = 3280.0 kgf.
Now, tension in chain due to sagging (F1)
Fr = K1 X C
where, K_r chain drive arrangement coeff, adopt 2.0 for the present case
C center to center distance, 500 mm
FI 2.0 x 5.00 = 10 kgf
Neglecting tension in chain due to centrifugal force
Now, total tension (Fe) in tight side of the chain = F11 + F1
Fe= 3280 + 10 = 3290 kgf
(d) Breaking strength of chain (Fb): Now, we know that

Fb = Fe x f.o.s
Fb = 3290.0 kgf x 4 = 13160 kgf
Now, to meet the design requirements, a triplex roller chain with 25.40 mm pitch (16B-3) was
selected as per BIS-2403-1975. Minimum breaking load Fb of the chain is 13185 kgf which is more than
calculated value. Therefore, the chain is safe for breakage.
Design ofpower transmission ofrota1y harvester (disc type) as shown in Fig. 3.17.
Solution: In this type of machine rotary cutters have discs rotating in a horizontal plane. The discs
are counter rotating pairs. Disc speed is about 3000--5 000 rpm. Two cutting knives are mounted on
· each disc. The power taken from PTO through telescoping shaft and then through belt pulley
arrangement transmitted to short counter-shaft which transmits the power through helical gears to
main drive shaft as shown in Fig. 3.16 and discs are mounted on main drive shaft.
Short counter shaft
Horizontal shaft (Main drive shaft)
Coupling
)0
Bevel
gear
Small Large
pulley pulley
PLAN
' Knife
ELEVATION
Fig. 3.17 Power transmission elements of rotary harvester

Theoretical design considerations:

I. Minimum deflection of stalk by the machine prior to cutting is essential for uniform stubble
length.
2. For good quality cutting and minimum power requirement it is desirable to have a high rotary
speed of cutting device during the ·cutting operation.
3. Cutting over a relatively large part of cycle tends to reduce stalk deflection from the rear and
reduces the cutting forces.
4. Unbalanced forces should be minimum.
5. Better efficiency can be obtained at fairly high forward speed.
6. Provision of overload safety device as slip clutch.
7. Offset of n't"achine must be balanced with some dead weight.
The main components to be designed are:
(i) Knife (ii) Disc (iii) Shafts (iv) Bevel gears (v) Pulley and gear arrangement, and (vi) Slip
clutch
Design approach: The design approach for this machine is for a particular tractor say 25 hp and
to utilize full power of tractor for operation of this machine.
Now, tractor power = 25 hp
PTO power of tractor = 25 hp x 75/100 = 18.8 hp
Standard RPM of tractor PTO = 540
So torque developed at 540 pto rpm of shaft is
HP = 21t NT/4500 or T = 18.8 hp x 4500 /(21t x 540) = 24.9 kg-m = 2490 kg-cm.
This torque is transmitted to short counter shaft with belt and pulley arrangement with velocity
increase two times
So, HP= 21t N 1Tif4500 =21t N2 Tif4500
N 2 = 540 x 2 = I 080 rpm
Therefore, T2 = 540 x 2490 / I 080 = 1245 kg-cm
This torque is transmitted to horizontal shaft at bevel gear ratio of 1. 7
So, speed N 3 = 1080 x 1.7 =J835 rpm
Therefore, torque T3 = I 245 x I 080 / 1835 = 732.5 kg-cm
This torque is transmitted to vertical shaft at speed ratio of 1.7
So, N4 = 1835 x 1.7 = 3120 rpm
Therefore, torque in vertical shaft of harvester is
T4 = 732.5 kg-cm x 1835 / 3120 = 430 kg-cm
This is the torque available at cutting blade. But, some power is lost in transmission due to friction,
slippage etc. So, assume 5% torque is lost in transmission.
So, loss in torque 2490 .kg~cm x 5/100 = 124 kg-cm.
So, net torque available in the shaft= 430 - 124 = 306 kg-cm.
Calculation of cutting force: The calculation of cutting force is based on following assumptions:
I. For a crop or grass the dynamic shear strength is = 2 kg/cm 2
2. The average diameter of stem cut = 3 mm
Then, cutting force
F= a x n 0 x c0
And, torque for 2-rotor machine is = 2 x 141 = 282 kg-cm which is almost near to 306 kg-cm
So, rotor diameter is 80 cm
Diameter of disc= 80 - 2 x 7.5 cm= 65 cm
The clearance provided between two rotors is l cm
So, total cutting width of harvester = 2 x 80 + I = 161 cm or 1.61 m
The cutting knife is designed on the basis of bending consideration. Assume knife acts as a
cantilever to disc.
The maximum bending moment (M) = 3.54 kg x 7.5 cm= 26.6 kg-cm.
Assuming allowable shear stress fs = 250 kg/cm 2 (after factor of safety)
L = 7 .5 cm b = 5 cm t =?
I = tb 3!12 andy= b/2
Now, fsl y = Mil or~- /(b/2) = Ml (tb 3/12)
or, f/M = 6/tb2 or, t = 6 x Mllfs x b2 ) = 6 x 26.6/ (250 x 25) = 1/39 cm.
It is very very low. So, we can assume t = 0. I cm.
Design of belt pulley arrangement
The diameters of both the pulleys are determined on the basis of velocity ratio as
NifN 1 = D 1JD2 = 2
Let the diameter of one pulley D 1 is taken as 20 cm
So, D 2 = Dif2 = 20/2 = 10 cm
Length of belt
Assume that center to center distance between the driver and driven pulleys is 60 cm,
D 1 = 20 cm and D3 = 10 cm as selected above
So, the belt length (L) is given by
L = 2C + n: (D 1 + D 2)/2 + (D 1 - D 2 )2!4C
or, L = 2 x 60 cm + n: (20 +10)/2 + (20 - 10)2/(4 x 60)
L = 120 + 49.10 + 0.42 =- 169.52 (say 170 cm)
Therefore, C-170 belt is selected for the belt drive of harvester.
Shaft Design
The shafts are designed from torque applied by the prime mover as as follows:
T= rc/16 d3 is
1. Shaft attached with PTO: T1 = 1t/l6 d 13 fs
7t 3 7t 3
2490 kg-cm=-difs =-xd1 x250
16 16
3 _ 2490x 16
d 1-
3.14x 250
d 1 =3.7 cm
2. Short counter shaft: T2 = 1t/l 6 di3 fs
7t ~ 7t 3
1245 kg-cm= -d2fs = - x d2 x 250
16 16
3 _ 1245x16
d 2-
3.14x 250
d 2 =2.9 cm
3. Horizontal shaft: T3 = 1t/l 6 dl is
732.5 kg-cm= 1t/16 d 33 fs = 1tl16 di x 250
dl = 732.5 x 16/ (3.14 x 250) = 11700/7.85 = 14.9
d3 = 2.46 cm
4. Vertical shaft T4 = 1t!l 6 di fs (The material of all shafts is mild steel)
,, 7t 3 7t 3
4.)0 kg-cm= -d4 fs =-x d 4 x 250
16 I6
3 _ 430x 16
d4 -
3. 14 x 250
d = 2.06 cm
4
Design of bevel gears

The following points should be taken into account while designing a gear drive for a particular
service:
• The gear should have sufficient strength so that, it does not fail at starting torques under
dynamic running conditions.
• The teeth must have very good wear characteristics so that the life of gear is long.
• The suitable material must h~ve very good wear characteristics so that life of gear is long.
• The drive should be compact and properly designed.
• Proper lubrication arrangement should be made.
DESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . . ... . 79
I. Pitch diameters of bevel gears

By taking number of teeth N and module m
Then, D 1 = PCD=N x m/ 10
Velocity ratio = VR = I. 7
Take cr2 = l/VR =I/1.7 or, cr2 = 30.4° and cr 1 = 90° - 30.4° = 59.6°
The reference angle for tooth of gear= 30.4° pinion= 59.6°
Pitch line Velocity: Pitch line velocity of pinion and gear is
Vm = 3.14 x D 1 x N 1/ (60 x 100), mis.
2. Determination of maximum tooth load

Assuming that the full load is transmitted on the entire length of rotor which is driven by these
gears. So, the transmitted tooth load is given by
Ft= HP x 75/V,II, kgf.
3. Materials for bevel gears and designed stresses

Let the material for gears be I 5Ni2Crl Ho 15 having ultimate strength cr 11 = 9000 kg/cm 2
Taking factor of safety 2.5 for the case hardened steel
Then, design stress sd = cr/2.5, kgf/cm2 .
4. Dynamic load on bevel gears

The dynamic load on bevel gear is given by
Fd = CvNs/Km F1
where, Fd = dynamic load, kgf
Cv = velocity factor= 3.5 + V,,,0•5/3.5, where V = mean velocity
111
Nsf = service factor = 1.5
= load distribution factor= 1.25
K 111
F 1 = tooth load
Find Fd =? kgf
5. Calculation of Pc and P,1

The circular pitch = Pc = A m
Diametric pitch Pd IIm
6. Calculation of face width

Adopting a 20° in volute teeth profile, the gear Lewis form factor(}'? is given by
Y =0. 154 -0.912/Zv
For straight bevel gears = Z/cos cr 1 or Z/cos cr2 = Z11
Zv = virtual number of teeth
80 . FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
Z 1 and Z2 = number of teeth in pinion and gear respectively

cr 1 and cr2 = reference cone angle in degrees
Also, Yv = re x Y
Applying Lewis eqn., we get
Fs= au .b. Yv. (I -b/R)/Pd
where, Fs = strength of tooth in. kgf
crll design bending stressl. 3200kg/cm2 for used material
R cone distance ; b = face width ; Pd= diametrial pitch
If b is small, then we can take another value.
Check for dynamic load

Dynamic load (Fd) is given by Buckingham equation
Fd = F + 2lv(c.f + F,) ,N
' 2Iv+.Jcf + F,
where F = Tooth load, Kgf
I
v. = Velocity of gear, mis.
f = face width, m
kxe
C ,Nim
l 1
-+-
Ep Eg
where k = a factor depending upon the form of the tooth (0.111 for 20° full depth system)
e = tooth action error
EP = Young's modulus for pinion, N/m2
Eg = Young's modulus for gear, Nlm 2
Vm = pitch line velocity in/s
c = constant whose values for 20° full length steel gear is given by c = 11860 x e
E = permissible error in action corresponding to a pitch line velocity V
Therefore, Fd must be below the maximum permissible contact compressive stress.
Check for wear load
Formula for maximum wear is given by
Drf.Kw.Q
F.,,= '·
cosrP
where DP = pitch diameter of pinion, m
f = face width, m
kw = load stress factor for fatigue= kw=

fe; 1.xsin$[ EP1 + EK1 ] in N/m 2
4
OESIGN OF POWER TRANSMISSION COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS . .... . 81
where fes = surface endurance limit of gear pair, N.m2

$ pressure angle
EP young's modulus for pinion, N/m2
Eg young's modulus for gear, N/m 2
22
Q = ratio factor = Q= Jg
ZfiJ+Zfg
where z1g = number of teeth in gear
ZfiJ = number of teeth in pinion
'Yp; =: cone angle of pinion.
1
EXERCISE
I
1. Determine the horsepo,w er transmitted by pulley on main shaft of a power thresher running at
l 000 rpm having a width of 18 cm. Also determine the rpm of driven pulley if the diameter of driver
pulley is 25 cm,.
2. Determine the belt length of open belt drive and crossed belt drives with diameters of driver and
driven pulleys as 50 cm and 15 cm respectively. Take center to center distance between two shafts as
90cm.
3. Determine the net tension ( difference between tight side and slack side) of a V-belt drive, transmitting
l 0 hp. The diameter of driving pulley is 50 cm and running at a speed of 450 rpm.
4. A rolling machine is powered by electric motor with a V-belt drive to a gear box. The motor rated speed
is 1440 rpm and roller rotates at 90 rpm. The gearbox gear ratio is 9: 1, its efficiency is 95% and its
output shaft is direcUy connected to the roller it drives. The motor p9lley is 7 .5 cm diameter and V-belt
system is 95% efficient.
(1) What will be the size of pulley on the gear box shaft?
(ii) When motor is delivering 5 hp, what torque and hp are being delivered to the roller?
5. Design a gear type power transmission system of horizontal plate planter for 6.3 cm spacing (seed
spacing) using ground wheel dia of 65 cm. The gear ratio is such that the rotor makes 30 revolution/
min for a constant forward speed of 5 km/h of power source. Assume rotor speed of21 m/min gives
80% cell fill and speed ratio between ground wheel and rotor as 5:3.
6. A spur gear drive transmits 10 kW from high speed shaft running at 1440 rpm to low speed shaft
running at 360 rpm. The starting torque is 50% higher than average running torque. Determine the
bending stress in the gear teeth if width of gear is 2.5 cm, diametral pitch is 2 cm and pinion has 30
teeth. The gear and pinion are of20° full depth involute type.
7. In a spur gear driver, the speed ratio between driver and driven shaft is 10.0. lfthe driven shaft is to be
operated at 1000 rppi and number of teeth on gear fitted on this shaft is 21 teeth. Determine the number
of teeth on driving gear and its speed of operation. Also determine the centre distance between two
shafts if the gears have a tooth module of 12 mm.
CHAPTER 4
Design of Tillage Implements
The tillage operations, defined as mechanical manipulation of soil, are performed to achieve the
desired seedbed to provide optimum environment for seed germination and plant growth. Seedbed
preparation for sowing/planting of different crops is done through primary and secondary tillage
operations.
Primary tillage refers to deep ploughing which is done to achieve a desired granular soil structure
for a seedbed and to allow rapid infiltration and good retention of moisture, to provide adequate air
exchange capacity within the soil and to minimize resistance to root penetration and shoot growth.
Mould board plough, disc plough, soil stirring plough, ridger plough are used to break soil and invert
furrow slice to control weeds.
Secondary tillage refers to shallow cultivation which is done to produce a granular soil structure in
the final seedbed by breaking the clods left by primary tillage implements. Cultivators and disc
harrows are used for breaking the clods. Power driven implements like rotavators disintegrate the
clods over a wide range of soil moisture and provide uniform and fine size clods or aggregates in
seedbed .
4.1. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR MOULD BOARD PLOUGH
It is a primary tillage equipment used primarily in areas with sufficient rainfall for better inversion,
green manuring, burying the heavy weed growth underneath the soil for proper decay.
Tractor mounted mould board plough [Fig. 4.1 (a)] consists of share point, share, mould board,
landslide, frog, shank, frame and hitch system. The share point is of bar type and is made from high
carbon steel or low alloy steel. The share js also made from high carbon steel or low alloy steel. Both
are hardened and tempered to suitable hardness (about 45 HRC). The working of the plough is
controfled by hydraulic system lever and three point linkage. Its bar point makes it suitable to break
hard pan of the soil. Various terminology related with the mould borad plough is discussed in detail. .
Implement draft (D): The implement draft is given by
D=K+MR (4.1)
ll< :· where D = implement draft, kg or N
; ., .
K= soil and crop resistance, kg or N

i
!·-,
I.·.··.•.•
;. f '
·•·•·. '··•···l··
· · ... ' .
MR = total implement motion resistance, kg or N
ill;
:•;1·.1
11
..· •.
•-ir
DESIGN OF TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS 83
Fig. 4.1 (a): Tractor drawn two bottom mould board plough
Also,
DBHP = (0.65 to 0.70) BHP (4.2)
Alternatively, DBHP = D.S/75 (4 .3)
where, D = draft, kg
S = tractor speed, mis
or Pdb= D.S/3.6 (4.4)
where, P db= draw-bar power, kW
D = implement draft, kN
S = tractor speed, km/h
Alternatively,
D = DBHP x 75/S (4.5)
or D = Pdb x 3.6/S (4.6)
Also,
Draft (D) = Unit draft x Cross sectional area
D = K.n.a.b (4.7)
where, K = unit draft, kg/mm2 or N/mm 2
n = number of bottoms
a = depth of ploughing, mm
b = width of furrow slice, mm
Using eqn. 4.5 or 4.6 and 4.7, select the size of plough bottom and number of bottoms to. match
power source.
Tractive effort of a plough: The trative effort of a plough is given by

P = f G + K.a.b + i=; abv2 (4.8)
where, P = tractive effort of plough, N
f = coeffiicient of resistance, 0.5 for stubble and 1.0 for clover bottoms respectively
G = plough weight, N
a = depth of ploughing, cm
b = width of furrow slice, cm
v = velocity of plough, mis
i=; = constant depending on mould board surface= 150-200 kgf-s2/m4
K = unit draft of plough, N/cm 2.The unit draft of plough for different types of soil is given
in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Unit draft of plough (K) for different types of soil
Soil type K, N/c11t2
Light soil 2.1-4. l
Medium soil 3.4-6.2
Heavy soil 5.88-9.7
Very heavy soil 8.82-14.71
Components of plough draft (Rx): Plough draft along vertical plane (Ry) and lateral plane (Rz) are
as given by
'
. R=· -~ 0.2 Rx
. Ry = (0.27-0.47) Rx
where, Rx = draft of plough, N
Design Procedure for Mould Board Ploughs C
1. Establish following points:
• Type and kind of mould board
• Tillage depth, a
I
I
• Furrow slice width, b
• b/a ratio (1.1 to 1.5)
2. Decide the angles of share Refer Fig. 4.1 (b) B
Load angle = 14-18 degrees
a = Load angle
Share angle = 35-45 degrees 'l' = Cutting angle
A 85 = Share setting angle
Cutting angle = 22-28 degrees
Fig. 4.1 (b): Details of various angle of share.
3. Calculate drawbar horse power (DBHP) of tractor
DBHP = 60% of BHP
4. Calculate drawbar pull
Drawbar pull available from tractor is given by
DBHP = Pull (kg) x speed (m/min)

4500
Pull (kg) = DBHP x 4500

(4.9)
speed(m/min)
5. Calculation of width of implement (Wi)
The width of an implement (W;) can be calculated from the following formula:
D
W; = - -1 - in cm (4. I 0)
ndPR
where, D; = draft requirement of implement, kg
n = number of bottoms in M B plough
dp = depth of plowing, cm
R = specific resistance of soil, kg/cm2
6. Forces acting on M.B plough bottom
Various forces acting on plough bottom are shown in Fig. 4.2.
s
Fig. 4.2: Forces acting on mould board plough bottom
Draft (D) = P cos 0 cos a.
Side draft (S) =p cose sin a.
Vertical component ( V) = P sin e cos a
where, P = Pull of plough, kg or N
0 -= Angle of pull with horizontal plane, degrees
a = Angle of pull with vertical plane, degrees
7. Design of share of M.B plough

(i) The best throat angle (share angle) of the share should be an angle along which soil rupture
takes place.
Soil shear angle (0) = 45° - q> ( 4.11)
where, q> = angle of friction between metal and soil.
(ii) Now, the share may be assumed like a rectangular plate of area (.1 ABC+ .1 BCD) subjected to .-fi
bending. Refer Fig. 4.3 .
B E
Fig. 4.3: Shape of share of mould board plough

The equivalent rectangular dimensions of share can be taken as CE and BF and calculated as:
From the similar triangles ABC and BCF
AC/BC = BC/BF or BF= BC2/AC
Also in triangle ABC, AB/BC= sin p. Therefore, find angle p
Also from triangle CED, LP + Les+ LCED = 180°
or, LCED = 180° - LP - es
(iii) Find value of CE by using sine ~heorem.
CD/sin LCED = CE/sin L es
(iv) Calculate the total soil pressure on the share.
Unit draft of medium soil = 0.5 kg/cm2 and factor of safety as 2.0.
Therefore, unit draft of share = 0.5 kg/cm2 x f.o.s = 0.5 x 2.0 = 1.0 kg/cm 2.
(v) Total design draft of plough bottom = width x depth x unit draft
The total draft force will act on entire area of share. It is assumed that the soil pressure is uni-
formly distributed on the share.
Total area of share = area of BCD + area of ABC
(vi) Therefore, soil pressure on share= total load, kg/ area of share cm 2
This load is acting on the share at ~, = 20°
(vii) Calculate length breadth ratio of share = Lib
(viii) Calculate share thickness (t)
In the design of plough share law of bending ofrectangular plate with one side fixed and three sides
freely supported may be applied. For uniformly distributed loads on rectangular plate.
Smax = B. F. b2!t2 (4.12)

where, Smax = max. Stress developed in share, kg/cm 2
F = uniformly distributed load, kg/cm2
b = width of shank, cm
t = thickness of share, cm
B = a constant, depends on length-breadth ratio of share
_Determine thickness of share by putting values in eqn. 4.12.
8. Design of land side of M.B. Plough
Landside is a long flat metal piece bolted to the side of frog and acts as one side of the wedge fonned
with the share of mould board plough as given in Fig. 4.4 (a) and (b). It takes side thrust of plough
bottom caused during turning of furrow slice. Usually force encountered by the landside is about
25-50% of longitudinal force (Pull) acting on the plough bottom. ·
Top hitc~. point ..
_ _ Curved boam
Lowor hitch pin
Land sldo
Fig. 4.4 (a): Components of two bottom mould board plough
~
~ - o_ _o _ _____.I f
Fig. 4.4 (b): Landside of mould board plough

Length of landside (L1s)
Length of landside (L1s) is calculated by using following expression:
L = _!_ x _
_ b_c_os_¢
; ___
(4.13)
is 2 sin a cos(¢ + a)
Where, L1s = length of landside from the point of share to heel of landside, cm
B = width of landside, cm
~ = angle of soil granular friction, degrees
,.
I 88 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS;
i a = inclination of pull with vertical plane, degrees

Width of landside (b)
i
I
Usually width of landside is taken as one third of throat width of share of plough bottom.
Thickness of landside (t)
For determination of thickness of landside, it is assumed that the side is fixed on one end and the
other ends are free and side thrust is uniformly distributed over entire area oflandside. Now permissible
I
I
stress in the landside is given by
Where, J;
J; = W. L/13 t2
= permissible stress in the landside, kg/cm 2 or N/mm 2
W = uniformly distributed load on landside surface. kg/cm2 or N/mm2
(4.14)
l T = thickness of landside, cm or mm
l 9. Design of Beam of M.B plough:

The M.B plough bottom of tractor drawn plough is attached to a curved beam (Fig. 4.4). As the
beam is curved therefore, theory of bending of curved beams is applied. According to theory of
curved beams of rectangular section, the bending stress is given by
I= M.y
A.e.(R0 + y)
Where,/= bending stress at any point at 'y' distance from neutral axis= 500 kg /cm 2 •
M = maximum bending moment induced in the beam = Maximum draft x distance
R,, = the initial radius of neutral surface, cm = R - e
e= distance between the neutral axis and the principal axis through centroid, cm
A = area of cross section of beam, cm 2
There will be tension on the inner side and compression on the outer side of the beam . If the beam
is assumed to be of square section, each side measuring X cm, then· the value of 'e' can be determined
by using the relationship
The stress produced in the beam can be calculated by using equation 4. 15 and the value of X can be
determined by hit and trial method by using allowable stress in the beam based on material of the beam.
Ro x/2
Ro
J . ---• ---------•
e
-.t,---i--------__.---+--t--
I ----
Principal axis
•
x/2
Fig. 4.5: Cross section of beam of M.B plough
10. Design of frog: The frog is one solid piece to suit fitting of share, mould board and landside with
considerable strength. It is usually made from pressed steel sheet, cast steel or welded steel. The
hardness of frog made from steel casting should be 130-201 HB and for heavy duty cast iron the
hardness should be of 160-260 HB.
Design a mould board plough for 30 hp tract01:(Fig. 4.6)
Fig. 4.6: Tractor drawn mould board plough

Solution: Given brake horse power (BHP) of tractor = 30 hp

t. Calculating drawbar horse power (DBHP): Drawbar horse power (DBHP) is given by
DBHP = 60% ofBHP-
DBHP = 0.60 x 30 = 18 hp
2. Calculating draw bar pull: Drawbar pull available from tractor is given by
DBHP "' Pull (kg) x speed (m/min)

4500
Pull (kg) = DBHf x 4500

speed (fn/~in)
For proper ploughing with M.B. Plough, the speed of operation should be 4-6 km/hr. Hence, let the
speed of ploughing be 5 km /hr. Therefore, the pull is given by
Pull (k ) = 18 x 4500 = 972 k

g 5000/60 g
3. Calculation of width of implement: The width of an implement (W;) can be calculated from the
following formula
D·
~ =--'- incm (4. 17)
ndµR
where, D; = draft requirement of i_mplement, kg

n = number of bottoms in M B plough
dp = depth of ploughing, cm
Draft is the horizontal component of pull. Here, in this example let us assume that the draft is equal
to pull, the number of bottoms in the MB plough is two, maximum depth of ploughing is 20 cm and the
type of soil is medium soil whose specific resistance is 0.5 kg/cm 2• ·
Putting values in the eqn. 4.17, we get,
972
W; = - - - - = 48.6 cm
2 x 20x 0.5
Therefore, the width of one bottom of MB plough is 45 cm.
So, the details of designed MB plough would be
Size of plough : 2 x 45 cm
Depth of ploughing : 20 cm
Speed of operation : 5 km/hr.
4. Forces acting on M.B plough: Now, for a medium size MB plough, the weight= 250 kg.
Also assume that line of pull makes an angle of20° with the horizontal and lies in vertical plane which
is at an angle of 15° with direction of motion (Fig. 4.7).
Fig. 4.7: Forces acting on mould board plough bottom

Therefore, various forces acting on plough bottom are:
• Draft (D) = P cos 20° cosl5° = 972 x 0.9397 x 0.9659 = 882.24 kg.
• Side draft (S) = P cos 20° sin 15° = 972 x 0.9397 x 0.2588 = 236.38 kg.
• Vertical component (V) = P sin 20° cosl5o =972 x 0.3420 x 0.9659 = 321.09 kg.
5. Design of share of mould board plough: Since the size of bottom is 45 cm, therefore, throat
width of share will be 45 cm. The best throat angle of the share should be an angle along which soil
rupture takes place.
We know that
Soil shear angle (0s) = 45° - ($/2)
where, ~ = angle of friction between metal and soil (for medium soil we may assume $ = 20°)
Therefore, 0s = 45° - 20°/2 =35°.
Shin
Horizontal suction
Vertical suction Share
Fig. 4.8: Share of mould board plough

BF = b = breadth of share
CE = L = length of share
CE =47·79 cm
BF = 46.60cm
CD = 64.26 cm
BC =45 cm
B E
78.45 cm
I◄ ►I
Fig. 4.9: Dimensions of share of mould board plough
Referring to Fig. 4.9
We see from right angled triangle BCD that,
tan 35° = BC/CD
or CD = BC/ tan 35°
= 45 x 1.428 = 64.26 cm
Also, BD = (BC2+CD2) 112
= {(45)2+ (64.26)2} 112
= 78.45 cm.
e, may be taken from I 2-15 cm (say 12 cm in the present case).
Therefore, in right angled triangle ABC
AC= (BC2 -AB2) 112
= {(45)2 - (12)2} 112 = 43.37 cm.
Now, the share may be assumed like a rectangular plate subjected to bending. The equivalent dimen-
sions of share can be taken as CE and BF.
Now, from the similar triangles ABC and BCF.
AC/BC = BC/BF
or BF= BC2/AC = (45)2/43.37 = 46.69 cm.
Also in triangle ABC,
AB/BC= sin j3 =12/45
or, j3 = 15.47°.
Also from triangle CED,
LP+ L8s+L CED == 180°
or, L CED = 180° - 15.47° - 35° = 129.53°.
Find value of CE by using sine theorem
CD/ sin LCED = CE/sin L85
or, 64.26/ sin 129.53° = CE/ sin 35°
or CE= 64.26 x 0.5736/0.77 12 = 47.79 cm.
Therefore, BF== 46.6 cm and CE= 47.79 cm.
We know that unit draft of medium soil = 0.5 kg/cm 2.
Also take factor of safety as 2.0.
Therefore, unit draft of share == 0.5 kg/cm 2 x f.o.s = 0.5 x 2.0 = 1.0 kg/cm 2
Total design draft of plough bottom = width x depth x unit draft
= 45 cm x 20 cm x I kg/cm 2
= 900 kg.
The total draft force will act on entire area of share. It is assumed that the soil pressure is uniformly
distributed on the share.
Now, total area of share = Area of BCD + area of ABC
= 1/2 (BC x CD+ AB x AC).
= 1/2 (45 X 64.26 + J2 X 43.37)
= 1706.07 cm 2
Therefore, soil pressure on share = Total load, kg/ Area of share, cm 2
= 900 kg/ 1706.07 kg/cm 2
= 0.528 kg/cm 2.
This load is acting on the share at \If = 20°
Therefore, unit load normal to share = 0.528 x sin 20° = 0.181 kg/cm 2
Now, length breadth ratio of share= Lib= 47.79/46.69 = 1.023
ln the design of plough share law of bending of rectangular plate with one side fixed and three sides
freely supported may be applied.
Therefore, for uniformly distributed loads on rectangular plate.
Smax = B. F. b2/ t2
where, Smax = max. Stress developed in share, kg/cm2
F = uniformly distributed load, kg/cm 2
b = width of share, cm
t ·= thickness of share, cm
B = a constant, depends on length-breadth ratio of share
Now, in the present case Lib = 1.023 and value of B = 0.520 (from hand book)
Therefore, S111ax = 0.520 x 0.179 kg/cm 2 x ( 45)2Jt2
- . 2
Take Smax - 800 kg/cm
or i2 = 0.520 x 0.179 x ( 45)2/ 800
or t = 0.485 cm say 5 mm size
6. Design of landside of mould board plough: The throat width of plough share is 45 cm and angle
of friction between metal and medium soil is assumed as 20°. The material of construction of landside
is taken as mild steel which has permissible tensile stress of 800 kg/cm2 , bending stress of 1400 kg/cm2
and shear stress of 700 kg/cm2 • Let us assume that the force encountered by landside is 40% of
longitudinal draft force.
Now, Pull developed by 30 hp tractor = 972 kg
a= 15° (Practically measured) and
~ = 20°
Therefore,
Side draft of plough (S) = P cos 20° sin 15° = 972 x 0.9397 x 0.2588 = 236.38 kg
Since, the plough has two bottoms, so, side draft on each bottom of plough= 236.38 kg/2
Side draft= 118.19 kg
Alternatively,
Draft = Width of bottom (cm) x depth of ploughing (cm) x unit draft (kg/cm2)
= 45 cm x 20 cm x 0.5 kg/cm2 = 450 kg
Also, side draft = 40% of total draft = (40/100) x 450 kg = 180 kg
So, we can take higher value of side draft for design of landside.
~[£_o___ o _ _ ____.I
Lis - - - - - - - - - - . i
i
Fig. 4.10: Landside of mould board plough
Now,
Take width of landside as one third of share width. = 45 crn/3 = 15 cm
Length of landside is determined by using eqn. 4.18.
L,.. 1 _ _bcos¢
= -x _ _ _ c_ _
(4.18)
2 sin a cos(¢+ a)
Where, L1s = length of landside from the point of share to heel of landside, cm
b = width of landside, cm
~ = angle of soil granular friction, degrees
a = inclination of pull with vertical plane, degrees
Putting values in eqn. 4.18, we get
L1s = (l/2) 15 cos 20°/(sin 15° cos (20° + 15°)
Or L 1s = (1/2) 15 x 0.9397 I (0.2588 x 0.819) = 33.25 cm

So, provide landside of33 cm long & 15 cm wide.
Now, area of landside = Length x width = 33 cm x 15 cm = 495 cm2
Maximum side draft (S) taken by the landside = 180 kg
So, uniformly distributed load over the landside surface (W) is= Side draft/ Area of landside
W = 180 kg/ 495 cm2
= 0.3636 kg/cm 2
Let us take factor of safety as 4.0
Yield strength of mild steel = 2000 kg/cm2
Therefore, permissible stress in landside ifr) = 2000/4.0 = 500 kg/cm 2
Since the landside is fixed from one end other ends are free. Therefore we can take effective length
of landside 15 cm which is subjected to bending.
For landside suppotted on one end the stress is given by
. I = W• Le21 3 12
f, (4.19)
2
Where, f, = permissible stress in the landside, kg/cm2 or N/mm
W = uniformly distributed load on landside surface, kg/cm 2 or N/mm2
t = thickness of landside, cm or mm
Le = effective length of landside, cm or mm
Putting values in eqn. 4.19 we get,
500 = 0.3636 X (I 5)2 / 3 X t2
Or, 12 = 0.3636 x 225 I 3 x 500 = 0.05454
Or, t = 0.2335 cm say 0.25 cm or 25 mm
Hence designed d.imensions oflandside are:
Length (L,s) = 33 .0 cm
Width (b) = I 5.0 cm
Thickness (t) = 25 mm
7. Design of beam:
The beam of plough bottom (Fig.4.4 a) is designed based on maximum draft under extreme soil
conditions which is given by
Total draft of bottom = W (share width) x depth of ploughing x specific resistance of soil (kg/cm 2)
Assume Unit draft of heavy soil encountered = 1.25 kg/cm 2
Throat width of share of plough bottom = 45 cm
Assume radii.JS of curvature of beam = 20 cm
Ground clearance of beam = 40 cm
Therefore, total draft of bottom= 45 cm x 20 cm x 1.25 kg/cm2 = 1125 kg
Now, bending moment in the beam, M = Draft x ground clearance
M = 1125 kg x 40 cm = 45000 kg-cm
Take factor of safety as 4.0 considering impact forces while the plough encounters an obstruction.
Mild steel is taken as material of the beam
Ultimate strength of mild steel = 2000 kg/cm 2
Since, curved beam will be provided in the M.B plough. So, from theory of bending of curved beam :
I= M.y
(4.20)
A.e.(R0 + y)
Where,/= Bending stress at any point at 'y' distance from neutral axis= 571.5 kg /cm2.
M = Maximum bending moment induced in the beam = Maximum draft x distance
R0 = the initial radius of neutral surface, cm= R - e
e = Distance between the neutral axis and the principal axis through centroid, cm
A = Area of cross section of beam, cm2
There will be tension on the inner side and compression on the outer side of the beam. Ifth,e beam
I. is assumed to be of square section, each side measuring X cm, then the value of ' e' can be determined
by using the relationship
(4.2 I)
Y = X/2 ± e
Now, substituting values in equation 4.20, we get
I
f
f= 45000 x (X/2 ± e) I {X2 e (20 + X/2 ± e)} (4.22)
x/2
Ro
J.
e
I •---- ---------•· ·---- •
-,t:---t------ ------ - --+--+-- Principal axis
x/2
'
x /4
•I
Fig. 4.11: Cross section of beam ofM.B plough
The eqn. 4.20 will give relationship between/ and X; and there is no direct solution of this equation.
Thus by hit and trial method we can find out value of Xwith permissible bending stress with a factor of
safety of 3.5 and +ve value of e.
Permissible stress in beam = 2000 kg/cm2 / 3 .50 = 571.5 kg/cm 2
Assume X = 5.0 cm
e =R - XI Log {(R + X/2)/ (R - X/2)} (4.23)
e = 20-5/ Log {(20 + 5/2)/ (20 - 5/2)}
e = 0.08 cm
Putting value of 'e' in eqn . 4.22 we get.
f = 45000 X (2.5 + 0.08)/ 25 X 0.08 X (20 +2.5 + 0.08)
= 2050 kg/cm 2
As the value of 'f' is very much higher than 571.5 kg/cm 2 hence it is not within the safe limits.
Therefore, take X = 8.0 cm
Again
e = 20 - 8/Log {(20 + 8/2)/ (20 - 8/2)}
e = 0.25 cm
Putting values again in equation 4.22 we get
f = 45000 X (8/2 + 0.25)/ 64 X 0.25 X (20 +8/2 + 0.25)
f = 45000 x 4.25 /(64 x 0.25 x 24.25) = 493.00 kg/cm 2
Stress produced due to direct bending
45 x 20 x 1.25 / 8 x 8 = 17.58 kg/cm2
Total stress developed = Bending stress + direct stress = 493.00 + 17 .58 = 510.78 kg/cm 2
Since, the stress developed in the beam is less than permissible stress, therefore, the design is safe.
Therefore, a curved beam of 20 cm radius with ground clearance of 40.0 cm of square section of
8.0 cm is suitable for the required plough.
8. Design of frame of M.B plough:
Main frame of tractor drawn mould board plough is also designed for maximum draft under ex-
treme soil conditions. Draft of M.B plough is estimated by following equation
Draft (D) = Unit draft x Cross sectional area
D = K.n.a.b (4.24)
Where,• K = Unit draft, kg/cm2 or N/mm2
n = Number of bottoms
a = Depth of ploughing, cm
b = Width of furrow slice, cm
For heavy soils, K = 0.75 - 0.85 kg/cm 2 (Say 0.8 kg/cm2)
Width of cut (furrow slice), b = 45 cm
Depth of ploughing, a = 15 cm
Number of bottoms, n = 2
Putting values in eqn. 4.24, we get,
D = 0.8 kg/cm2 x 2 x 15 cm x 45 cm =1080 kg
Also for clay soils vertical component of pull is 25% of draft force
So, Vertical component (V) = (25/100) x 1080 kg =270 kg

Assume weight of two bottom M.B plough as 200 kg
So, weight of soil over M.B surface = V - W = 270 kg - 200 kg= 70 kg
Therefore total pull exerted by the tractor is given by
p = {(D2 + (V - W)2}0.5 (4.25)
Or, P = (10802 + 702)°- 5
P = ( 1166400 + 4900)0.s
P = 1082.27 kg
Horizontal component of soil reaction force (RH):
RH = P11 = 1080 kg
Vertical component of pull (P ) :
Pv =270 kg
Vertical component of soil reaction (R):
R 11 =Pv- W
Where W = weight of plough, kg
So, R,, = 270 kg - 200 kg= 70 kg
Now referring to Fig 4. 12, Let Rx and R,, are the components of reactions at upper hitch point in
horizontal and vertical direction. Neglecting rolling resistance of tractor and taking moment about 'B' in
Fig. 4.12, we get,
Rv x 45 - RH x 40 + Rx x 40 = 0 (LetRv act at 45 cm)
Or 270 x 45 - 1080.0 x 40 + Rx x 40 = 0
Or, Rx x 40 = 43200- 12150 = 31050
R.i: = 776.25 kg
E
()
D
'St
B
E
u
0
'St
Fig. 4 .12: Forces on M.B.Plough in vertical plane

Assume angle of inclination in top link is I0° with horizontal.
Ry = R_,.. tan 1o0 = 776.25 x 0.18229 = 141.50 kg
Total force in top link= ✓ R_; + R_;, = ✓776.25 2 + 141.502 = 779.0~kg

Now, assume that line of pull is situated midway and reactions will be equally distributed in lower
hitch points.
So,
Horizontal components in each lower link
1080.0 + 776.25 = 928 kg

2
Vertical component in each lower link
R =RV+ (-Ry)= 70.0-141.50 = _71.50 kg

,.1 2 2
Assume that length of member AD = 50 cm
Then, BD = (50 2 - 40 2 )°- 5 = 30 cm
Now, taking the case when the M.B plough is in lifted position. The direction of reactions at hitch
point "-'.ill be changed because here weight of plough only is acting. And these reactions are determined
by taking moments about A & B respectively. Assume that angle of top link in complete lifted position is
about 30° with the horizontal
Therefore, the reactions are:
Rx in top link = 125 kg
And Ry = Rx tan 30° = 72.50 kg
Similarly, reactions at each lower hitch points
Rx = 125.0/2 = 62.50 kg
& Ry = 72.50 kg + 200 kg = 272.50 kg
Let us now design the frame of M.B plough for critical loading. Therefore, it should be designed
based on loads when the plough is in operation.
Design of member AB
Since the load taken by the member is very small, therefore, we may use two mild steel flat plates
of 4.0 cm x 1.5 cm size for making upper hitch point (Refer Fig. 4.12).
Design of member BD
Now, length of member BD is 50 cm (Refer Fig. 4.12).
Maximum bending moment taken by BD = - 71.50 kg x 50 cm = - 3575 kg-cm
So, bending moment taken by each member BD = 3575 kg-cm/2 = 1787.50 kg-cm
Let us assume that a mild steel flat is used with b:t "'3:1
Or, b =3 t
Therefore, I = t (3t)3112 = 9 1414
Also,
lb ='MY/I
1650 = 1787.50 X (3/2) (/ (9/4) t4
Or, 13 = 1787.50 X 3 X 4/ (2 X 9 X )650) = 0.720
Or, f = 0.9 cm
and b = 3 t = 3 x 0.9 = 2.7 cm
Take b = 3.0cm & t = 1.0 cm
Now, check in tension. Total tensile force in member BD = 928 kg
Area of cross section of member BD = t x b = 1.0 x 3.0 = 3.0 cm 2
Therefore,
2 2
/ 1 = FIA = 928 kg/ 3.0 cm = 307 kg/cm
As 307 kg/cm2 < Allowable stress of mild steel. Hence, the design is safe.
Design of compression member AD:
Now, from Fig. 4.12, we know that
tans =40/30= 53.130
Now,
Maximum compression force in member AD = R/Cos0 + ~/Sin 0
= 776.25/0.600 + 141.50/0.799
= 1293.75 + 177.10 =1470.85 kg
Let us assume that mild steel flat is used for this purpose
Andb:t=3:1
Or, b .= 3t
Take allowable compressive stress in mild steel as 700 kg/cm 2
Therefore,
A = F/allowable stress= 1470.85 kg/ 700 kg/cm 2
= 2.101 cm 2
Now, for the proposed flat A = 3t x t = 3 t2
Or, 3t2 = 2.101
Or, = 0.8369 cm say 0.85 cm
& b = 3 x 0.85 = 2.55 cm
Therefore, designed cross section of member BD is 2.55 x 0.85 cm mild steel flat.
Design of spacing member:
Distance between two bottoms = 45 cm
Since bending mo1nent, taken by this member is equal to bending moment taken by member BD.
Therefore, we may provide 'a mild steel flat of same size as in BD. So, cross section, of this member
should be
b = 3.0 cm and t = 1.0 cm
Design of cross shaft
Refer to Fig. 4.13 for location of various forces on cross shaft.
928 kg 928 kg
70 cm
A B
la=
.. 12cm.. 30cm b = 20 cm
464.75 kg 1394.25 kg
Fig. 4.13: Forces in horizontal plane in cross shalt of frame

Lengtli of shaft = 70 cm
Taking bending moment about 'A' we get:
464.75 )( 12 + 1394.25 X (70 - 20) = 928 X 70
Or, solving
b = 28.0 cm
Now based on bending moment diagram, maximum bending moment in the member is
= 1394.25 x b
= 1394.25 x 28 = 39039 kg-cm
Let us take circular cross section of cross shaft whose diameter is d and material is mild steel.
Therefore,
I == (7t/64) ct4 & y = d/2
We know that,
lb = MY/I
Or, 1650 = 39039 x d/2 /(n/64) ct4
Or, d 3 = 39039 x 64 / (21t x 16500)
Or, d = 6.24 cm
Therefore, take diameter of cross shaft as 6.25 cm. The ends of shaft are made according to the
points of hitches of lower links of the tractor.
Ans. The specifications ofdesigned mould board plough are summarized below:
I. Number of bottoms : Two
2. Size of plough : 45 cm
3. Total draft of plough : 900 kg
4. Thickness of share : 5 mm
4.2. DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR Disc PLOUGH

The disc plough consists of a series ofindividually mounted, inclined disc blades on a frame which may
be supported by wheels. It is most suitable for conditions under which mould board plough does not
work satisfactorily i.e. dry hard ground, rough, stony or rooty ground, sticky, waxy, non-scouring soils
.or soils having a hard pan or sole. Disc plough does not cover trash as thoroughly as a mould board
plough. Under usual plough conditions, it leaves the field rough and cloddy, thus requiring more opera-
tions to obtain a good seed bed. The components of tractor drawn two bottom and three bottom disc
ploughs are shown in Fig. 4. 14 and Fig. 4.15 respectively.
•o'4---1
I. Top hitch 2. Frame 3. Side hitch 4. Disc bottom

5. Scraper 6. Rear•furrow wheel 7. Standard
Fig. 4.14: Components of tractor drawn two bottom disc plough
Fig. 4.15: Tractor drawn three bottom disc plough

The plough consists of common main frame, disc beam assembly, rockshaft (category-I or 11), a
heavy spring loaded furrow wheel and a guage wheel. In some models disc plough is designed to
operate as 2, 3 or 4 bottom, by adding or removing the sub beam assembly according to requirement.
The disc angle ranges from 40 to 45° to obtain the desired width of cut and the tilt angle ranges from 15°
to 25° for penetration. The discs of the plough are made of high carbon steel or alloy steel and the edges
are hardened and sharpened:· The discs are mounted on tapered roller bearings. Scrapers prevent soil
build up on the discs in sticky soils. The furrow slice rides along the curvature and is pulverized to some
extent before being thrown.
Step-by-step procedure for the design of disc plough is as follows:

1. Calculate drawbar horse power (DBHP). Drawbar horse power (DBHP) is given by
DBHP=60%ofBHP (4.26)
2. Calculate diameter of disc (D d). The diameter of disc is given hr (Dd)
· K.dp
Dd=-- incm (4.27)
cosP
where, K = a coefficient which varies from 2.5 - 3 for deep tillage.
p = tilt angle of disc which is I 5°-25°- with vertical.
Also, the width of cut of disc plough (W) is given by
W= Ddl 3 (4.28)
TIit angle
-vertical
Fig. 4.16: Disc and tilt angles

3. Radius of curvature of disc (R). The radius of curvature of disc is given by
R = _!!g__ in cm (4.29)
2sin~
where, Dd = diameter of disc, in cm
~ = half of centre angle of the arc of circle fonned by the cutting disc on equatorial plane
which is given by the fonnula
where a, = disc angle, 45°

E = back cleaning angle, 3-5°
i = sharpness / taper angle of disc, 15-25°
4. Calculate disc spacing (Sd) in plough. The spacing between the discs (Sd) is given by
Sd = 2 tan a. [_&__(Dd -_&__) + e]. in cm (4.30)

_cosP cosp
where. R1, = ridge height, cm which is= 0.3 dP for plough

dp = depth of ploµghing, in cm
Dd = diameter of disc, in cm
I
t a = disc angle, 45°
p = tilt angle of disc which is 15° - 25° with vertical.
e = eccentricity of disc. Let e = 2
Moreover, Sd > 2dp
5. Width of cut (We)· The width of cut (We) of one disc is given by
We = 2(sin a.)../Rh (Dd - R1i ). in cm (4.31)

6. Thickness of disc (Td). The thickness of disc (Td) for heavy soils is given by
Td = 0.008 Dd + 1 in mm
7. Number of bottoms or discs in plough (11)
DBHP = Speed (m/s)x Draft (kg)

(4.32)
75
Also.
Draft of plough = n.Wc.dp-k. F (4.33)
where, n = number of bottoms or discs in plough
We = width of cut, in cm
dP = depth of ploughing, in cm
k = a constant. For heavy soils K = 0.75 - 0.85 kglcm 2.
F = factor of safety. (FOS = 1.5)
8. Design of main frame (tubular section). For rectangular section (Fig. 4.17)
f= M.y
(4.34)
A.e.(Ro + y)
where, f = bending stress at any point at y distance from neutral axis = 500 kg /cm 2.
i M = Maximum bending moment = max draft x distance.
· DESIGN OF TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS 105
---------- --------·--·----.. ---------·

' J
Ro R
x/2
e
--'--- ________ j _______________ _
-,---------~---+---+-- Principal
T axis
x/2
x/4
I◄
Fig. 4.17: Gross-section of tubular section
Design a disc plough/or 35 hp tractor.

Solutio11: Given brake horse power (BHP) of tractor= 35 hp.
I. Calculating drawbar horse power (DBHP): Drawbar horse powe,· \DBHP) is given by
DBHP = 60% of BHP
DBHP = 0.60 x 35 = 21 hp
2. Calculate diameter of disc (Dd): The diameter of disc is given by (Dd)
K.dp
Dd;;;-- incm
cosp
where, K = a coefficient which varies from 2.5-3 for deep tillage.
P = tilt angle of disc which is 15°-25° with vertical.
3x20
Dd = - - - = 66.2 cm
cos25°
Also, the width of cut of disc plough (W) is given by
66 2
W = Dd = · = 22.1 cm
3 3
3. Radius of curvature of disc (R): The radius of curvature of disc (R) is given by
R =__!!_i!_ in cm
2sin$
106 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND.PROBLEMS
where, Dc1 = diameter of disc, in cm

$ = half of centre angle of the arc of circle formed by the cutting disc on equatorial plane
which is given by the formula
$ = a-i-E
where, a = disc angle, 45°
E = back cleaning angle, 3-5°
i = sharpness/taper angle of disc, 15-25°
Thus, $ = 45° - 15° - 5° = 25°
66.2
R=---=7. 8 325 cm.
2sin 25°
4. Calculate disc spacing (Sd) in plough: The spacing between the discs (Sd) is given by
Sd =2tana [~(Dd-~)+e].
cos~ cosp
incm (4.35)
where, Rh = ridge height, cm which is = 0.3 dP for plough

where, dp = depth of ploughing, in cm
R1, = 0.3 x 20 cm = 6 cm .
a = disc angle, 45°
~ = tilt angle of disc which is I 5°- 25° with vertical.
e = eccentricity of disc. Let e = 2
Moreover, Sd ~ 2dp
Putting the values in the eqn. 4.35, we get
6 6
SJ=2tan45° [ 0 ( 66.2- 0 ) +2]=40 .38cm
cos25 cos25
The condition Sd > 2dp = 2 x 20 cm = 40 cm is satisfied.

5. Width of cut (Wc): The width of cut (Wc ) of one disc is given by
Wc = 2(sin o..).JR1, (Dd - R1, ). in cm (4.36)

Wc = 2(sin 45°).j6 (66.2 - 6). = 26.87 cm

6. Thickness of disc (Tr1): The thickness of disc (Td) for heavy soils is given by
II
Td = 0.008Dd +I inmm
Td = 0.008 x 66.2 + I = 5.4 mm
I
7. Number of bottoms or discs in plough (11):
DBHP = Speed (m/s)x Draft (kg)

(4.37)
75
Putting values in the eqn. 4.37, we get
21
= l.38x Draft
75
2 JX 75 ,.,
Draft =- - = 1141.., kg
1.38
Also,
Draft of plough= n.Wc.dp.k. F (4 .38)
where, n = number of bottoms or discs in plough
dp = depth of ploughing, in cm
k = a constant. For heavy soils K = 0.75 - 0.85 kg/cm2.
I 141.3 kg= n x 26.87 x 20 x 0.75 x 1.5
11= 2.
Number of bottoms = 2
55
Now, 0 = tan-I =40.24°
65
Now, draft of plough, Ph = P . cos 0
P = I 141.3/cos 40.24° = 1495.1 kg
Pv = P sin 40.24°
= 1495.1 x 0.64599 = 965 .82 kg
Assume weight of plough = 200 kg
Now, from Fig. 4. I 8.,
Vertical component of soil reaction (Ry):
Rv = Pv -W.
where, W = weight of plough, kg.
R,, = 965 .82 - 200 = 765.82 kg
Frame (tubular} \
Standard
55 cm
Fig. 4.18: Various forces acting on tractor drawn disc plough

Horizontal component of soil reaction force (RH):
RH= P11 = 1141.3 kg
Now, taking moment about 'B' in figure.
Rx x 45 - RH x 55 + Rv x 65 =- 0
Rx x 45-1141.3 x 55 +765.82 x 65 = 0
Rx = 288.76 kg
Assume angle of inclination in top link is I 0° with horizontal.
RY -= Rx. tan I 0° = 288.76 x 0. I 8229 = 52.64 kg
Total force in-top link = ✓ R_; + R; =·h88. 76 2 + 52.642 == 293.52 kg
I
!
Horizontal components in each lower link
RH/::: RH +Rx= 1141.3+288.76 "' 715 _03 kg

· 2 2
Vertical component in each lower link
Rv +(- Ry) 765.82-52.64

Rvt =- - - - = ------ - ·--:.: 356.59 kg
I 2 2
I.
I
8. Design of main frame (tubular section): For rectangular section (Fig. 4.19)
f= M.y
(4.39)
A.e.(Ro + y)
where, .f = bending stress at any point at y distance from neutral axis = 500 kg /cm 2.
M = maximum bending moment= Maximum draft x distance
Maximum draft of plough = n.Wc.dp.k. F
where, n = no. of bottoms or discs in plough
dp = depth of ploughing, in cm
k = a constant. For heavy soils K = 0.75 - 0.85 kg/cm 2.
...
--------~---------------------
'
R R·
x/2
_j_ __ _ --- __l, ----------- -------

e - - . . 1 , - - i - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - t - - - - , , - - - Principal
T axis
x/2
x/4
. Fig. 4.19: Cross section of tubular frame

Max. draft = 2 x 26.87 x 20 x 0.85 x 1.5
= 1400 kgf.
M = 1400 x 55cm = 77000kg-cm.
R0 = initial radius of neutral axis= R-e
R = radius of curvature of beam= 20 cm
e;;:.R ___x_ _
I R+x/2
og R-x/2
A = area of cross-section of beam = x2/4

X
y=-±e
2
f= 77000(xl2±e)
I x 2 e [ (R-e)+( x ±e)]
4 2
Choose value of x such that value of '.f' is not greater than 500 kg/cm2 say by taking x = 5 cm. We
get/= 510 kg/cm2 which is nearly equal to 500 kg/ cm2.
Ans. The specifications of the designed disc plough is summarized as given below:
1. Diameter of disc = 66.2 cm
2. Width of cut = 27 cm
3. Radius of curvature of disc = 78.325 cm
4. Disc spacing = 40 cm
5. Thickness of disc =5.4 mm
6. Number of bottoms =2
7. Maximum draft of the plough = 1400 kgf.
4.3.-DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR TRACTOR DRAWN ROTAVATORS

Tractor drawn rotavator is an excellent rotary secondary tillage implement. It is especially designed for
wet land cultivation (puddling) in paddy crop. It chums, mixes and disperses the finer particles in
muddy conditions so that silt and clay pa1ticles are settled on the surface and restricts the infiltration of
irrigation water. Thus, it provides conditions conducive to the growth of paddy crop.
Rotavator can very effectively be used for dry cultivation as secondary tillage implement for the dry
preparation of seedbed. It gives excellent pulverization of soil and mixes the trash, crop residues, weeds,
etc. into the soil for their rapid decay. It cuts the trash and crop residue to fine pieces and bury them into
the soil. The planking attachment given behind the equipment ensures breakage of big clods, leveling of
field and packing of soil moisture with the result that only 12 operations with the rotavator can make a
very fine seed bed suitable for effective planting of crops.
Rotavator works on the principle of rotary motion. It takes its drive from tractor PTO shaft and
transmits to the tynes through the reduction gear so that its tynes rotate at 250-350 rpm while in
operation. The outer casing/cover ensures that the clods are broken to small pieces and the soil is
properly pulverized.
It consists of a steel frame, a rotary shaft on which blades are mounted, power transmission system
and gear box. The blades are of L-type, made from medium carbon steel or alloy steel, hardened and
tempered to suitable hardness. The PTO of tractor drives the rotavator. Rotary motion of the PTO is
transmitted to the shaft carrying the blades through gear box and transmission system. A good seedbed
and pulverization of the soil is achieved 'in a single pass of the rotavator. The components of tractor
drawn rotavator are shown in Figs. 4.20 and 4.21.
1. Chain sprocket drive cover 2. Depth control plate 3. PTO shaft attachment
4. Tyne 5. top hitch point 6. Hydraulic linkage hitch
7. Leveller
Fig. 4.20: Components of tractor drawn rotavator
Fig. 4.21: Tractor drawn rotavator

The step-by-step procedure for the design of tractor drawn rotavator follows:
1. Calculate the PTO power of tract~r.
2. Determine maximum force in rotavator tynes. For design of rotavator it is necessary to take
into account the maximum peripheral force of working blade sets and is determined by
Tractor power (P,) = KP x ul (75 111 • 11r) (4.40)
where, P1 = tractor power, hp
KP = maximum peripheral force, kgf
u = rotavator tyne peripheral velocity, mis
11 1 = tractor transmission efficiency (0.9 for concurrent revolution and
0.8-0.9 for reversed
rotary
'llr = coefficient including a reserve of tractor power amounting to 0.7-0.8
or KP= P1 x 75 x 11 1 .11,. I u (4.41)
For the purpose of estimation of peak load in the entire machine it is assumed that:
• one-fourth of total number of knives and blades in rotary cultivators, and one-half ofnumber of
elements in rotary plows cut soil simultaneously.
Therefore, peak force in entire machine (Ke) is determined as under:
Ke= Kd x cp I (i. ze. no) (4.42)
where, Kd = design force for rotary tyne, kgf (Kd = CP x K;J
CP = overload factor for individual element (Cp = 1.5 for stone l'ess soil and 2.0 for stony
soils)
Ze = number of working elements in the set
I n0 =
= number of sets in the machine
¼for r~tary cultivator and ½for plows.
3. Design rotavator shaft : (i) Detem1ine peak moment or torque (Td) in the rotavator shaft as
under:
Td=KdxR (4.43)
where, R = Radius of rotary tyne.
: ;
:. 1 (ii) Design of rotavator shaft in torsion

: 'I Use following equation for torsional loading of rotavator shaft
Td= (1t/l6) d3 Ss (4.44)
lI (iii) Design of coupling
In order to protect the rotavator shaft from damage due to overload, an overload coupling or rattle
coupling is used in the P.T.O sh-~ft 9f the tractor: Tl1e momehfof coupling or torque (Tc) is lower than
the torque of PTO drive. . ' ·.. ·· - ·
Now, Tc = Td x -nifn2 (4.45)
where, n1 = rpm of rotary tyne
n2 = rpm of P.T.O
4. Design of cutting blades for the rotary :

(a) Byte length (Lb)
The byte length is the forward distance travelled in b~tween successive cuts of soil by blades
Lb, mm = V x n x D/Vm
where, . V = Forward speed of the drive, mis
= Speed of rotary unit, mis
V111
D = Outer diameter of the flange or disc of rotary, mm
(b) Number of blades on rotary
The nomber of blades can be calculated from following expression:
z = 2n x hi (Lb 1 - 2A) (4.46)
where, z = number of blades
h = maximum depth of operation, mm
Lb = byte length, mm
A = blade thickness, mm
/4 = speed rate, A = Ve I VJ
where, Ve = cutting speed, mis
VJ = forward speed, mis
(c) Blade parameters:
Type of blade : L-shaped
No. of cutting blades on each flange :6
Angle between two cutting blades : 60°
Material of cutting blades : High carbon steel
Length of cutting blades : 125 mm
Blade pitch :461.11m
Byte length : 20mm
Angle of inclination of blades with horizontal : 50°
Width of one flange : 250 mm
Overlap between two sets of blades : 30mm
Direction of blade rotation : Forward rotation. It requires less energy
and creates forward thrust to the tractor.
5. Design of power transmission system for rotavator: The power from PTO is transmitted to
2 : I bevel gear arrangement and then to rotary assembly through chain sprocket with 1.2 : l speed
reduction. Thus, the power from drive shaft to the rotary is transferred through chain sprocket system.
The length of chain in terms of number of pitches is determined as under:
L = (T1 + T2)/2 + 2C/p + (T2 - T 1)/ (2n)2 + p/C (4.47)
where, L = length of chain in terms of pitches
T1 = number of teeth in pinion
T2 = number of teeth in sprocket

C = centre to centre distance between pinion & sprocket
P = Pitch distance
Design a tractor drawn rotavator suitablefor 45 hp tracto,:

Solution:
1. Strength calculations: For design of rotavator it is necess11-ry to take. into account the maximum
peripheral force of working blade sets and is determined by
Tractor power (P1) = KP x ul (15 11 1 . TJ,.)
where, P1 = tractor power, hp
u = rota'vator tyne peripheral velocity, mis
ri, = tractor transmission efficiency (0.9 for concurrent.revolution and 0..8-0.9 for reversed
rotary)
llr = coefficient including a reserve of tractor power amounting to 0.7-0.8
or KP= P1 x 75 x TJ, .11,. I u
Generally
u/v,;. 3
Also when tractor is operated in 3rd gear, usually v = 1.1 m/s
Therefore, u = 3.3 mis and
Therefore, KP = 45 x 75 x 0.9 x 0.78 / 3.3 = 710 kgf
Considering overload factor (Cp) for peak peripheral force,
CP = 1.5 for smo~th stone less soils
CP = 2.0 for stony soils
Therefore, design force (Kd) for rotary is given by
Kd = cP x KP
or Kd= 2.0 x 710 = 1420 kgf
Peak moment,or torque (Td~ i'n the rotavator shaft
Td= Kd X ~
Assume R = radius of rotary, .= 22 cm :,
Therefore, Tc1 = 1420 kg x ·22 cm ,;= 30,000 kgf-cm ·
Design of rotavator shaft in torsion
Td= (rr/16}d3 Ss
Take Ss = I 000 kg/cm2 in steel
,\
or 30,000 = (1t/l6) 1000 x d 3

or d = 5.3 cm.
2. Design of coupling: In order to protect the rotavator shaft from damage due to overload, an
overload coupling or rattle coupling is used in the PTO shaft of the tractor. The moment of coupling or
torque (Tc) should be lower than the torque of PTO drive.
Now
Tc= Td x nifn2
where, n 1 = rpm, of rotary (Let n 1 = 240) .
n 2 = rpm of P.T.O
Therefore,
Tc= 300 kgf-m x 240/540 = 133 kgf-m
Therefore, an overload coupling for 82 kgf-m may be provided for protection of shaft of rotavator.
3. Design of cutting blades for the rotary:
JjJ~ (a) Byte length (Lb)
I
~-8
The byte length is the forward distance travelled in between successive cuts of soil by blades.
Lb, mm= V x 7t x DIVm
where, V = forward speed of the drive, mis
Vm = speed of rotary unit, mis
D = outer diameter of the flange or disc of rotary, mm
(b) Number of blades on rotary
The number of blades can be calculated from following expression:
Z= 21t x hi (LbA.- 2A)
where, Z = number of blades
h = maximum depth of operation, mm
Lb = byte length, mm
A = blade thickness, mm
t,, = speed rate, A = V6 I ~
Ve = cutting speed, mis
v1 = forward speed, mis.
(c) Blade parameters
Type of blade L-shaped
Number of cutting blades on each flange 6
Angle between two cutting blades 60°
Material of cutting blades Higli carbon steel
Lengt~ of cutting blades -r_-,. 125 mm
Blade pitch 46mm
Byte length 20 mm
Angle ofinclination of blades with horizontal 50°
Width of one flange 250 mm
Overlap between two sets of blades 30 mm
Direction of blade rotation Forward rotation. It requires less energy and
creates forward thrust to the tractor
For the purpose of estimation of peak load in the entire machine it is assumed that:
• one-fourth of total number of knives and blades in rotary cultivators and one-half of number of
elements in rotary plows cut soil simultaneously.
Therefore, peak force in entire machine (Ke) is determined as under:
f
Ke = Kd X cp I (i . ze. no)
r,,
j!
where, Kd = design force for rotary tyne, kgf (Kd = CP x KP)
I CP = overload factor for individual element (CP = 1.5 for stone less soil and 2.0 for stony soils)
KP
Ze ·
= maximum peripheral force, kgf
= number of working elements in the set
= number of sets in the machine
n0 = 114 for rotary cultivator and 1/2 for plows
For rotary cultivators
i =5 ze = 6
n 0 =land
4
Cp = 2
I Therefore, Kd = CP x KP =2 x 710 = 1420 kgf
Then Ke:: 1420 x 2 / (5 x 6 x ¾) = 380 kg
I The knife shank of rotary cultivator is designed for bending and torsion stresses. Refer Fig. 4.22
and assume t = 1.2 cm and b (width) = 6 cm.
: i
b
s
I'
i
Fig. 4.22: Force Ke operating on the L-knife of a rotary cultivator
I
i
I
The force Ke is applied at half-length of knife at a distance of d 1 = 5 cm from the shank.

Takes= 16 cm
Therefore, bending stress (cr8 ) in the blade is
cr 8 = 6 Ke x SI (t x b2 ) = 6 x 380 x 16 / ( l .2 x 6 2) = 850 kg/ cm 2
Torsion stress (-c) in the blade is
't = JKedJ = 3 x 380 x 5 / (6/1.2 - 0.63] (L2) 3

3
[i - 0.63}
= 760 kg/cm 2
Equivalent stress (cre): [(cr8 ) 2 + (4-c)2]D.S = (8502 + .4 x 7602)°-5 = 1740 kg/cm 2
(<I) Power transmission system for rotavator
The power from PTO is transmitted to 2 : I bevel gear arrangement and then to rotary assembly
through chain sprocket with 1.2: I speed reduction.
(e) Chain sprocket transmission
The power from drive shaft to the rotary is transferred through chain sprocket system. The length
of chain in terms of number of pitches is determined as under:
L = (T1 + T2 )!2 + 2C/p + (T2 - T1)! (2n) 2+p/C
where, L = Length of chain in terms of pitches
T1 = Number of teeth in pinion
T2 = Number of teeth in sprocket
C = Centre to centre distance between pinion & sprocket
P = Pitch distance.
Ans. The specifications of the designed tractor drawn rotavator is summarized below:
Forward speed of the tractor : 3-3.5 km/h
Horse power of tractor : 45
Depth of operation : 125 mm
Length of cutting blade : 1250 mm
Number of blades per flange :6
Width of rotary unit : 1250 mm
Number flanges :5
Speed of rotary unit : 217 rpm
Unit draft : I .OS kg/cm 2
The hitching system is provided to suit category II linkage of tractor as recommended by the Indian
Standards, IS: 4468-1967.
Design power transmission system of tractor PTO operated rotavator (1 .0 111 length). The tractor PTO
power is transmitted to the rotavator shaft through 90° bevel gear box and chain sprocket drive
(Fig. 4.13).
Solution:
Design power: The system is designed for an input PTO power of 40 hp as the power required for
rotary implement is 1.0 hp/2.5 cm width of implement (Kepner et.al. 1978).
From PTO
Intermediate
shaft
· Sprocket - .
- Bevel gea~ box
l Cutting blade
Fig. 4.23: Power transmission system of tractor drawn rotavator

Bevel gear drive
Torque to be transmitted by PTO shaft of tractor is
Tpto = PTO HP x 60 x 75/ 2ttN
I!
Tpto = 40 x 60 x 75/(2n x 540) = 53.02 kg-m
where, N = standard PTO speed, 540 rpm
Now, torque in input shaft
shaft = Tpro = 53.02 kg-m
Tin
Assume the speed ratio of bevel gear box is 2.5: I
Let, teeth in driving pinion is 14
Teeth in driven bevel gear is= 14 x speed ratio= 14 x 2.5 = 35 teeth
Therefore, speed of driven shaft = 540 x (14/35) = 216 rpm
Now, torque in driven shaft = Tin shaft x speed ratio = 53.02 x 2.5
= 53.02 x 2.5 = 132.50 kg-m
r DESIGN OF TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Sprocket-chain drive
119
Speed of driven shaft= 216 rpm

Torque in driven shaft= 132.50 kg-m
Speed ratio of chain drive is = 1.4 to 2: I
According to Shanna & Aggarwal ( 1996) for above velocity ratio a smaller sprocket of 9-10 teeth
may be taken. So, sprocket of 10 teeth is selected
Pitch of roller chain (p)
The roller chain pitch may be taken as
p = C/20 to C/30 for pulsating loads
where, C = center to center distance between two shafts = 500 mm
So, p = 25 to 16.66 mm
But, standard pitches in .this range are 19.05 and 25.40 mm
Considering pulsating load, a higher value of chain pitch i.e 25.40 mm is taken
Roller chain speed (V)
V : : :; p.n.Z/ (60 x 1000), m/s
where, p = chain pitch, 25.40 mm
n = shaft rpm, (216 rpm in present case)
Z = number of teeth on sprocket
or, ·v =°25.40 x 216 x IO/ (60 x 1000)
= 0.914 mis.
Driving force in chain
..
(Fu) : Total circumferential/ driving force acting on chain (F)
u
is given by
FIi = 2 x p x 1000 x Tl (Z x p)
= 2 x I 000 x TIZ
= 2 X 1000 X 132.50/10
= 3280:0 kgf
Now, tension in chain due to sagging (F)
F I =Kf x C
where, Iy = chain drive arrangement coeff. adopt 2.0 for the present case
C = center to center distance, 500 mm
Ft= 2.0 x 5.00 = 10 kgf
Neglecting tension in chain due to centrifugal force
Now, total tensio!1 in tight side of the chain Fe = F11 + F1
Fe = 3280 + 10 .= 3290 kgf
Breaking strength of chain (F ) : Now, we know that

b
Fb = Fe x f.o.s
Fb = 3290.0 kgf x 4 = 13160 kgf
Now, to meet the design ·requirements, a triplex roller chain with 25.40 mm pitch (l 6B-3) is selected
as per BIS-2403-1975. Minimum breaking load Fb of the chain is 13185 kgf which is more than
calculated value. Therefore, the chain is safe for breakagf;l.
4.4 OVERLOAD PROTECTION/SAFETY DEVICES FOR DRIVE LINES

The need for overload protection devices has arisen because the growth :of agricultural tractor
capacity has exceeded the power normally required· to drive the components. When the implement is
coupled with the PTO drivelines, it becomes overloaded and may result as given below. ·
I .The PTO shaft may fail as it may not have structural strength
2.One of the drive components such as gear set, belt or chain fails.
3.The tractor stalls or breaks down.
The approach to the overloading problems generally lies with the redesign of the PTO shaft or the
implement drive components. A better approach is to design all drive lines components to transmit
normal operating power and to protect the tractor and the implement from high torque loads or plugging
with overload mechanism.
Torque overloads in PTO drive system are best prevented by incorporating mechanism to discon-
nect or limit the power transfer from the tractor to the implement. The. most common mechanisms/
safety devices used are:
I.The overload clutch
2 .The over-running clutch
3. The elastic clutch
The selection of overload or over-running clutch for the PTO drive is determined by:
I. The type of implement to be overprotected
2. The anticipated operating conditions
3. The torque characteristics that act on the drive during normal operation and overload
4. The load limits of all drives components
5. PTO drive shaft speed
6. The joint operating angles.
The torque operating characteristics are usually obtained by operating the implement under actual
field conditions.
A plate-clutch overload mechanism with a single friction swface has a 250 mm outer diameter and
~·
100mm inner diamete,: The coefficient offriction (µ) is 0.2
a)Determine the required axial force for a maximum clutch pressure of 700,000 Pa and the torque
I for the clutch .

b)Determine the required axialforce and torque for a clutch pressure o/7 x 1a5 Pa. Assume that the
uniform plate pressure theory is valid. ·
11
c)Determine the torque the clutch will carry for an axial force of 22,200 N and the value of
maximum plate pressure, if uniform wear theory is valid.
d)Determine the torque the clutch will cany for an axial force of22,200 N and the maximum plate
pressure, ifthe uniform plate pressure theory is valid.
Solution:
a) Assume that uniform wear theory for the clutch is valid
Fn = 21tPmax·R; (Ro- R;) x l o--6
Where,
F 11 = normal axial force to the surface, N
Pmax = maximum clutch plate pressure, Pa
R; = inner radius, mm
R0 = outer clutch radius, mm
So,
F 11 = 2n(700,000)(50)(125 - 50) x 10--6 = 16,500 N
Also,
T = 1tµPmax R I. (Ro2 - R.,2) x 10--6
Where, T = clutch torque, N-mm
µ = Coefficient of friction
T = 1t (0.2)(7 x 10 5)(50){(125) 2- (50)2} x 10--6 = 2,88,750 N-mm
b) We know that for uniform plate pressure (p) in the clutch,
F = 1tp(Ro2- R?) x l o--6
Where, F = axial force in clutch plate, N
p = clutch plate pressure, Pa
R; = inner radius, mm
R 0 = outer radius of plate, mm
Therefore,
F = 1t (7xl0 5)([125)2-(50)2]x10-6
. F = 28,875 N
and T = 2/3 1t~Lp(R0 3- R/) x 10-6
T = 2/3 re (0.2)(7 x 105)[(125)3- (50)3)(10--6) = 5,36,250 N-mm
c) We know that for uniform wear theory in clutch
Pmax = F j21tR; (Ro - R;) x I o-6
Or, P max = 22,200/(2 1t (50)(125-50) x 10-6)= 9.4 x 105 Pa
2
Also, T = 1tµPmax R;(R0 - R/) x l 0--6
T = n (0.2)(9.4 x 105)(50){(125)2 - (50)2} x 10--6 = 3,87,750 N-mm
= (0.2)(125+50) (22200)/2 = 388,500 N-mm
d) We know that for unifonn pressure theory

p = F/1C(R/- R/) x 10-6
p = 22,200/ 1r[ (125)2- (50)2] x 10-6 = 5.38 x 105 Pa
Also, T = 213 1Cµp(R0 3 - R/) x 10-{5
T = 213 1C (0.2)(5.38 x 105)[(125)3 - (50)3)(10-{5) = 2,06,073 N-mm
Design a safety coupling for a 45 hp tractor drawn rotavato,:

Solution:
For design of rotavator it is necessary to take into account the maximum peripheral force of work-
ing blade sets and is detennined by
Tractor Power (P1) = KP x u/ (75 llr TJr)
Where, P1 = Tractor power, hp
KP = Maximum peripheral force
u = rotavator tyne peripheral velocity, m/s
l'J, = tractor transmission efficiency (0.9 for concurrent revolution & 0.8 - 0.9 for
reversed rotary)
ri, = Coeff- including a reserve of tractor power amounting to 0.7 - 08
or KP = Pr x 75 x 75 111 ·llr / u
For a 45 hp tractor
u/v =3
Also when tractor is operated in 3rd gear, v = 1.1 mis
The~efore, u = 3.3 mis and
Therefore, KP = 45 x 76 x 0.9 x 0.78 / 3.3 = 710 kg
Owing to fluctuation in peripheral force (KP), a force KP = 710 kg should be taken for design
purpose.
Considering overload factor (Cs) for peak peripheral force,
Cs = 1.5 for smooth stoneless soils
Cs = 2.0 for stony soils
Therefore, Design force (Kd) for rotary is given by
Kd =Cs X Kp
or Kd = 2.0 x 710 = 1420 kg
Peak moment or torque (Td) in the rotavator shaft
Td =Kd X R .
Assume R = Radius of rotary = 22 cm
Therefore, Td = 1420 kg x 22 cm = 30,000 kg-cm
In order to protect the rotavator shaft from damage due to overload, an overload coupling or rattle
coupling is used in the P.T.O shaft of the tractor. The Moment of coupling or torque (Tc) is lower
suitable to its revolutions.
Now
Tc = Td x nifn2
Where, n 1 = rpm of rotary
n 2 = rpm of P.T.O
Therefore,
Tc = 300 kg-m x 140/540 = 82 kg-m
Therefore, an overload coupling for 82 kg-m may be provided for protection of shaft of rotavator.
Safety Hitches for Trailing Implements:
In order to secure the trailing plough against damage, its hitch is provided with a safety hitch. To
make bottoms, frame and entire plough of such strength that it may resist and transfer any impact force
that may occur during operation, the plough would be very heavy and expensive. Therefore, to transfer
certain additional force by each bottom independently, it is assumed that only one bottom will collide,1,
with the obstacle at a given moment of time. In order to determine the force of safety hitch Fh,
calculation is made for maximum draft Fmax necessary to overcome the maximum soil resistance as
assumed for the calculation of'the bottom.
Fmax = Fb .n. kn (4.48)
Where, F max = maximum draft, kg or N
Fb = mean draft per one plough bottom, kg or N
n = number of bottoms
kn = (n + kd)ln
kd = coefficient used for additional resistance depending on number of bottoms
Also, F0 = Fmax .d.w. (I+ kd) (4.49)
Where, FO = additional resistance due to obstacle in plough bottom, kg or N
d = depth of tillage, cm
w = width of furrow slice, cm
Therefore, to avoid damage to the bottom or frame, the draft should not be allowed to exceed the
value of F1, for which, under given condition the safety hitch of plough should be set.
Therefore,
Fh = Fb .d.w. (n - 1) + F0 (4.50)
The safety hitch of plough should be able to control the draft force of bottom Fb. If without having
changed the force Fb and tillage depth of plough in a particular soil condition, the plough bottom when
collides with an obstacle, it will result in permanent deformation or damage to plough bottom or frame.
Types of safety hitches
I.Frictional Safety· Hitch: In this type of hitch, the draft force Fh depends for the most part on
friction coefficient and on strength of screwing home. The control with this type of hitch is som~ w_h at
inaccurate. It requires proper maintenance to prevent rusting of the frictional f<!~e. otherwise it would
increase considerable draft and would result in breakdown of operational capacity of the safety hitch.
2.Pin Safety Hitches: These are also unsatisfactory in operation as the pins are generally made of
soft steel or timber and result in shear off when draft increases the force of the device. The force for
this type of safety hitch is calculated as under:
F1, = (rr/4) d/ x Ss kg or N (4.51)
Where. di = diameter of pin, mm
Ss = Shear strength of pin material, kg/mm 2 or N/mm 2. The shear strength of various
materials are given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Shear strength of various materials
Material of safety pin Shear strength (Ss) l<g/mm2

i;
Steel 32-37
Oak 3.0
Maple 3.3
Pine l.7-2.2
3.Spring Safety Hitch: In spring safety hitches the hitch force F11 can be properly adapted to
tillage parameters and main advantage of this type hitch is the possibility of control and also absorb
variable soil resistance. The springs of safety hitches are so selected that they can transfer maximum
draft Fmax for the given plough. The dimensions of spiral springs used are calculated given in eqn. 4.52.
Fmax = (n. rr/8) x (d2/D)tdop (4.52)
Where, n ~ number of springs
d = diameter of wire, cm
D = diameter of spring coil, cm
tdop = admissible torsional stress in wire
The maximum deflection of springs is calculated as
\n = (8 N D 3!cl+n)(Fma/G) (4.53)
Where, G = torsional modulus 7500-8000 kg/mm 2
for spring steel
N = number of spring coils
In practice, there are many types of spring safety hitches. In some types, the draft is transmitted
directly on to springs while, in others by a lever gear. Safety hooks can be closed or open. Some safety
hitches are provided with mechanisms bringing about a return of the hook into the operating position
after disengagement; others require arrangement of the slider after each disengagement. The safety
hitches must be properly set up if they are to fulfill their role properly.
Mounted Ploughs Safety Hitches: The mounted ploughs designed for use in stony soils should
always be provided with safety hitches. If between the column and frame no proper safety hitch is
possible, then every bottom must be fitted with a safety catch. The simplest is a pin safety catch. The
size of pin should be calculated to meet the shearing force as given below:
FP = FR (1 1112) (4.54)
Where, FP = shearing force in safety pin, kg or N
FR = Resisting force in plough bottom, kg or N
l1 = Perpendicular distance from the force 'F/ to the safety pin.
/ 2 = Distance of shearing force 'F/ from the pivot point of standard of plough bottom.
Based on value of shear force (FP) the size (diameter) of safety pin can be selected and provided in
the hitch ofM B plough as given below: '
Fp = (n:14) x d2p x ss (4.55)
Where, dp = diameter of safety hitch pin, mm
Ss = Shear strength of pin material, kg or N/mm2
4.5. DESIGN OF Disc HARROWS

Disc harrow is a secondary tillage implement that cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and
pulverizing the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix the trashes with soil. It is used to break the
clods after ploughing (Fig. 4.24).
The tractor mounted disc harrow consists of two gangs of discs mounted one behind the other. The
discs on the front gang throw soil outward and the rear gang inward. Therefore, no soil remains uncut
by the offset disc harrow. The harrow consists of a sturdy frame, discs arranged in two gangs, and
three point linkage. Discs are important component of the harrow and are made from high carbon steel
or alloy steel. The cutting edges are hardened and tempered to suitable hardness. The gangs can be
moved in either direction on the hitch frame. The rear gang can be moved the same amount as the front
gang. The components of disc gang is shown in Fig. 4.25. When operating in orchards or plantations,
the harrow can be offset to the right or left, thus enabling soil to be thrown towards or away from the
trees. The offset feature makes it possible to work under low h~nging branches. Discs with notches on
the outer rim are also available for operation in weed-infested fields.
Fig. 4.24: Tractor mounted 8 x 8 disc harrow

Bearing Spool Bearing
Castellated
nut~ ~
Gaog/
bolt
Grease Grease
fitting fitting
Fig. 4.25: Gang of disc harrow
Design ofdisc harrow suitable for 50HP tractor.

Solutio1t: Given brake horse power (BHP) of tractor = 50 hp
1. Calculating drawbar horse power (DBHP)
Drawbar horse power (DBHP) is given by
DBHP = 60% ofBHP
DBHP = 0.60 x 50 = 30 hp
2. Calculating drawbar pull
DBHP = Pull (kg)x speed (m/min)_

4500
Pull (kg)= DBHP x 4500
(4.56)
speed (m/min)
For proper harrowing with disc harrow, the speed of operation should be 5-7 km/hr. Hence, let the
speed of harrowing be 6 km /hr. Therefore, the pull is given by
30 45
Pull (k ) ;:;; x 00 = 1350 k
g 6000/60 g
3. Calculation of width of implement
The working width of an.implement (W;) can be calculated from the following formula
(4.57)
where, D; = draft requirement of implement, kg

d1, = depth of harrowing, cm
Draft is the horizontal component of pull. Here, in this example let us assume that the draft is equal
to pull, maximum depth of harrowing is 15 cm and the type of soil is heavy soil whose specific resis-
tance is 0.75 kg/cm 2.
Putting values in the eqn. 4.57, we get,
1350
W; :;:::---:;:;J20cm
0.75xl5
Therefore, the working width of disc harrow is 120 cm.
Since disc bottoms of rear gang are arranged in such a way that they cut exactly halfway between
the two discs of front gang and thus the total draft is distributed between the two gangs.
For double action offset type disc harrow, the working width (W;) of implement is given by,
W;:;:; 0.95NSDS + 0.6Dd (4.58)
where, w; = working width of implement, in cm
Ns = number of spools I gang
Ds = disc spacing , in cm
Table 4.3: Typical sizes and masses of disc harrow
-------- --- --·--
Type Blade diameter, D~ Blade spaci11g, Ds Mass per tmit width of cut
cm finch/ cm finch/ Kg/111
·- -- ··----·- -•·-
OFFSET TRAILED 61,66,71 23-28 390-650
(24", 26" ,28"] (9"-11"]
OFFSET WHEEL TYPE 56,61,66,71 23-28 400-750
(22", 24", 26", 28"] [9" -11 "]
Source: Principles of Farm Machinery,.Kepner, Bainer & Berger.
Using the eqn. 4.58 and referring to the Table 4.3, for different values of Ns, Ds and Dd, width of
implement is calculated and the most appropriate combination of specification is given below:
Offset disc harrow (trailed)
Number of discs 8x8
Diameterofdisc 71 cm(28")
Spacing 28 cm (II")
Width ofimplement 2.29m
Weight of implement 650 kg,'m x 2.29m = 1489 kg
Concavity 3"(75mm)
Thickness of disc 8mm
Type of bearing Taper roller
- - -- - -- - -- - -- - - -- -- -- - - -- ----- --·-· --·-··- - ·-
Offset disc harrow (mounted)

Generally, all the tractors in the range 50 bhp have the lifting capacity of I 000 kg. Therefore, the
width of implement that can be lifted by the tractor is given by
Lifting capacity = Mass of implement per unit width of cut x width of implement
'd h f . Lifting capacity I000

W1 t 0 · 1 m
1 p e m e n t = - - - - - - ~ - ~ ~ - - - - - = - - =2.56 m
Mass of implement per unit widht of cut 390
[Mass of implement is given in Table 4.2]
But the draft that can be provided by the tractor limits the width of implement to 2.40 m only.
Therefore, mounted type offset harrow's specification is calculated for different values of Ns, Ds and
Dd by using the formula given below and appropriate selections are made to match the width of cut.
W; = 0 .95NsDs + 0.6Dd .
Mounted double action
Fig. 4.26: Double action disc harrow Fig. 4.27: Offset disc harrow
The specifications of the offset disc harrow (mounted) are given below:
Offset disc harrow (mounted)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -···-
Number of discs 10 X JO
Diameter of disc 61 cm(24")
Spacing 23 cm (9")
Width of implement 2.32m
Weight of implement 390 kg/m x 2.32m = 905 kg
Concavity 2.5"(63 mm)
Thickness of disc 6mm
Type of bearing Taper roller
EXERCISE
1. Consider that in a tractor mounted 2-bottom mould board plough a pull of750 kg is applied at an angle
30° with the horizontal and 15° with the direction of travel. Determine the plough resistance (along
three axis) acting on plough body. Also determine the horsepower required to pull the plough at a
forward speed of 5 km per hour.
2. A tractor mounted two bottom (2 x 40 cm) mould board plough is working at a depth of20 ems at 5 km
per hour speed in medium soils. Assume that weight of plough is 250 kg. Determine the tractive effort
developed by the tractor to operate the plough in the fields.
3. A farmer has 20 hectares of cultivable land growing two crops in a year. The soil has unit draft of0.8
kg/cm2. He needs to buy a tractor and matching implements. Suggest a suitable size of tractor to be
purchased and design the following matchin_g implements.
(a) M.B plough with curved beam and 3-point hitch links; (b) Disc harrow.
4. A 3 x 40 cm tractor drawn mould board plough is used in medium soil conditions having 0.8 kg/cm2
resistance at a working depth of 16 cm. The operating speed of plough is 5 km/hr. Determine the
horsepower required to operate the plough.
5. In a two bottom tractor mounted disc plough while working under heavy soil condition, total pull of
850 kg is inclined at an angle of 15° with the horizontal and the centre ofresistance of the plough is
located 50 cm above and 65 cm behind the center line of cross shaft of the plough. The vertical
distance between lower hitch points and top hitch point is 45 cm. Assuming that the top link makes an
angle of 5° with the horizontal when the plough is hitched with tractor and line of pull is situated at
mid-point of lower hitch points. Determine the resultant force and its components in top link, also
determine the reactions at lower hitch points.
6. Design a cast iron/chilled cast iron share for 2 x 40 cm mould board plough to be operated in medium
soil conditions upto a depth of 15 cm. Assume that unit draft is 0.75 kg/cm2 with angle ofintergranular
friction as 25° and angle of soil metal friction as 28°. The following permissible stresses may be used:
(a)J;: 25 Kg/mm2 (b)fs :29 Kg/mm2 (c)fb : 30 Kg/cm2
7. Total draft of 1500 mm rotavator working 120 mm deep at a forward speed of 4.5 km/hr under soil
conditions is 1350 kgf. Determine:
(a) Unit draft
(b) Drawbar horse power required to operate the machine.
8. Design a tractor drawn disc plough for 40 hp tractor to be operated in medium to heavy soil conditions
upto depth of20.0 cm. Assume any other data required.
9. Design a bullock drawn mould board plough to be operated in medium soil conditions up to a depth
of 17.5 cm. Assume any other data required.
10. Design a tractor drawn mould board plough for 30 hp tractor to be operated in medium to heavy soil
conditions up to depth of20.0 cm. Assume any other data required.
I I. A 7 x 7 tractor mounted offset disc harrow is provided with 500 mm diameter discs and each gang is
supported on two bearings. Total weight of each gang is I 00 kg. When this harrow is operated at a
disc angle of 25°, the resultant of soil reactions produce 60 kg radial load and axial thrust of 90 kg
acting 300 mm above the cutting edge· of disc. Assuming that coefficient of rolling resistance of
harrow as 0.4 and radial thrust is passing through the center of disc. Determine:
(a) Total draft of disc harrow
(b) Total load on each bearing
(c) Total side thrust on each gang.
12. A tractor is pulling a M.B plough at a forward speed of 5 km/hr and the force required to pull the
plough is 15.6 kN. Determine the drawbar power required.
. CHAPTER 5
Design of Sowing
and Planting Machines
5.1. DESIGN OF SEED-CUM-FERTILIZER DRILLS

The functions of a well designed seed drill are as follows:
J. Meter seeds of different sizes and shapes.
2. Place the seed in the acceptable pattern of distribution in the field.
3. Place the seed accurately and uniformly at the desired depth in the soil.
4. Cover the seed and compact the soil around it to enhance germination and emergence.
The, seed cum fertilizer drill machine consists of seed box, fertilizer box, seed metering
mechanism, fertilizer metering mechanism, seed tubes, furrow openers, seed rate adjusting lever and
transport cum power transmitting wheel. The seed metering mechanism is discussed in detail.
Seed Metering Devices
Metering mechanism is the heart of sowing machine and its function is to distribute seeds
uniformly at the desired application rates. In planters,it also controls seed spacing in a row. A seed
drill or planter may be required to drop the seeds at rates varying across wide range. Common type
of metering devices used on seed drills and planters are:
I. Adjustable orifice with agitator: In this type of metering device (Fig. 5.1 ), seed flow is
regulated by changing the size of opening provided at hopper bottom. An agitator fixed above seed
opening helps in continuous flow of seeds. This does not give precise control over the seed rate and
uniformity of distribution in rows. Many designs of conventional animal and tractor operated
machines have adopted this mechanism on account of its simplicity and low cost. The design of
stationary orifice with agitator type seed metering mechanisms for seed drills is given below.
The physiological properties of seed, size and shape of orifice, shape and dimensions of seed box
.affect the flow rate of seed as given by Bernakcki (I 972).
For free flow of seeds through hopper bottom openings, the sizes of openings are given as under:
(l) Circular openings (<[)
d = 2Pl ps sin 2a. (5. 1)
(i,) Rectangular openings (b)

b = P/p5 sin 2a (5.2)
where, p = unconfined yield strength of material, kg
Ps = specific weight of seed, kg/m 3
a = 45°-cp/2, inclination angle of pouring planes
 = internal friction of seed, degrees
d = diameter of opening, m
b = width of opening, m
Square shaft
:I
l l
----«
Gravity seed metering device with

helical rubber roller
Fig. 5.1: Orifice with agitator type seed metering device
The flow rate of seed through circular orifice/opening is given by
Q =F X p5 X A0 (2g X Plpi-5 (5.3)
where, Q = flow rate of seeds, g/s
F = flow rate index depends on geometry of seed box and opening
Ps = bulk density of seeds pouring out of orifice, g/cm 3
!
A 0 = area of orifice, cm
g = acceleration due to gravity, g/s2
I P = statjc pressure of seed mass, g/cm 2
i
I So, based on type of seed, its size, height of seed hopper, the opening of hopper bottom (d) is
I calculated by using eqns. 5.1 and 5.3 give~ above for free flow of seeds through the orifice. A rubber
roller is used for agitation of seeds in the seed box.
Similarly, for metering fertilizer an adjustable orifice with star type of agitator is used for metering
the fertilizer.
DESIGN OF SOWING AND PLANTING MACHINE 133
2. Fluted roller: Fluted roller metering mechanism (Fig. 5.2) is a more positive metering device.
Axial or helical flutes are machined or cast on an aluminium, cast iron or plastic roller. Rotation of
fluted roller in a housing, filled with seeds, causes the seeds to flow out from housing in a continuous
stream. Seed rate is controlled by changing exposed length of fluted ro_ller in contact with seeds and
fairly accurate seed rate can be achieved for a variety of medium size seeds like wheat, soybean,
sunflower, safflower etc. However, metering of small seeds like mustard and sesamum at 2 to
5 kg/ha seed rate is not accurate with normal size flutes which are designed for seed rates of 20 to
120 kg/ha. Therefore, fluted rollers with smaller size flutes are used.
Seed cup
Fluted roller
/Shaft
Side plate
. Fig. 5.2: Fluted roller seed metering mechanism

Flow of seeds in seed tube: After release from the seed plate, the seed travel in seed tube and the
time of seed residence in seed tube (t1) is calculated by following e_quation
t1 = (2h 1/g) 0•5 (5.4)
where, t1 = time, seconds
h 1 = length of seed tube, cm
g = gravitational acceleration, g/s2
Time for seed to strike ground (t2) is calculated using
h2 = uifi + 0.5 g(t2) 2 (5.5)
where, h 2 = distance of seed tube end and ground surface, cm
u 2 = v, Final velocity of seed at end of seed tube, mis
Horizontal distance moved by the seed on ground (S):
S = V. tif3.6 (5.6)
where, S = horizontal distance moved by seed after release, m
V = forward speed of power source, km/h
t2 = time of travel of seed from seed tube to ground, s
Total time of vertical travel (t):
t = ti + t2 (5.7)
Seed box
Handle
n ◄--i-- Seed tube
Furrow opener
..........
Seed in furrows ........_
Fig. 5.3: Flow of seed in seed tube

5. 1. t. Design of Manually Operated Seed cum Fertilizer Drill
Manually operated seed cum fertilizer drill (Fig. 5.4) is a small single row seed cum fertilizer drill in
which fluted roller metering mechanism is provided. A ground wheel is provided to drive the metering
rollers. Seed and fertilizer are stored in a small hopper and a long beam is provided by which the
implement could be pulled by one operator. Another worker guides the machine. Due to the provision
of fluted rollers, it is suited for drilling soybean, maize, pigeon pea, sorghum, green gram, bengal gram,
wheat etc.
Ii
'
I,.,,
fj
Fig. 5.4: Manually operated seed cum fertilizer drill
I. Power developed by the operator: According to Campbell et al. ( 1990) the power of useful
work done by human being is given by
HP = 0.35 - 0.092 log i (5.8)
where, t = time in minutes
Now, for 3-4 hours continuous work the power developed by the operator would be
0.10-0.13.
hp, say 0.11 hp.
We know that
HP= Push (kgf) x Speed (m/s)

75
Let the operating speed of machine be 0.8 mis i.e. 2.9 km/h
Therefore,
75
Push (kgf) = HP x = O. l l x 75 kg = l 0.3 kg = 10.5 kg (say)
Speed (m/s) 0.8
Hence, force developed by an average human worker = I 0.5 kgf.
2. Size of seed-cum- fertilizer drill: The size of manual operated seed-cum-fertilizer drill can be
calculated as: -
Z=D!d (5.9)
where, Z = number of furrow openers in the drill
D = draft of drill, kgf
d = draft of each row, kgf (say 12-15 kgf for shallow depths)
Therefore,
Z = 10.5/15 = 0. 70 :::J 1.0 (single row seed-cum-fertilizer drill)
Working width of the machine would be
W=Z x a (5 .10)
where, W = working width of machine, cm
Z = number of furrow openers in the drill, and
a = row to row distance, cm (depends on type of crop sown).
3. Design of seed and fertilizer boxes
(a) Seed box. Trapezoidal shape of seed and fertilizer boxes (Fig. 5.5) is generally used in the
m~chine for free flow of seed and fertilizers in hopper bottoms.
Volume of seed box is given by
Vb = 1.1 Vs (5 . 1I)
where, Vb = volume of seed box, cm 3
Vs = volume of seed: cm3
Also (5.12)
where, Ws = weight of seed in the box, g
Ys = bulk density of seed, g/cm 3
Putting Vs= W/Ys in eqn. 5. I I . we get,
Vb=I.IW/Ys (5.13)
For light weight and easy operation of the drill, let 2.0 kg seed is filled in the box at a time.
Therefore, using equation 5.13, we get,
I.I x 2.0 kg x I 000 g/kg

Vb= 1967.79 cm 3 ,:::: 2000 cm 3
3
1.118 g/cm
(Bulk densities are 1.118, 1.12, 0.62 and 0.82 g/cm 3 for wheat, green gram, bajra and gram
seeds respectively).
Same box can also be used for sowing of gram, green gram and bajra crops.
14 cm
I◄
'Section A'
b = width of side, cm
h 1 = height of box, cm
'Section B'
a = bottom width of box, cm

1, = distance, cm
8 = angle of repose, degrees
h 2 = height of box, cm
I• a=7.5 cm" I
Fig. 5.5: Details of seed box of manual seed cum fertilizer drill
The box is assumed to be square in size at top whose sides are equal to 'b'. Also assumed that
a = 7.5 cm
b = 14 cm
h 2 = 7.5 cm, and
0 = Angle of repose of wheat seed =23° - 25° (say 25°)
Now, from Fig. 5.5,
2/ = 14 - 7.5= 6.5 cm
or I = 3.25 cm (say 3.5cm) and, h 1 = 5 cm
Using above dimensions of box, its volume is calculated as:
vb =VA+Va (5.14)
where, V = volume of seed box

b
VA = volume of section - A of box
V8 = volume of section - B of box and
Now, VA =b x b x h1
= 14 x J4x 5 = 980 cm 3
v8 = ¾ (a+ a+ I+ l) h2 x b
= ½(2a + 21) h 2 x b
= ½ (2 x 7.5 + 2 x 3.5) x 7 .5 x 14 = 1 I 55cm 3
Hence, _35 cm 3
Vb = 980 + 1155 = 2 1
Since, the volume of designed seed box is 2135 cm3, which is higher than theoretical volume
(2000 cm 3) therefore, the designed dimensions of box are correct.
(b) Fertilizer box. For easy construction, balanced operation of the seed-cum-fertilizer drill
and symmetry in size, the same size and shape of fertilizer box is selected as that of the seed box.
Therefore, dimensions of fertilizer box are:
a = 7.5 cm
b = 14 cm
h 1 = 5 cm
h 2 = 7.5 cm
Vb= 2135cm 3
Now, 'YJ = 1200 kg/m3 or 1.2 gm/cc
Therefore,
2135
Weight of fertilizer in the box= = 1779.16 gm (Say, 1.8 kg)
1.2
So, fertilizer box can accommodate 1.5-1.8 kg of fertilizer at a time.
4. Design of seed and fertilizer metering mechanism
(a) Seed metering mechanism. The drill is to be used for sowing of wheat, gram, bajra and
moog crops. Therefore,, seed-metering roller (having triangular cells) is selected for the machine
for sowing of these crops. Number of cells in the roller is calculated by
n = re Dli x (5.15)
where, n = numbers of cells on roller
D = ground wheel diameter, cm (40 cm for cycle wheel)
x = required seed to seed spacing (12.5 cm, gram crop)
= gear ratio ( I : 1)
n = 40 x rc/12.5 x 1 = 125.66/12.5 = 10.05
v
dr v
v
--- E
Fig. 5.6: Front view of seed metering roller
Say, 10 numbers triangular cells are provided on the seed roller.
Now, the diameter of seed roller is determined by the following equation:
dr = V,. I nN,. (5. I 6)
where. dr = diameter of seed roller, cm
V,. = peripheral velocity of roller ( l 6.5 m/min is assumed for minimum seed breakage)
Nr = RPM of the roller (50-60 rpm)
dr = 16.50/n x 50 = 0.105 m = 10.50 cm
Therefore, the seed roller of I 0.50 cm diameter is used in the drill.
and, b = 22 mm d = 25 mm (From available sizes in market).
The cell fill percentage in the roller was controlled by changing the height of seeds above the
roller with screw Jack mechanism.
(b) Fertilizer metering mechanism. The same triangular cell type seed roller is also used for
metering the fertilizer in the seed drill for easy fabrication and lower costs.
So, the dimensions of fertilizer metering roller are:
n = 10 triangular-shaped cells for metering fertilizer.
d,. = 10.5 cm, b = 2.2 cm d = 2.5cm
5. Power transmission system design: Since the power (kW) transmitted in the seed drill is very
low, for power transmission a medium size (400 mm diameter) cycle wheel fitted with sprocket of 19
teeth is selected.
Another sprocket of same size (19 teeth) can be used for seed and fertilizer metering shaft so
that the transmission ratio I: 1 is maintained (Fig. 5. 7).
The seed and fertilizer hoppers are fitted on the frame of the drill in such a way that the center-
to-center distance between cycle wheel sprocket and seed shaft sprocket is 40 cm. A standard
roller chain with 15 mm pitch commo,nly used in cycles is selected for transm ission of power. The
chain length is calculated by following equation:
m = 2C/p + (Z 1 + Z 2)!2 + (Z2 - Z 1)212 1tp (5.17)
where, 111 = number of chain links
I C = center to center distance between two sprocket, mm
Z2
Z 1 = number of teeth in driver pulley
= number of teeth in driven pulley
p = chain pitch, mm (I 5mm in the present case)
Putting the va!ues in equation 5.17, we get
m = ((2 x 400)/15) + ((19 + 19) /2) + ((19 - 19)2/2 7t X 15)
= 72.33 or 73 (say)
Now, chain length (L) is given by
L = m x p = 73 x 15 = 1095 mm
Roller
Shaft
Fertilizer boot 40cm
0
Cycle wheel - ~Chain
0
0
0
Axle Sprocket
0
Fig. 5.7: Power transmission system of manually operated seed cum fertilizer drill
I
6. Design of handle: A standard light weight M.S. 27.S mm outside diameter conduit pipe is used
for handle of the tool carrier. Length of handle is calculated based on average standing elbow height of
female operators.
Average standing elbow height of women workers= 100 cm.
Distance of wheel center from the operator (for operator height of 95-105 cm) in operating
cond ition = 115 cm.
Therefore, angle of inclination (011) with the horizontal (Fig. 5.8)
tan (01i) = 80/115 = 0.696
or (011) = 34.82° say 35°
Now, sin (011 ) = 80/lh
where, l1z = length of handle
or I;, ='~O/sin35° = 80/0.5735 = 139.49 cm or 140.0 cm.
So, in order to accommodate 5-95% of operators, a 27.5 mm outer diameter conduit pipes pf
140 cm long is used for handle whose operating height can be adjusted from 95 cm to 105 tm
from the ground. A plastic handgrip of27.5 mm outer diameter, 215 mm long is fitted at the end
of conduit pipes for easy grip and operation of the machine.
7. Design of furrow opener: Considering lower push/pull available and easy operation of drill, a
combined furrow opener, which places fertilizer 2.5 cm below and to the side of the seed was selected
for the seed drill. The furrow opener includes:
I. Selection of standard (tyne).
2 . Bottom part of combined furrow opener.
' (.)
E
, 0
' '<t
Fig. 5.8: Handle of manual seed cum fertili zer drill

(i). Selection of standard (tyne) of furrow opener. It is assumed that the draft force on
furrow opener is 15 kgf/tyne and acting at a height of h/3 from the bottom of the furrow opener
where, the h is total length of furrow opener and tyne (Fig. 5.9). Standard will be in bending, so,
it will be designed for easy operation and proper balancing of machine, maximum height of furrow
opener tyne is taken as 20 cm.
Distance of draft appl ication on furrow opener tyne is :
a = h/3 = 2013 = 6.66 cm
Moment arm length = (h - a) = (20 - 6.66) = 13.34 cm
Bending moment in tyne = D. (h - a) = 15 kg x 13.34 cm
= 200 kg-cm or 200 kg x IO N/kg x IO mm/cm = 20000 N -mm
Take factor of safety =2
Therefore, maximum bending moment in tyne
= 20000 x 2 = 40000 N-mm
It is assumed the M.S. flat tyne is used in the drill
Vi =56 N/mm2 for mild steel)

Also section modulus of tyne (Z) = M/fb= 40000/56
= 714.2 mm 3
Take, b = 20mm size flat
= Thickness of flat, mm
h= 20cm
D = 15 kgf i-.---Type Frame
~ Fertilizer boot
h
Seed boot
Combined furrow opener
Fig. 5.9: Details of combined furrow opener

We know that,
Z = ( 1/6) t b 2 (for rectangular section)
714.2 = 1/6 x t (20) 2 (b = 20 mm assumed)
t = (6 x 714.2/400) = 10.7 mm
So, M. S flat tyne of 20 x l 0 mm size (Fig. 5.10) is quite safe for the furrow opener. But, in the
market 35 x 10 mm size M.S flat is available which is selected for the furrow opener of the machine.
Fig. 5.10: Tyne-section

(ii) Bottom part of combined furrow opener: Since, the draft force is very low, this portion
of furrow opener is not designed from strength point of view.
An existing combined furrow opener made from M.S. Sheet (12, gauge) as per dimensions
given in (Fig. 5. 11) is selected for the drill.
- -·- -G·-·- ·-·-·- ·-·-·-·-·-·- ·- ·-G · 35mm

I• ., I
A ---11---1-A
~ I10 mm
~ Fertilizer boot
E
· o
0
C\I Seed boot 27 .5 mm
,,. ►I
27.5 mm
I,. ►I
12/Gauge
16cm m-s sheet OI5mm
7.5 cm 20mm
~
Fig. 5. ll: Bottom part of combinl!d furrow opener
5.1.2 Design of a Tractor Drawn Seed Cum Fertilizer Drill

Seed cum fertilizer drills are used for sowing of wheat and other cereal crops in already prepared field.
The seed cum fertilizer drill machine consists of seed box, fe11ilizer box, seed metering mechanism,
fe1tilizer metering mechanism, seed tubes, furrow openers, seed rate adjusting lever and transport cum
power transmitting wheel. The fluted rollers are driven by a shaft. Fluted rollers, which are mounted at
the bottom of the seed box, receive the seeds into longitudinal grooves of fluted roller and expel them in
the seed tube attached to the furrow openers. By shifting the rollers sideways, the length of the grooves
exposed to the seed, can be increased or decre~sed and hence the amount of seed sown is changed.
In this section, design of tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill (Fig. 5.12) suitable for 30 hp tractor
is discussed in detail.
Given
Brake horse power (BHP)= 30 hp
Assumptions essential for the design:
I . Speed of operation : 4-6 km/hr
2 . Type of seed grain : wheat
3. Seed rate : 100 kg/ha
4. Row to row distance : 20.0 cm
5. Plant to plant distance : 10 cm
6. Bulk density of wheat : 700 kglm3
7. Draft requirement : 130 kg/row
8. Angle ofrepose : 26°
9. Drawbar horse power (DBHP) : 60% of BHP of tractor
IO . Type of soil : Heavy clay
Fig. 5.12: Tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill

We know, Drawbar horse power (DBHP) = 60 % of BHP
· Therefore,
DBHP = 30 x 0.60 = 18 hp
DBHP = Draft (kg) x speed (km/hr)
Also, (5.18)
270
Generally, the speed of sowing with seed drill is done in the range of 4 to 6 km/hr. Let the speed of
sowing be 5 km/hr.
Draft available for sowing = ( I 8 x 270) /5 = 972 kg
The draft requirement per metre width of seed drill = 150 kg [Source: CFMT and TI, Budni]
972 kg
Therefore, width of seed drill = 150 kg/m = 6.4 m
But, designing a six metre wide seed drill will have buckling effect and will also create problem in
transportation and handling. Therefore, let us design a seed drill with 11 furrow openers having 22 cm
spacing between the furrow openers, as mostly the seed drill is used for sowing cereal crops.
:. working width of seed drill = number of furrow openers x spacing
= 22 lJ
X
= 242 cm
Side vi ew and constructional details of tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill is shown in
Figs. 5.13 and 5.14 respectively.
Fig: 5.13: Side view of seed cum fertilizer drill
Ground wheel
I b , - - - - - - -- ---------, b
Length of seed box = 2 m
\
I
-------------------
~
I bl
Working width of seed drill = 2.42 m
Furrow opener
Seed tube
Fig. 5.14: Constructional details of seed drill
Design of Seed Box

The seed box may be MS sheet. Tl)e length of box is given by
Lb = Working width of seed drill - 2b
' where, Lb = length of box, cm

b = distance between the side box wall and ground. (let b = 21 cm)
Length of box 24·2 - 2 (21) = 200 cm
Among the seed used for sowing by the seed drill, wheat has the maximum seed rate i.e., 70 - 125
kg. Therefore, the seed drill may be designed for the seed application rate of 125 kg/ ha.
Now,
speed (km/hr) x working width of drill (m) x field efficiency

Actual field capacity of drill
IO
Let speed = 5 km/hr and field efficiency be 70%
}- 5x2.42x.70
:. Acutual field capacity of drill (Area covered/hr)= = 0. 85 ha/hr
10
Let us· design the seed box for such a capacity, that it requires refilling of seed after two hours.
Therefore,
Weight of seed to be t1sed in 2 hours= seed rate (kg/ha) x area covered / hr x times (hrs)
: = 125 x 0.85 x 2 =212.5 = 200 kg (say)
Vo.lume of seed box= -Weight of seed (kg) = 200 = 0.250 m3.

Bulk density (kg!m 3 ) 800
[Assume bulk density of wheat seed as 800 kg/m 3]
Consider spillage losses of l 0%. Therefore, total volume of ~eed box of seed dril I is
Volume of seed box CVs) = 0.250 m 3 + 0.0250 m3 = 0.275 m3

Let the seed box may be of trapezoidal section (Fig. 5.15).
b
Fig. 5.15: Trapezoidal section of seed box

The volume of seed box is given by
Vs= (a+b) x h x lb (5 . 19)

2
where, Vs = volume of seed box having trapezoidal section ( Vs), m3
a = bottom width of seed box, m (Let it be 25 cm)
b = top width of seed box, m
l = length of seed box, m
b
Also b =a+ 21
h = height of seed box
Putting the values of b in eqn. 5.19, we get,
= (a + a + 2/) x h x lb
vs 2
= (2a + 2h cot 0) x h x lb h
Also vs 2
- = tan0
I
where 0 = angle of repose of seed
Vs = (a+hcot0)xh x lb (5 .20)
The angle of repose for wheat range from 23° to 28°. The design of seed box should be such that the
'0' is more than 28° for easy flowing of seeds. Therefore, 0 = 75°.
Now, putting the values, in eqn.5.20, we get,
,6.275 m3 = (0.25 m + h cot75°] x h x 2.0
= [0.25 + h (0.27)] x h x 2.0
0.275 = 0.5 h + 0.54 li2
0.54 h2
+ 0.5 h - 0.275 = 0 (5.21)
Solving the quadratic eqn. 5.21 , we get
h = 39 cm
b = a +21
where l = h .cot 0 = 39 x cot 75° = 39 x 0.27 = 10.5 cm
b = 25 + (2 x 10.5) [Since a= 25 cm, l = 10.5 cm]
b = 25 + 21 = 46 cm.
Thus,
The specifications of seed box are:
Length of seed box = 200 cm
Bottom width of seed box = 25 cm
Top width of seed box =46 cm

Height of seed box = 39 cm
Angle of repose = 75°
Material = MS sheet
The details of the seed box is given in Fig. 5.16.
The thickness of seed box is given by (t) is given by
3x px a 2 x h 2
fs;;;;31----- (5 .22)
4x ax bs
46cm
·I
.c
0)
"iii
.s:::
--
-- --- -----------'--- Length of seed box= 200 cm
I ◄ 25cm • I
Bottom width
Fig. 5.16: Details of seed box

where, ts = thickness of seed box, cm
p bulk density, kg/cm 3
a bottom width of seed box, cm
h "" height of seed box, cm
bs = bending stress, kg/cm2 [Let bs = 1000 kg/cm 2]
ls= 3 3 x 0.008 x 252 x 392 -= 0.28 cm=: 2.8 mm

4x25 x!000
Thickness of seed box = 2.8 mm.
T
Design of Seed Metering Mechanism

Let the seed metering mechanism may be of fluted roller type (Figs. 5. 17 and 5.18)
Using the formula,
1tDgRwSr x 10-5
vro/ler =--=----- (5 .23)
p x gr
3
where, Vroller = volume of seed dropped per rotation of feed roller, m
Dg diameter of ground wheel, m
Rw inter row width, cm
sr = seed rate, kg/ha
p = bulk density, kg!m 3
Fluted roller Fluted roller

for wheat for mustard
· ·-·-·-·- ·-·-·-·-· t ·-·-·-·3·

L Seed cup
shaft
Seed feed
cut off
Fig. 5.17: Seed metering roller
g =gear r a. t i oNo. of teeth in metering shaft

=---------------
r No. of teeth in ground wheel shaft
Let g,. = 30/20 =1.5
Dg ~ 60 cm
Rw = 22 cm
5
1t x 0.6x22 x 125x10- = _ cm3
V 43 2
roller 800 x 1.5
Now, number of flutes on the metering roller's periphery can be decided from the formula given
below:
Fig. 5.18: A view of seed metering roller

where, N
1
= number of flutes or slots/ roller
Dg = diameter of ground wheel, cm
x = linear spacing of seeds on the ground, cm
g,. = gear ratio = l .5
Let x= IO cm in present case
N - 1tx 6 0 12 57
J- IOxl.5 .
Say, Nf = 13
[Now, the linear spacing changes to 9.6 cm which is acceptable]
Now,
Working volume released by fluted roller in one rotation ( V,-oller) is given by
V,oller = Vslot + Vactive
where, Vslot = volume of seeds falling in slots, cm 3
Vactive = volume of seeds thrown out from the active layer, cm3
V,oller = Vslot + Vactive
= Af'NI.Lf + A 0 .N1 .L1
= LIN! (Al+ A0 )
where, A1 = cross-sectional area of one flute, cm 2
N
1
= number of flutes /roller
L
1
= length of flute, cm
A0 = cross-sectional area of active layer, cm 2
Now,
Assume
vroller = L1 x 13 x (A1+ 0.7 A1) [Since N

1
= 13]
43.2 cm3 = L x 13 x l.7A (5.24)
1 1
Assume, length of flute= 8 cm
Therefore,
The eqn. 5.24 becomes,
43.2 cm3 = 8 x 13 x 1.7 A1
A1 = 24.4 mm 2
Thus,
The cross-sectional area of flute = 24.4 mm 2 .
Now,
Let the diameter of fluted roller = 50 mm
Number of slots to be provided "" 13
Circumference of fluted roller ""7t D = 157.08 mm
Let the ratio of slot to slot wall =2:1
⇒ b: lib = 2: I
Central angle of (one slot +one slot wall) <D0 = 360°/13 = 27.69
But
<D0 = <D 1 + li<D [Refer Fig. 5. I9]
27.69° = 2 6<D + 6<D [since b : 6b = 2: I ⇒ <D 1 + li<D = 2 : 1)
6(1) = 27.69°/3 = 9.23°
, = 18.46°
I! In the Fig. 5.19, refer to right triangle OCA,
n sin ( ~) = ~~ [ ·: OA =25 mm= Radius of fluted roller]
I
i
sin( 18.460) =
2
½
25
⇒ b = 8 mm, lib= 4 mm [ ·: b: 6b = 2: I]
Now,
Cross-sectional area of flute (A} = J1 + Ji [Refer Fig. 5.19]
2
Al= R
2 180
1(~$ -sin$,)+C(~$2 - sin~2)
2 180
(5.25)
Fig. 5.19: Details oftluted roller

Putting the values in the eqn.5.25, we get,
2
24.40 mm 2 =25- ( - 1t x 18.46° -sinl8.46° ) +,.2- ( -1tx 90° - sin90°)
2 180 2 180
6 1
24.40 mm 2 = ~\0.3221-0.3166)+ ;(0.57)
,.2
0.57- = 22.68
2
r = 8.9 mm
Thus, the radius of curvature of slot = 8.9 mm.
The specifications of designed tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill are summarized below:
Seed drill Working width of drill 2.42 m
Number of furrow openers 11
Spacing between furrow openers (adj ustable) 22 cm
Draft requirement 375 kg
Field capacity 0.85 ha/hr
Seed box Cross-section Trapezoidal
Seed box capacity 200 kg
Length of seed box 200cm
Bottom width of seed box 25cm

Top width of seed box 46cm
Height of seed box 39cm
Angle of repose available 75°
Thickness of seedbox 2.8mm
Type of material MS sheet
Seed metering Type of seed metering Fluted roller
Number of slots/roller 13
Length of roller 80mm
Diameter of roller 50mm
Radius of curvature of slot 8.90mm
Design a seed cwn fertWz<:r drill for 3 5 hp tractor (Fig. 5. 20)
Fig. 5.20: Tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill

Solution:
Size of seed drill
From a 35 hp tractor, total power available at drawbar of tractor is 75% of bhp
or DBHP = 35 x 75/100
Also,
DBHP = Draft (kg) x speed (m/min)/4500
or, Draft = 35 x 75/100 x 4500 I 4 x 1000
= 1770 kg
The draft requirement per metre width of seed drill= 150 kg. [Source: CFMT and TI, Budni]
Therefore, width of seed drill = I 770 /150 kg/m = I I. 8 m.

But, designing a 11 .8 metre wide seed drill will have buckling effect and will also create problem in
transportation and handling. Therefore, let us design a seed drill with 13 furrow openers having 20 cm
spacing between the furrow openers, as mostly the seed drill is used for sowing cereal crops.
:. Working width of seed drill = Number of furrow openers x spacing
= 20 X 13
= 260 cm.
Design of seed hopper: The design of seed hopper includes its capacity and other dimensions. It
must have sufficient capacity to sow for the desired period of time, there should be storage of grains.
The thickness of hopper should be such that its wall should not fail in buckling. The slope of _walls
should be more than the angle of repose so that grain can easily go towards the metering mechanism.
The hopper box must be adequately covered with spring loaded plate to avoid the entrance of water and
foreign material. The material of hopper should be corrosion resistant and should not damage the grain.
Size of seed drill= 13 x 20/ 100 = 2.60 m
Area covered = 4000 x 2.60/ 10000 = I .04 ha/hr
Seed rate = I 00 kg/ha
~onsidering for one hour continuous operation.
111e amount of seed required = I 00 x 1.04 = l 04 kg/hr
Volume of hopper required for 104 kg seed= 104/700 = 0.15 m 3
Take I 0% extra volume to avoid spillage.
Therefore, volume of seed box = 0.15 x l. I = 0. I 65 m~
Now, size of seed.drill = 2.60 m
So, cross-sectional area of hopper = 0. 165/ 2.60 = 0.57 m2
Assume that a trapezoidal section is used for the hopper.
Area of trapezoidal section= ½ (a+ b) h. (Refer Fig. 5. I 6)

By assuming the base with a = IO cm, then
Area, A = ½(a + a + 2h tan 0) h

· = (a + h tan 0) h
= (0.1 + 0.57 h) h = 0.057
0.572 h 2 + 0.1 h = 0.057
h = 24 cm
Again, A = ½(a+ b) h = 0.057

a+b = 0.476
Therefore, b = 37.6 cm
So, specifications of hopper are:

Bottom width (a) = 10 cm
Top width (b) = 37.6 cm
Height (h) = 24 cm
Length (/b) = 2.60 m
Design of ground wheel: The ground wheel diameter is selected on trial and error method and
mainly based on machine height. The width of wheel depends on type of soil and wheel sink-age etc.
Different types of ground wheels generally used in the seed drills are shown in Fig. 5.21 .
{a) Plain wheel (b) Wheel with lugs (c} Wheel with pegs
Fig. 5.21: Ground wheels used in seed drill
• Assume diameter of ground wheel = 80 cm
• Peripheral distance = n D = n x 0.8 = 2.52 m
• Forward speed of machine = 4 km/hr = 4000 m/hr
• As wheel covers 2.52 m horizontal distance in one revolution.
So, at 4 km/hr, it is = 4000 (m/hr)/ 2.52 (m/rev) = 1590 rev/hr and
I 590/ I .04 ha/hr = I 529 rev/ha
Design of metering mechanism: Fluted roller type seed metering mechanism is selected for the
drill because this is the most suitable type, we can easily change the seed rate by the opening and closing
of fluted roller.
• Let the size of opening of fluted roller in the bottom of hopper is 5 x I cm.
• The transmission ratio between roller and ground wheel is one.
• Area covered by the seed drill in one r~volution = n x 0.8 x 2.60 = 6.55 m2.
• So, for one hectare= 10000 m2, the revolutions required will be= 10000/6.55 = 1529 rev.
• So, rev?lutions of metering roller are also I 529 as speed ratio is one.
• Seed rate =I 00 kg/ha and it is 1529 rev/ha.
• So, for dropping of 1 kg of seed, we require = 1529/J 00 rev.
• And seed dropped in one rev= I 00/1529 = 65.5 gm
We will also provide the lugs on ground wheel to increase traction and avoid slipping.
Volume of 65.5 g seed by taking bulk density as 700 kg/m 3 .
= 65.5 x 100 x 100 x 100/7000 x 1000 = 93.60 cm3.
Volume for one fluted roller= 93.6/13 = 7.2 cm3 [Divided by 13 as there are 13 tynes]
Now.we select the size of the groove according to type of grain (wheat). Let the shape of groove is
parabolic.
Width of groove = 5 mm
Depth of groove = 5 mm
Let length of roller is 5 cm (to change the seed rate)
Volume of one groove = area x length = 2/3 x 0.5 x 0.5 x 5 = 2.5/3
So, number of grooves = 7.2 x 3/2.5 = 9 grooves
Let the clearance between two grooves is 2.5 mm.
Periphery of roller = re D =No. of flutes x pitch
= 9 x (5 mm + 2.5 mm)= 9 x 7.5
or, D =9 x 7 .5/rc = 2.15 cm say 2.5 cm diameter roller
Design of Toolbar
The tool bar of seed drill is subjected to torsion and bending moment due to induced draft. The design
should be based on the stress produced in the toolbar.
Let,
The furrow is 6 cm wide and 8 cm deep.
Soil resistance is 0.5 kg/cm2.
Draft/tyne= 0.5 x 6 x 8 = 24 kg.
Torque produced on toolbar (7) = 0.5 x 8 x 6 x 0.4 (clearance from ground) x 7(no. of Tyne)
= 67.2 kg-m = 6720 kg-cm
In addition to torque the bending moment (M) is also produced in the toolbar. The toolbar can be
assumed as simply supported frame. The maximum bending moment will be at the centre. The reactions
at each of the two supports is = 24 x 7/2 = 84 kg (see Fig. 5 .22 )
The maximum bending moment at the centre is calculated as
M = 3.5 P x 2.5 x - 3Px - 2Px - Px
= 9.15 Px - 6Px = 3. 15 Px
= 3.15 x 24 x 45 = 3400 kg-cm
Also Te = (M2 + T2)1l2
= [(3400) 2 + (6720)2] 112 = 7525 kg-cm
The maximum shear stress developed at the centre of toolbar is given by
S/y = T/f
where, Ss = shear stress at section
Y = distance of outermost fibre from neutral axis
Te = equivalent torque
I = moment of inertia (bd3/12 for rectangular section and for square section b = d)
19
...L
Tool bar . Drivcwl el
110
Ground wheel--
Axle - ...,:;i,.;;:.;;;:ii
37
1
54
11-1--4-i_ _ _ _
75
. 201.s _ _ _ _
1_--lsl---_1 +--1-
I
Furrow opener
Fig. 5.22: Tool bar of tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill
Let Ss = 500 kg/cm 2

I = bd3!12 = d4!12
Therefore, 1/y = (d4/12)/d/2 = d 3!6
or d3 = 6T/Ss = 7525 x 6/500 = 90.5 cm 3
d = 4.48 cm or 4.5 cm
So, size oftoolbar is 5 x 5. The toolbar of tractor drawn seed cum fertilizer drill is given in Fig. 5.22.
Furrow Openers
The size of furrow opener is just assumed to have width of 6 cm, length of IO cm and cone angle of
45°
1~
G ·-
10 ,
[
-·E)
0
~ ~4
►I
18.5
1-
Fig. 5.23: Furrow opener details
Total length of shovel = 16 cm.

The type of furrow opener is hoe type (Fig. 5.23) because it is most common for grain drills and the
performance is also good.
Selected type of materials for construction of designed seed· drill
No Name of part Material
I. Frame and toolbar Mild steel (M.S)
2. Wheels C.I,M.S
3. Axle and shaft M.S
4. Seed box M.S sheet, G.l sheet, plastics, wood
5. Tyne M.S, Carbon steel
6. Boot M.S, CT grade-20
7. Furrow opener MS (Hard surface)
8. Seed tube Plastic, steel ribbon
9. Seed metering mechanism Cl, MS, Al. brass, gun metal, nylon
10. Bushes Brass grade 3, gun metal
1L. Covering device MS, Wood
12. Sprocket and gear CI, MS
13. Hitching mechanism MS
14. Depth adjusting mechanism MS,Cl
15. Feed adjusting mechanism MS
5.2. DESIGN OF PLANTERS

Seed planter is a sophisticated sowing equipment which is normally used for those seeds which are
larger in size and cannot be planted by usual seed drills. It maintains rows as well as hills distance during
planting of the crops and does the following functions:
I . To open the furrow.
2. To meter the seed.
3. To deposit the seed in groups (hills) in the furrow.
4. To cover the. seeds and compact the soil over it.
5.2.1. Design of Manually Operated Planters

This is a hand wheel hoe, used for interculture operation on which planting mechanism is mounted. The
planting mechanism consists of a vertical plate with spoons, and receives drive motion from the ground
wheel through chain and sprockets. For operation of the planter, a person pulls it from rope attached to
the hook and other person steers the machine by holding it by the handle. Upon pulling the planter
forward, ground wheel sta,ts rotating transmitting motion to the ve1tical plate fitted with spoons in the
hopper. The hopper is filled with seeds. As the ve,tical plate rotates, the spoons pick up the seed which
is discharged, in the small hopper connected to the furrow opener through a tube. The seed is then
dropped in the furrow created by the furrow opener. Varying the number of spoons on vertical plate can
vary plant spacing. Planting spoons for the crops like peas, sunflower, cotton, okra (bhindi), maize,
soybean are available. The design procedure for manually operated planters is discussed in detail in this
section.
1. Power developed by the operator: According to Campbell et al ( 1990) the power of useful work
done by human being is given by
HP= 0.35 - 0.092 log t (5.26)
where, t = Time in minutes
Now, to operate the manually operated planter for 3 - 4 hours continuous work the power devel-
oped by the operator would be 0.10-0.13 hp say 0.11 hp.
Push (kgf) x Speed (mis)

HP= . 75
Let the.operating speed of machine be 0.8 m/s i.e. about 2.9 km/h
or, Push (kgf) = (HP x 75)/speed (m/s) = 0. 11 x 75 /0.8 = I 0.5 kgf.
Similarly, for bullock drawn or tractor drawn machines calculate the draft available to operate the
machine.
2. Size of planter: In order to select the size of manually operated seed planter, we use following
formula:
Z=Dld (5 .27)
where, Z = number of furrow openers in the planter
D = draft of planter, kgf ( 12- 15 kgf for shallow depth)
d = draft of each row, kgf
Working width of the machine would be
W=Zxa (5.28)
where, W = wo~king width of machine, cm
Z = number of furrow openers in the planter, and
a = row to row distance, cm (depends on type of crop sown)
(t) Seed box: Trapezoidal shape of seed and fertilizer boxes (Fig. 5.24) are used in the machine for
free flow of seed and fertilizers in hopper bottoms. Volume of seed box is given by
Vb = 1.1 Vs (5.29)
and Vs = WJys (5.30)
Vb = 1.1 WJys (5.31)
where, Ws = weight of seed in the box, g
Ys = bulk density of seed g/cm 3
Vb = volurpe of seed box, cm3
Vs = volume of seed, cm3
Same box will also be used for sowing of maize, sunflower and peas crops also.
Using above dimensions of box, its volume is calculated as:
= VA+ VB (5 .32)
where, 1~4 = volume of section 'A' of box
VB = volume of section 'B' of box and
'Section A'
b = top width of box. cm
h 1 = height of box. cm
'Section B'
a = bottom width of box, cm

I = distance, cm
6 = angle of repose , degrees
h = height of box, cm
2
a
►I
Fig. 5.24: Seed box

(ii) Fertilizer box. For easy construction, balanced operation of the seed planter and symmetry in
size, same size and shape of fertilizer box is selected as that of the seed box.
4. Design seed and fertilizer metering mechanism
(i) Seed metering mechanism: The planter is to be used for sowing of cotton, maize, sunflower
and peas crops. Therefore, seed-metering roller (having triangular cells) are used for the machine.
Number of cells in the roller is calculated by
,~
'CJ
dr 'CJ
'CJ
--
r Enlarged view of notch

scale= 1 1
89.7 ~
Details of seed roller scale : 1:3
. Fig. 5.25: Vertical seed plate of crop planter Fig. 5.26: Side view of seed metering roller
n = 1t Dli x (5.33)
where, n = numbers of cells on roller
D = ground wheel diameter, cm (40 cm for cycle wheel)
x = required seed to seed spacing (30 cm, cotton crop)
= gear ratio (I : I)
Diameter of seed roller is determined by the following equation:
d,. = V,. I 1t N,. (5.34
where, d,. = diameter of seed roller, cm
Vr = Peripheral velocity of roller ( 16.5 m/min assumed for minimum seed breakage)
N,. = RPM of the roller (50-60 rpm)
(ir) Fertilizer metering mechanism. The same seed roller is also used for metering the fertilizer in
the seed planter for easy fabrication and lower costs.
5. Power transmission system design: Since the power (kw) transmitted in manual seed planter is
very low. So, for power transmission a medium size (400 mm dia) cycle wheel with sprocket of 19
teeth is selected. (Fig. 5.27)
Sprocket of same size (I 9 teeth) is used for seed and fertilizer metering shaft.
The chain length is calculated by following equation:
m = 2C/p + (Z 1 + Z2)/2 + (Z2 - Zi)1! 2 1t p (5.35)
where,' m = number of chain links
C = center to center distance between two sprocket, mm
Z1 = number of teeth in driver pulley
Roller
Shaft
Fertilizer boot 40cm
0
Cycle wheel - - ~Chain
0
0
Axle Sprocket
0
Fig 5.27: Power transmission system of manual seed planter

z2 "' number of teeth in driven pulley

p ,,., chain pitch, mm ( 15mm in the present case)
6. Design of handle: A standard light weight M.S. 27.5 mm outsid~ diameter conduit pipe is used
for handle of the tool carrier. Length of handle is calculated based on average standing elbow height of
female operators.
•E
: u
,o
' ..,.
Fig. 5.28: Determination of height of planter handle

Average standing elbow height of women workers = 100 cm.
Distance of wheel center from the operator ( for operator height of 95 -· 105 cm) in operating
condition = 115 cm.
Therefore, angle of inclination (01,) with the horizontal (Fig. 5.28.)
tan 0,,=80/115=0.696 or 0,,=35°
7. Design of furrow opener: Considering lower push/pull available and easy operation of planter,
a combined furrow opener, which places fertilizer 2.5 cm below and to the side of the seed, is
selected for the seed drill. The furrow opener includes.
(i) Selection of standard (tyne).
(ii) Furrow opening portion.
(1) Selection of standard (tyne) of furrow opener:

Draft force on furrow opener is F kgf/ tyne and acting at a height of h/3 from the bottom of the
furrow opener where, the h is total length of furrow opener and tyne (Fig. 5.29).
---&-------
i-+---Type Frame
~ Fertilizer boot
:
!
Combined furrow opener
Fig. 5.29: Details of combined furrow opener
Distance of draft application on furrow opener tyne,

a= h/3
~
Moment arm length = (h - a)
Bending moment in tyne = D. (h - a),
Take factor of safety = 2
Therefore, maximum bending moment in tyne = B.M x F.O.S
2
M.S. flat tyne is used in planter (/2 = 56 N/mm for mild steel)
Also section modulus of tyne (Z) = MtJfb
Z = (116) t b2 (for rectangular section)
(ii) Bottom part of combined furrow opener. Since, the draft force is very low, this portion of
furrow opener is not designed from strength point of view.
An existing combined furrow opener made from M.S. Sheet (12, gauge) as per dimensions given in
(Refer Fig. 5.9) is selected for the planter.
In sugarcane and potato planters, in addition to furrow openers, ridgers/furrowers are also provided
for making ridges or furrows. Therefore, these should also be included for determination of matching
size of planters.
5.2.2 · Design of Tractor Drawn Multipurpose Sowing Machine for Ridge-furrow and Flat bed
System
Ridger seeder: Ridge and furrow system of planting offers a better alternative than flat bed sowing in
dry land/rainfed as well as in irrigated conditions. To meet the seeding 1:equirement of kharif and rabi
crops, a tractor drawn machine known as ridger-seeder has been developed. Ridger seeder is essential
for obtaining an adequate stand with limited use of irrigation water or under rainfed conditions. It has a
three point hitch, two bottom ridger which forms the ridges and furrows with the seeding either on the
ridge, side of ridge, or in the furrow as desired in a single operation. It has got a seed metering attach-
ment which is suitable for seeds ranging in size from rapeseed to chickpea. The ridger seeder can be
used for sowing of both kharif and rabi crops with shallow soil cover over the seed. The advantage of
sowing by ridger seeder is that it makes the dry upper layer soil into ridges and sowing is done in the
furrows at appropriate depth. It also works efficiently even when the moisture is at a depth of 15-20
cm. For khar{f crops, seeding is done on the side of ridge in paired row system and for rab; crops
seeding is done in deep furrows.
'Ridge-furrow' system of planting kharif and rabi crops offers:
I. A wider scope not only in rainfed areas but also in irrigated crops.
2. It shall be possible to introduce maize, soybean, cowpeas and pulses wherever the problems of
crust formation or water logging occur.
3. In areas where double cropping is difficult on account of drying of the surface soil, sowing in the
furrows exposed by the ridger component of the machine helps in establishment of desirable
stand during rabi season.
4. The machine has a three point hitch, two ~ottom ridger-seeder which can form the ridges and
furrows with the seeding either ·
a) On the ridge,
b) Side of ridge, or
c) In the furrow as desired in a single operation.
5. It has a seed metering attachment which is suitable for seeds ranging in size from rapeseed to
chickpea.
6 . The seeding depth is adjustable independent offurrow depth.
7. The soil covers·over the seed is around 5.0 cm.
8. For kharif crops seeding may be done on the top of ridge in paired row system
9. For rabi crops seeding is done in deep furrpws.
I 0. It is a multipurpose sowing machine which can meet above requirements in addition to sowing of
cereal crops like wheat and barley on flat bed system in irrigated conditions.
So, it a multipurpose tractor drawn seeding machine, which could accomplish sowing of crops both
on flat bed as seed-cum-fertilizer drill like wheat, barley and methi crops and in ridger-furrow system as
ridger-seeder. With slight modifications/adjustments in tractor drawn ridger seeder, it can be used as:
i) Seed-cum-fe1tilizer Drill
ii) No-till seed-cum-fertilizer Drill
Fig. 5.30: Tractor Drawn Ridger Seeder in operation
20
45 45 45
(a) on side of ridges (Kharif crops)
Ridge
j
:/
Furrow
30
(b) in furrows (Rabi crops)

Fig.5.31: Different Ridge-Furrow Planting systems
1. Calculation of size and draft of ridger seeder
Assume that two bottom ridger seeder is designed
Therefore,
No. of ridger bottoms = 2
No. of furrow openers for 2-bottoms = 4
Now,
As given in Fig. 5.31, the size of furrow opened by each ridger bottom wou ld be
Top width = 60 cm
Bottom width = 30 cm
Depth of furrow = 20 cm
Therefore,
Area of cross section of furrow = (Top width +Bottom width)/2 x Depth
= (60 cm + 30 cm)/2 x 20 cm = 900 cm2
Total area of cross section of furrow = No. of bottoms x area of one furrow
= 2 x 900 cm2 = 1800 cm 2
Since the ridger seeder is used in light to medium soils
So, unit draft of soil would be 0.25 to 0.5 kg/cm 2
We, may take unit draft = 0.375 kg/cm 2
Therefore,
Draft of two ridger bottoms = Area x Unit draft
= 1800 cm 2 x 0.375 kg/cm2
= 675 kg
Assume that draft for each furrow opener of seeding attachment is 25 kg
There fore, draft of 4 furrow openers of seeder = 4 x 25 kg = 100 kg
So,
Total Draft of ridger seeder = Draft of ridger bottoms + Draft of furrow openers
= 675 kg+ 100 kg= .775 kg
Assume factor of safety as 2.0
So, Design draft of machine = 775 x 2 = 1550 kg
2. Calculate drawbar horse power of tractor (DBJ·IP)
We know that
DBHP = Draft (kg) x Speed (m/min)/ 4500
Assume speed of operation of ridger seeder as 4 km/hr
DBHP = (1550 kg x 4 km/hr x I000111/60 m/hr)/ 4500
= 22.96 hp
Now, we know that DBHP of tractor is about 60% of BHP of its engine
So, Size of tractor -required to operate 2-bottom ridger seeder is
BHP = DBHP/0.6 = 22.96/0.6 = 38.27 hp
So,
We can .,use a tractor of 40 hp for operation of two bottom ridger seeder
3. Size of Toolbar Frame
The size of tool bar of the machine is decided based on the facts that:
i) This can be used as a 2-bottom ridger seeder for ridge furrow planting and
ii) Nine row seed-cum-fertilizer drill/no-till drill for flat bed sowing of wheat, barley and mcthi
crops.
iii) In the ridger seeder, two ridger bottoms will be attached at a spacing of 90 ems and four furrow
openers will be fitted to the rear toolbar as per the spacing requirements of the crop sown.
iv) In seed-cum-fertilizer drill five furrow openers will be fitted at a spacing of 36-40 cm on rear
toolbar and·four furrow opener~ 'o nJhe front tool bar in such a way that a row to row spacing of
18-20 cm is obtained.
v) Both the toolbars are joined together with the help of angle iron box at a distance of 600 mm to
make it a rectangular frame.
vi) On both ends of frame 600 mm diameter wheels are provided to keep the machine in level position
and to act as_a drive wheel for seed and fertilizer metering.
vii) The furrow openers are attached to the tool bar with the help of clamps.
Length of rear tool bar = No. of furrow openers x spacing
= 5 x 35 cm = 175 cm say 178 cm
Length of front toolbar =4 x 35 cm = 140 cm
Two ridger bottoms at a spacing of 90 ems can be easily attached on front toolbar with the help of
clamps.
Details oftoolbar frame are furnished in Fig. 5.32.
1780mm I
I
\ _ Real toolbar
0 Channels
-j 151,-
0
<D
I
I
t
0
0
<D
,-
I-
/ Front toolbar t--
~
0
0
(D
I!I
n
"Wheel c: \,, l;I
\_Three point hitch
1\Hitch pin
~
~
Dnve wheel -
Fig.5.32: Toolbar Frame of Multipurpose Sowing Machine

4. Design of Ridger Bottoms
Refer to Fig. 5.33, the details of ridger type bottoms, its tyne/shank and various dimensions are as
given below:
...
L = length of tyne from the tip of shovel to the frame, mm

Lb = length of tyne/shank from the frame to the top end of breast, mm
h= height of tyne /shank from its tip to the bent portion, mm
R = radius of curvature of bent portion of tyne (generally = 120 mm)
Also, R = (h - l sin a) I cos a (5.36)
where, d = maximum operating depth of furrow opener, mm
I = breast length of shovel., mm
a = rake angle, degrees
b x t = cross section of tyne, mm 2
b = width of tyne, mm
t = thickness of tyne
0 0 b
Tyne
Boot
Fig.5.33: Ridger bottom ofTD Ridger Seeder

a)Calculatc the draft load on ridger bottom tyne/shank (Di
Force exerted on the ridger bottom of ridger seeder is estimated as given below.
DJ =k X w X d (5.37)
where, D_r = draft of ridger bottom, kg or N

k = specific soil resistance, kg/cm2 or N/cm 2 and depends o~ type of soil
For heavy soils, it should be taken 3-5 times the value for normal soils
w = width of furrow opener, cm
d = depth of sowing, cm
The furrow slice cut by ridger bottom will make trapezoidal type of furrow as given in Fig. 5.34
Fig.5.34: Cross-section of furrow

Now, for proper depth of seed sowing in the bottom of furrow
Assume w = 60 cm
d = 20 cm
w1 = 30 cm
k = 0.4 kg/cm2
Therefore, putting values in eqn. 5.37, we get,
D_r = 0.4 x [(60+30)/2] x 20 = 360 kgf
Now, for mild steel tynes we can take factor of safety of 2
So, design draft of furrow opener would be
= D x fo.s
1
= 360 kgf x 2 = 720 kgf.
b) Determine the bending moment in the ridger bottom tyne
Refer to Fig. 5.33, based on findings of Dubey (1985) taking
h = 140 mm, l = 110 mm and
a =25° and putting these values in the following equation,
R = (h - I sin a) / cos a (5 .38)
We get
R = 103.2 mm which is less than 120 mm
Considering the ridger bottom tyne as a cantilever beam of500 mm size fixed to the frame at one end
(Krutz et. al. 1984), the maximum bending moment (M) in the tyne is given by
M = Design draft (kg) x beam span (cm)
':= 720 kgf x 50 cm 'F 36000 kg-cm
Now, section modulus of the tyne 'Z' is calculated as under
DESIGN OF SOWING AND PLANTING MACHINE 16.9
ah =MCl!=M!Z ( as Z = !IC) (5.39)

where, ab = bending stress in tyne, kg/cm2. We can take bending stress in mild steel
flat as I 000 kg/cm2, (Sengar,2002)
M = bending moment in tyne, kg-cm
C = distance from the neutral axis to the point at which stress is calculated, cm
I == moment of ine1tia of rectangular section, cm4
z = section modulus of the tyne
Also,
For rectangular sections.
Z = 1 x b2!6 (5.40)
The ratio between the thickness to width (t : b) = I :3 to I :4 can be taken.
So. t: b = I :4
or b =4 !
Therefore, from eqn.5.40, we get,
Z = { X (4t)2/6 = 16 t3/6
Also, Z = Ml ab= 36000 kg-cm/ 1000 kg/cm2 = 36.0
Or, 36.0 = I 6t3/6
t3 = 13.5
= 3.67 cm or 37.5 mm and
b =37.5 x 4.0 = 150mm
Therefore, cross-section of the tyne 37.5 x 150 mm
Or, we may take MS flat of 37.5 x 150 mm for the tyne of ridger seeder
Seed control lever

___..
Fertilizer
' )..-
adjusting lever
Fertilizer box •Seed box
Support
-seed tube
Three point hitch
Chain
Ground wheel
Main frame Drive wheel

Ridger bottom
Fig. 5.35: Constructional features of Tractor drawn two row riclger seeder
Thus, the Specification of multicrop ridger seeder cum seed fertilizer drill are summarized
below: ·
Table 5.1 : Specification of multicrop ridger seeder cum seed fertilizer drill
Description Multi-crop machine
Source of power Tractor 40 hp
Suitable for crops Wheat, Barley, Methi, raya, Gram, Cotton, Bajra
No. of ridger bottoms 2
No. of furrow openers Ridger seeder :2
Seed cum fertilizer drill :9
Row spacing adjustments Ridger seeder 30-60 cm paired
Seed drill : 15-60 cm (Adjusted)
Fertilizer placements 5-20 cm below seed
Depth of sowing Adjustable as per need of crop
Type of seed metering Fluted roHers
Type of fertilizer metering Cl/ Aluminum plates with cells
Main frame size, mm 1780 x 600 mm
Seed box size 70 x 70 x 6 mm angle box 1700mm long
Size of fertilizer box, mm 1410 x 40 x 180 mm
Ground wheel diameter, mm 600 mm with lugs
Total width of ridger full open 730 mm
Field capacity, ha/hr Bajra, Gram, Raya :0.75

Assumptions essential for the design:
It is assumed that the two-bottom ridger seeder will also be used as 9-row seed-cum-fertilizer drill
for sowing of crop on flat bed system and other details would be as under:
i) Speed of operation : 4-6 km/hr
ii) Type of seed grain : wheat
iii) Seed rate : 100 kg/ha
iv) Row to row distance : 18.0-20. cm
v) Plant to plant distance : 10 cm
vi) Bulk density of wheat : 700 kg/m3
vii) Draft requirement ' ·: 130 kg/row
viii) Angle of repose of seed : 26°
ix) Type of soil : Heavy clay
Fig. 5.36: Tractor drawn seed-cum-fert. drill

Since, it will be a nine row seed-cum-fertilizer drill and row spacing would be 20 ems.
Therefore,
Widt~ of machine = No. of tynes x row spacing= 9 x 20 = 180 ems
As we have already selected the size of rear toolbar = 1780 mm
But, the nine tynes would be arranged on front and rear toolbar in staggered manner i.e. 5 rows on
rear toolbar and 4 tynes on front tool bar.
The draft requirement per metre width of seed drill= I 50 kg [Source: CFMT&Tl, Budni]
7. Shaft
8. Seed cub
9. Shaft
10. Seed box
11. Fertil box
12. Fertil metering
13. Hitch point
14. Clamp
l~--
Therefore,
Draft of seed drill = Unit draft x width of drill= 150 kg x 1.78 m = 270 kg
Fig: 5.38: Side view of seed cum fertilizer drill
a) Design of Seed Box:

fr The seed box may be of MS sheet. The length of box is given by
Lb = Working width of seed drill - 2b
where Lb = Length of box, cm
b .,. distance between the side box wall and ground wheel. (let b = 2 1 cm)
Working width for front toolbar = No. of rows x spacing between rows
= 4 x 40 cm = 1600 cm
Length of box = 160 cm - 2(1 S)cm = 130 cm
b b :
Length of seed box = 1.3 m
._,Wheel
Wheel
Seed tube
Furrow opener
I~ I
s12"
Working width of front toolbar of seed drill = 1.60 m
Fig. 5.39: Constructional details of seed box of seed drill

•.· DESIGN OF SOWING AND PLANTING MACHINE 173
Among the seeds used for sowing by seed drill, wheat has the maximum seed rate i.e. 70-125 kg.
Therefore, the seed drill may be designed for the seed application rate of 125 kg/ha.
Now,
. f . speed (km/hr) x working width of drill·(m) x field efficiency

Actua1fiteId capacity o dnll :::;; - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
10
Let speed = 5 km/hr & field efficiency be 70%
5 70
Actual field capacity of drill (Area covered /hr)= x I .SO x · == 0.63 ha/ hr
10
Let us design the seed·box for such a capacity, that it requires refilling of seeds after 2 hours.
Therefore,
Weight of seed to be used in 2 hours== seed rate (kg/ha) x area covered /hr x time (hrs)
= 125 X 0.63 x 2=157.5
== 160 kg (say)
Weight of seed(kg) 160

Voume
l of see d box=-~~---~==-= 0 .20m3
Bulk density (kg/m 3 ) 800
[Assume bulk density as 800 kg/m3J
Consider spillage losses of 10%. Therefore, total volume of seed drill
Volume of seed box (V5 ) ; ; 0.20m3 + 0.020m 3 = 0.22m3

Let the seed box may be of trapezoidal section
The volume of seed box is given by
V -- (a+b) X h X lb (5.41)
.I' 2
where, Vs = Volume of seed box having trapezoidal section (Vs)
a · = bottom width of seed box
b = top width of seed box
Also b = a + 2l
h = height of seed box
J a
I
l<. . . . . . a............. >I

Fig.5.40: Cross-section of seed box
Putting the values of b in eqn.5.41, we get,
_ (a+a+2l) I
Vs - 1
X1X1,
2
Also, ~,. =(2a + 2; cot 0) x h x lb [·.- 7 = tane]
where, 0 = angle of repose

~. =(a+hcot0)xh x lh (5.42)
The angle of repose for wheat ranges from 23° to 28°. The design of seed box should be such that
the '0' is more than 28° for easy flowing of seeds. Therefore, 0 = 75°
Now, putting the values in eqn. 5.42, we get,
0.22 m 3 = [0.25m +h cot75°]x hx 1.30

=[0.25+h (0.27)]xhxl.30
0.22 =0.325 h + 0.35h2
:. 0.35h 2 + 0.325h - 0.22 = 0
[Assume a =25 cm bottom width of box)

Solving the above quadratic equation, we get
h = 45 cm
b = a +21
where I ;,,, h.cot 0 = 45 x cot 75°= 45 x 0.27 =12.15 cm

b = 25 + (2 x 12.15) [Since a =25 cm, l =12.15 cm]
b = 25 + 24.3 = 49.3 cm. say 50.0cm
Thus, the specifications of seed box are:
Length of seed box = 130 cm
Bottom width of seed box = 25 cm
Top width of seed box = 50 cm
Height of seed box = 45 cm
Angle of repose = 75°
Material = MS sheet
1... Top width 50 cm ►I
\
\
I
\
\
\
I
I
----------:-:;:,,-"_____ _
-- --- ---
--- --- ----
------ --- ---
-- ---
- - - - - - - - - - - ' - Length of seed box= 130 cm
1... 25cm .,1

Bollom width
Fig.5.41: Detailed dimensions of Seed box

The thickness of seed box is given by (ts) is given by
2
3xpx a xli2
t
.s
=3-----
4xaxb_ •
(5.43)
1
where, ts = thickness of seed box, cm

p = Bulk density, kg/cm3
a = bottom width of seed box, cm
h = height of seed box, cm
bs =bending stress, kg/cm2 [Let bs = 1000kg/cm2)
3 X 0.008 X 25 2 X 452
t . = 3r-------=0.315cm=3.15mm
" 4x 25x]000
:. Thickness of seed box= 3.15 mm
6. Design of seed metering mechanism:
Let the seed metering mechanism may be of fluted roller type (Fig. 5.41) for cereal crops. Using the
formula,
1tDgRwSr x 10-5
Vrollcr =- ~ - - - - (5 .44)
p x gr
where, Vroller = Volume of seed dropped per rotation of feed roller, m3
Dg = Diameter of ground wheel, m
Rw = Inter row width, cm
s, = Seed rate, kg/ha
p = Bulk density, kg/m3
No.of teeth in metering shaft
gr = gear ratio = No.of teeth in ground wheel shaft
Fluted roller for wheat Fluted roller for mustard
Seed feed cut off

l Seed cut shaft
Fig. 5.42: Seed metering roller

Let g, = 30/20 =1.5
Dg = 45 cm
R..v = 22 cm
5
V . = nx0.45x22xl25x10- = .4cm3
32
roller 800 X } .5
Now, Number of flutes on the metering roller's periphery can be decided from the formula given
below
where . NJ = No. of flutes or slots / roller

Dg = Diameter of ground wheel, cm
x = Linear spacing of seeds on ground, cm
g,. = gear ratio = I .5
Let x = 10cm
N = n x 45 = 9.4 3
1 !O x 1.5
Say, N_r = 9 [Now, the linear spacing changes to 9.55 cm which is acceptable]
Now,
Working volume released by fluted roller in one rotation (Vroller) is given by
Vroller = Vslot + Vactive
where, V5101 = Volume of seeds falling in slots
Vactive =Volume of seeds thrown out from the active layer.
Vroller = + Vactive
Vslot
= AINILJ +Aa.NfLJ
= LIN/ (AJ + Aa)
where AJ = Cross-sectional area of one flute.
Aa = Cross-sectional area of active layer.
NJ = No. of flutes /roller
LJ = Length of flute
Now,
Assume Aa = 0.7 AJ
vroller ,= LJ X 9 X (Al+ 0.7 A}
32.4 cm3 = LJ x 9 x 1.7 AJ
Assume, length of flute = 8 cm
Therefore,
32.4 cm 3 = 8 x 9 x l.7AJ
AJ = 26.5 mm 2
Thus,
The cross-sectional area of flute = 26.5 mm2 .
Now,
Let the diameter of fluted ro Iler = 50 mm
Number of slots to be provided =9
:. Circumference of fluted roller = re D = 157.14 mm
Let the ratio of slot to slot wall =2 : I
⇒ b : t:-.b =2 : I
Central angle of(one slot+ one slot wall) <1>0 = 360°/13 = 27.69
But
<1>0 = cDl+Ll<l> [Refer the Fig. 5.43]
27.69° = 2 Ll<l> + Ll<l> [since b : Llb = 2:1 ⇒ cl) 1 +ti.cl)= 2:1]
t..<l> = 27.69°/3 =9.23°
©1 = 18.46°
.iI
Fig.5.43: Details offluted roller

In the Fig.5.43, refer to right angled triangle OCA,
sin(.!L) = AC
2 OA
o bl
sin(18.46 )=li
2 25
⇒ b = 8mm,Llb = 4mm [ ·: b:Llb =2:1]
Now,
Cross-sectional area of flute (A) =Ji + /2 [Refer Fig. 5.43]
2
A1 = ~ ( ; q>1 - sin q>1 ) +
10
r: (1; 0 q>2 - sinq>2) (5.45)
2 252
26.50mm = ( ~ x 18.46° -sinl8.46°)+C(~ x 90°-sin90°)
2 180 2 180
,..,,,,.,,,..
2
? 625 r
26.50mm- =-(0.3221-0.3166) +-(0.57)
2 2
?
r-
0.57- = 22.68
2
:. r =9.0mm
Thus, the radius of curvature of slot= 9.0 mm
Design of Seed Metering Roller for raya and bajra crops
The sowing of small seeds like raya and bajra crops will be done by using seed-metering rollers
(having small triangular cells which can accommodate 2-3 seeds in each cell). No. of cells in the
roller is calculated by
n = re Dli x (5.46)
where, n = Numbers of cells on roller
D = Ground wheel diameter, cm (45 cm)
x = required seed to seed spacing (4 c'!1, for raya and bajra)
= Gear ratio ( 1.5: I)
b
j
... ..
d
Q 0
Fig.5.44: Front view of seed metering roller

Therefore,
n = 1t 45 cm/ ( 1.5 x 4 cm)
= 23 .57 say 24 cells
Diameter of seed roller determined by the following equation:
d,. = V,. l nN,. (5.47)
where, diameter of seed roller, cm
Peripheral velocity of roller ( I 6.5 m/min assumed for minimum seed
breakage)
Nr = RPM of the roller (23-27 rpm)
dr = 16.5 mlminhtx 27 = 0.1944 m = 19.44 cm

Say 20 cm diameter seed roller.
Thus, the specifications of designed multicrop seed-cum-fertilizer Drill and Utility and efficacy of
tractor drawn ridger-seeder in comparison to conventional method given in Table 5.2 and Table 5.3.
Table 5.2 : The specifications of designed multicrop seed-cum-fertilizer Drill
Seed Drill Working width of drill 1.80m

No. of furrow openers 9
Spacing between furrow openers (adjustable) 20cm
Draft requirement 270 kg
Field capacity 0.63 ha/hr
Seed Box Cross-section Trapezoidal
Seed box capacity 200 kg
Length of seed box 130 cm
Bottom width of seed box 25 cm
Top width of seed box 50 cm
Height of seed box 45 cm
Angle ofrepose available 75°
Thickness of seed box 3.15 mm
Type of material MS sheet
Seed Metering Type of seed metering . Fluted roller
No. of slots/roller 13
Length of roller 80 mm
Diameter ofroller 50mm
Radius of curvature of slot 8.90mm
Cell plate roller for raya & bajra seeds
Diameter of roller 20cm
No. of cells in roller 25
Type of cell Triangular
Fertilizer Metering Type of fertilizer metering Tliangular Cell plate type
rollers
Table 5.3: Utility and efficacy of tractor drawn ridger-seeder in

comparison to conventional method
(i) Extent of achieving timeliness of operation and Comparable with latest seed-cum-fertilizer
contribution of the equipment in enhancing drills
productivity through timeliness of operation
(ii) Improvement in quality of work Very good for chick pea and raya crops
for irrigated and rain fed conditions
(iii) Reduction in drudgery Not much difference with seed drills
(iv) Improvement in safety Quite safe
(v) Cost effectiveness Very economical
(vi) Suitability of the equipment to the region from
following aspects
A. Crops grown Cotton, Bajra, Chick pea and Raya crops
for 40% saving in irrigation water
B. Problems existing in conventional practice Poor germination, low yields & excessive
water requirements
C. Socio-economic factors
- Labour scarcity in the region - No problems with tractor farmers
- Hiring charges - Rs. 280-300/- per hour
- Initial cost of the machine - Rs. 20,500/-
- Operational skills required - Any farmer can use the machine
- Repair & maintenance facility -Available
5.2.3. Design of Sugarcane Cutter Planter

Tractor operated sugarcane cutter planter (Fig. 5.45) consists of furrow opening unit, sett cutting unit,
fertilizer application unit, chemical application unit, sett covering unit and seed box. For the operation,
two labours sitting on the machine feed complete sugarcane one by one into the sett cutting unit by
picking from the seed hopper. The rotating blades cut the cane automatically into setts of 350 mm
before dropping into the furrows. The setts are placed in the furrows made by ridgers with a overlap-
ping of upto 30 percent. Fertilizer and chemicals are also applied simultaneously along with the setts,
before covering of furrows. The furrow opening unit has two ridges mounted on the frame for opening
the furrow. The machine has two sett cutting units one for each row. Each sett cutting unit consists of
rotating blades, which cut the cane into desired size before dropping into furrows. Fertilizer metering
action is of gravity type. Chemical application is through nozzles.
1 . Disc furrower
2. Seed covering shovels
3. Pressing wheel
4. Seed box
5. Insecticide box
6. Fungicide box
7. Main frame
Fig. 5.45: Components of sugarcane cutter planter

Sugarcane sett cutting speed: In sugarcane cutter planter the speed of sett cutting is based on
the principle of free fall of sugarcane setts. The time required to cut one sett of Ls length is calculated
by using following equation:
Ls = us .t + ½g12 (5.48)
where, Ls = length of sugarcane sett, cm
us = initial velocity of sett, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m1/
t = time between first and second cutting of sugarcane sett, s
Now, as per the recommendations in the package of practices for sugarcane crop, sugarcane sett
having 4 to 5 buds should be planted for obtaining uniform plant population in the field . On an average
the length of sett would be about 45 cm.
r DESIGN OF SOWING AND PLANTING MACHINE 183
I' Therefore,
Taking Ls = 45 cm and us= 0, putting values in equ. 5.48., we get,
t = 0.31 seconds.
Now, during this period of 0.31 s, the sett cutter should make one revolution to cut one sett of 45
cm length.
Number of sett cut by the cutter in one minute= (1 /0.31) 60 s/m = 193 setts.
Therefore, to cut 193 setts, the cutter speed should be 193 ~pm .
For PTO operated sugarcane cutter planter, the standard PTO speed is 540 rpm.
Cutter speed required = 193 rpm.
Therefore, speed ratio, or gear ratio between PTO shaft and cutter shaft should be:
Speed ratio = RPM of PTO shaft/ RPM of cutter shaft
= 540/193 = 2.80.
Therefore, gear drive with above speed ratio should be designed for the cutter planter to get the
desired size of sugarcane sett and its dropping in the furrow during planting. The power transmission
system of sugarcane cutter planter is given in Fig. 5.46.
From PTO
Tt.. -....- Drive shaft

;
lt
Sell culling blade
"
Bearings
a) Gear & chain type b) Gear type
Fig. 5.46: Power transmission system of sugarcane cutter planter
Forward Speed of Operation of Cutter Planter

In order to plant 193 setts of 45 cm length per minute the forward speed of machine is estimated
as under:
Total distance of 193 cm in furrow = Ls x Ns dropped per minute
= (45 cm/I 00) x 193 "" 86.85 m
Since, about I 0% overlap of setts in the row is required, therefore actual distance would be
= 86.85 x 90/100 = 78.2 m in one minute
Therefore, forward operating speed of machine should be
v,11
= (78.2 m/min x 60 min/hr)/! 000 m/km
= 4 .69 km/hr.
Therefore , the sugarcane cutter planter should be operated at a forward speed of 4.5 to
5.0 km/hr to obtain uniform cutting and dropping of sugarcane setts in the furrow.
Average seed rate (Qai,): The following equations can be used to calculate the number of setts
and number of sugarcane stalks planted in a particular area.
Qav = ns.ls.xla (5 .49)
and Qav = Ns. Ls.x/a (5.50)
where, Qai,= average seed rate in cane lines (length of cane/length of furrow), assuming that total
seed placed uniformly in the planted area
ns = number of setts planted in an area, 'a'
Ns = number of stalks planted in an area, 'a'
ls = average sett length, m
Ls = average cane stalk length, m
2
a = area planted, m
x = distance between rows
The average seed rate in tons can be estimated by the following equation
Qcn,= (Wlw)( Ls-xla) x 1000 (5.5 I) .
where, · W = weight of seed planted in area 'a' tons
w = average stalk weight, kg
Design of furrow openers: The details of ridger type furrow opener (Refer Fig. 5.47), its tyne/
shank and various dimensions are as under:
L = length of tyne from the tip of shovel to the frame, mm
Lb = length of tyne/shank from the frame to the top end of breast, mm
h = height of tyne/shank from its tip to the bent po1tion, mm
R = radius of curvature of bent portion of tyne (generally = 120 mm)
Also, R = (h - I sin a.) / cos a. (5.52)
d = maximum operating depth of furrow opener, mm
I= breast length of shovel, mm
u = load angle, degrees
b x t = cross section of tyne, mm 2
b = width of tyne, mm
t = thickness of tyne, mm
,\DESIGN OF SOWING AND PLANTING MACHINE 185
0 0 b
Tyne
Boot
Fig. 5.47: Furrow opener of sugarcane planter

(l) Calculate the draft load on furrow opener tyne/shank (Di: Force exerted on the ridger type
furrow opener of sugarcane planter is estimated as under:
DJ= k x w x d (5.53)
where, DJ= draft of furrow opener, kg or N.
k = specific soil. resistance, kg/cm2 or N/cm2 and depends on type of soil where sowing
is done, For heavy soil~, it should be taken 3-5 times the value for normal soils.
w = width of furrow opener, cm.
d = depth of sowing, cm.
The furrow opener will make trapezoidal type of furrow as under:
Now, for proper depth of sett placement in the furrow

Assume w = 25 cm
d = 16 cm
w 1 = 15 cm
k = 0.8 kg/cm2
Therefore, putting values in eqn. 5.52, we get
DJ = 0.8 x [(25+15)/2] x 10 = 160 kgf
Now, for mild steel tynes we can take factor of safety of 3
Ii So, design draft of furrow opener would be = DJ x f o.s == 160 kgf x 3 = 480 kgf.
(i1) Determine the bending moment in the furrow opener tyne
Based on findings of Dubey (1985) taking (Refer Fig. 5.47)
h = 140 mm, l = 110 mm and
a. =25° and putting these values in the following equation,
R = (h - l sin a) / cos a.
we get, R = 103.2 mm which is less than 120 mm
Considering the furrow opener tyne as a cantilever beam of 600 mm size fixed to the frame at one
end ( Krutz et.al. 1984), maximum bending moment (M) in the tyne is given by
M = Design draft x beam span
= 480 kgf x 60 cm = 28800 kg-cm
Now, section modulus of the tyne Z is calculated as under ·
ab ':'MC/I= MIZ (as Z =1/C) (5.54)
where, ab = bending stress in tyne, kg/cm 2 . We can take bending stress in mild steel flat as
1000 kg/cm2, (Sengar,2002)
M = bending moment in tyne, kg-cm
C = distance from the neutral axis to the point at which stress is calculated, cm
I = moment of inertia of rectangular section, cm4
Z = section modulus of the tyne
Also,
For rectangular sections,
Z =t x b2!6 (5.55)
The ratio between the thickness to width (I : b) = I : 3 to I : 4 can be taken
So, 1: b = I :4
or b =4 t
Therefore, from eqn. 5.55, we get

Z = 16 t3!6
Also, Z = Ml ab = 28800 kg-cm / I 000 kg/cm2 = 28.8
. or, 28.8 = l6t3/6
t3 = 10.8
t =2.1 cm or21 mm
b = 21 x 4.0 = 84 mm.
Therefore, cross-section of the tyne 21 x 84 mm
or, we may take M.S.flat of 25 x 80 mm for the tyne of sugarcane planter.
EXERCISE
I. Design a seed-cum-fertilizer drill matching to a 20 HP tractor. Assume following data:
(,) Operating speed of tractor =4.2 Km/hr.
(iz) Resistance of soil/furrow opener =50Kg/row
(iii) ~gle of repose of wheat seed =36°
(iv) Bulk density of wheat seed =700Kg/m3
(v) Seed rate = 100-150 kg/ha
2. A fanner has IO hectares of cultivable land growing two crops in a year. The soil has unit draft of 0.5
kg/cm 2 • He needs to buy a tractor and matching implements. Suggest a suitable size of friictor to be
purchased and design matching seed-cum-fertilizer drill. (Seed box and seed metering mechanism of
seed drill).
3. A tractor drawn seed drill has ground driven wheel to provide power to metering device. The drive
mechanism is sprocket and chain with power requirement of3kW. The speed of the drive shaft i:. 40
rpm and that of driven is 18 rpm. The other observations recorded are:
Chain pitch = 15.875
No. of teeth on smaller sprocket =25
Weight of chain = 13.6N/m
Design the chain-by indicating following:
(a) Length of chain
(b) Speed of chain
(c) Total load on driving side of chain by assuming kf= 1.0
(cf) Dimensions of chain components- roller dia, pin dia, chain width.
4. Design a tractor drawn multi-crop seed-cum-fertilizer drill to be operated by a 20 hp tractor, for sowing
of wheat and bajra crops. Seed rates of wheat and bajra crops are 100 kg/ha and 5 kg/ha respectively.
Assume any other data required.
5. Design a bullock drawn multi-crop seed-cum-fertilizer drill for sowing of wheat and gram crops. On an
average a pair of bullock can develop I .0 hp for continuous work. Seed rates for wheat and gram crops
are I 00 kg/ha and 45 kg/ha respectively. Assume any other data required.
6. Design a manually operated seed-cum-fertilizer drill for sowing of wheat and raya crop. On an average
a person can develop d. I hp for continuous work. Seed rates for wheat and raya crops are I 00 kg/ha
and 5 kg/ha respectively. Assume any other data required.
7. A farmer has 9.0 hectares of cultivable area having sandy loam soil and grows wheat, gram, raya,
cotton and bajra crops. Determine the size of tractor and design a matching cotton planter. Assume
following data :
Bulk density of cotton seed =700kg/m3
Rotor speed of planter = 14rn/min,
Speed ratio =5:3
Operating speed of planter =4.5 km/hr
Angle of repose of cotton seeds =30°
8. Design a tractor drawn multi-crop seed-cum-fertilizer drill to be operated by a 35 hp tractor, for sowing
of wheat and guar crops. Seed rates for wheat and guar crops are I 00 kg/ha and 40 kg/ha respectively.
9. Design a bullock drawn cotton planter for planting acid delinted cotton seeds. Assume the operating
speed of machine as 4 km/hr. Row to row as well as plant to plant spacing is 75 x30 cm respectively.
Ass_ume any other data required.
JO. Design a manually operated planter for planting acid delinted cotton seeds. Assume the operating
speed of machine as 3 km/hr. Row to row as well as plant to plant spacing is 75 x 30 cm respecti ve ly.
Seed rate for acid delinted cotton seeds may be taken as I 0.0 kg/ha. Assume any other data required.
I1. Design a tractor drawn cotton planter for planting acid delinted cotton seeds. Assume the size of
tractor as 20 hp and operating speed of machine as 4 km/hr. Row to row as well as plant to plant
spacing is 75 x 30 cm respectively. Assume any other data required.
12. Design a tractor drawn maize planter for planting maize seeds. Assume the size of tractor as 20 hp and
operating speed of machine as 5 km/hr. Row to row as well as plant to plant spacing is 90 x 45 cm
respectively. Assume any other data required.
13. Design a tractor PTO driven sugarcane cutter planter for planting sugarcane setts. Assume the size of
tractor as 45 hp and operating speed of machine as 3 .5 km/hr. Row to row spacing of90 ems and I 00%
overlapping of setts in the furrows is requ ired. Assume any other data required.
14. Design a tractor driven automatic potato planter for planting of potato. Assume the size of tractor as
45 hp and operating speed of machine as 4.0 km/hr. Row to row spacing of 90 cm and 20 cm plant to
plant spacing in the furrows is required. Assume any other data required.
15. A manually operated crop planter is fitted with 500 mm diameter drive wheel. The wheel axle is fitte.d
with 9 teeth sprocket and the speed ratio between the drive wheel sprocket and seed metering shaft
sprocket is 2. 7 : I. The s.eed metering roller has 9 cells and each cell accommodates 2 seeds. The
operator is moving at a forward speed of 2.0 km/hr. Detennine the seed spacing in row. Also dete1mine
number of seeds dropped in IO minutes. What horsepower would be required to push the planter if
cross section of furrow is 6 x 6 cm and resistance of soil is 0.5 kg/cm2 .
16. A 200 mm diameter horizontal seed metering plate ofa planter has 24 cells on its periphery. The speed
ratio between the ground wheel and cell plate shaft is 2 : 1. The diameter of ground wheel of planter is
600 mm. Determine the seed spacing achieved in rows .
. ]7. In a vertical plate type of bullock drawn cotton planter, the seed plate of250 mm diameter having
25 cells is rotating at speed of20 m/min. The planter has 3 cm diameter 50 cm long vertically mounted
seed tubes. The seeds are released at the rea'r end of tube about 10 cm above the ground. The
operating speed of planter is 4.0 km/hr. Calculate:
(i) Distance between seeds in the row
(ii) Time required by the seed to strike the ground after released from the seed plate.
(iii) Time required by the seed to strike the ground after released from the seed tube
(iv) The horizontal distance moved by the seed before striking the ground after release from the seed
tube.
18. Design a horizontal plate planter for cotton sowing with 15 cm plant spacing and for maize sowing 22
cm plant spacing using the ground wheel diameter of 65 cm. The gear ratio is such that the rotor shaft
of seed plate makes 30 revolutions/min. for a constant forward speed. Assume the rotor shaft speed of
21 m/min and speed ratio between ground wheel and rotor shaft as 5 :3.
19. The seed dropping mechanism of potato planter is as shown in Fig. 5.48.
Seed plate Ne
NP= 300 rpm
~Speed cup
___.-Seed tube
~ d =Scm
60cm
10cm
Seed boot
- Vm = 4.2 km/h
Furrow opener
Fig. 5.48: Side view of seed metering system of crop planter

The tubers are released from the lower end of seed tube in the furrows. Determine:
(a) Time required by the tuber to strike the ground after its release from the seed tube
(b) Seed to seed spacing
(c) Horizontal distance moved by the tuber before striking the ground after release from the seed tube.
CHAP'fER' 6
Design of lntercultural Tools and

Implements
Weeding and intercultivation operation is done to provide best opportunity for the crop to establish
and grow vigornusly till it gets matured. The main objectives of weed control are to improve the soil
conditions by reducing evaporation from the soil surface, improve infiltration of rain or surface
water, reduce runoff to maintain ridges or beds on which the crop is grown and to reduce
comptetition of weeds for light, nutrients and water.
In this chapter, designing of following tools/implements are discussed:
I. Design of wheel hand hoe.
2. Design of crust breaker.
3. Design of high clearance cotton cultivator suitable for 30 hp tractor.
6.1 DESIGN OF WHEEL HAND HOE
The wheel hand hoe is a widely accepted weeding tool for weeding and interculture of row crops. It
is a long handled tool operated by push and pull action. As the name implies, the general construction
of wheel hoe comprises of wheel assembly, tool frame, a set of replaceable tools and handle assembly.
The number of wheel varies from one to two and the diameter depends upon the design. The frame has
got a provision to accommodate different types of soil working tools such as straight blade, reversible
blades, sweeps, V-blade, tyne cultivator, etc. which can be operated by a single person. The handle
assembly has a provision to adjust the height of the handle to suit the operator. All the soil working
components of the tool are made from medium carbon steel and hardened to 40-45 HRC. The other
assemblies of the wheel hoe are made from structural mild steel and thin walled mild steel pipes. For
operation, the working depth of the tool and handle height is adjusted and the wheel hoe is operate~ by
repeated push-pull action which allows ,t he soil working components to penetrate into the soil and cut/
uproot the weeds in between the crop rnws. With this action, the weeds also get buried in the soil. The
wheel hand hoes with single tyne and three tynes are given in Figs. 6.1 and 6.2 respectively. The
design procedure of wheel hand hoe is as follows :
DESIGN OF INTERCULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
r~t1? . .4 . . .
~·;,
t
\ \
Fig. 6.1: Wheel hand hoe with single tyne Fig. 6.2: Wheel hand hoe with three tyne
Power developed by the operator: According to Campbell et al.( 1990) the power of useful work
HP= 0.35 - 0.092 log t (6. 1)
where, t == Time in minutes
Now, for 3-4 hours continuous work the power developed by the operator would be 0.10 •- 0.13 hp
say 0.1 lhp.
We know that
HP= Push (kgf)x Speed (mis)

75
Therefore,
HP x 75 0.Ilx75
Push (kgf) ==----==---kg == I 0.3 kg ,.,. I 0.5 kg (say)
Speed (m/s) 0.8 ·
Hence, force developed by an average human worker = I 0.5 kgf.
6.1.1 Design of Cutting Blade

For different crops following different type of cutting blades can be employed as per the requirement
·.. of the crop (Fig. 6.3). It is assumed that the wheel hand hoe be used in light to medium soils and depth
·. of weeding shall be between 2.0-3.0 ems.
w w •
0 0
(al Flat-blade (b) V-blade (c) Trapezoidal blade
Fig. 6.3 Different types of cutting blades

The unit draft of light to medium soils can be taken as 0.35 kg/cm 2 .
Now, diffe rent types of furrow cross-sections made by the above cutting blades will be as shown
in the Fig. 6.4.
I◄
w
,.I ,.. w ,. I
I•
w ,. ,
~Id (a) Wl W} W1 W1
I• ►I 1-l
(b) (c)
Fig. 6.4: Cross-sections of slice formed by cutting tools

Now, average pull/push exerted by an operator= I 0.5 kg
6.1. 1.1. Size of cutting blade
Type (a): Flat blade
(W x d) x unit draft= push/pull (kg)
W x 2.0 x 0.35 = I 0.5 kg
or W= 15 cm
Type (b): V-blade
((W + w 1)/2) x d x unit draft .= push or pull (kg)
Assurne, w 1 = 7.5 cm, d = 2.5 cm
[(W + 7.5)/2) x 2.5 x 0.35 kg/cm2 = 10.5 (kg)
or W = [(10.5 x 2)) /(2.5 x 0.35) - 7.5) cm
W = (24 -7.5) cm
W= 16.5 cm ·
Type (c): Trapezoidal blade
[(W + w 1)/2) x d x unit draft= push or pull (kg)
DESIGN OF INTERCULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 193
Assume, w 1 = 4 cm, d = 3 cm
[(W + 4)/2] x 3 x 0.35 kg/cm2 = 10.5 (kg)
or W = [(l 0.5 x 2) /(3 x 0.35) - 4] cm
W= (20-4) cm
W = 16 cm.
But, in _wheat crop the blade width should not be more than l O cm, otherwise it will damage the
standing rows of wheat plants. So, the blade size would be as shown in Fig. 6.5.
10cm
I· ·I
1.,.4 cm ·I
I~
Fig. 6.5: Trapezoidal cutting blade
6.1.1.2. Apex angle or blade angle (2 0)
Fig. 6.6: Apex angle of cutting tool

The apex angle (20) is included angle formed between the two cutting edges (Fig. 6.6). According
to Singh ( 1998),
0 = (90 - ~w) (6.2)
where, 0 = apex angle, degrees
~w = angle of friction between weeds and cutting edge (varies between 30°-56°)
0 = 36° to 60°
or 20 = 72° to 120°.
Therefore, apex angle (2 0) for the blade may be taken as 120° in the present case.
6.1.2 Design of Tyne

The cutting blade tynes should be designed on the basis of maximum bending moment (Fig. 6.7).
The push/pull exerted at centre of blade = l O.S kg
Take factor of safety = 2.
Maximum load = 10.5kg x 2 = 21 kg.
Also, for impact loading take force= 21 x 2 = 42 kg

Load taken by each tyne = 42/2 = 21 kgf
Section at A-A
Cutting blade
Fig. 6.7: Details oftyne

Maximum bending moment in each tyne = 21 kgf x I
Take, l = 15 cm or 150 mm
Maximum bending moment in each tyne = 21 kgf x 150 mm = 3 I 50 kgf-mm
Now, fi, = Mc.h I I (6.3)
where, lb = bending stress in tyne, kg/mm 2
M = bending moment, kg-mm
h = distance from the neutral axis to the point at which stress is determined.
I = moment of inertia of the section, mm4
For, M.S. flat (Ji) = 30 kg/mm2
Putting values in eqn. 6.3 ., we get,
30 kg/mm 2 = Il 50 kg-mm x !.!..

bh2 2
12
Let h = 3b
30 kg/mm2 = 3150' x 3b=3150

b.(3b)2 2 2b 2
12
or b 2 = (3150/(30 x 2) = 52.5
or b = ✓52.5 ;; 7 .2 mm = 8 mm (say)
Also, h = 3b = 3 x 8mm = 24 mm = 25 mm (say)
Thus, 8mm x 25 mm size flat may be used for tynes of wheel hand hoe.
6.1.3 Design of handle

A standard light weight M.S. 27.5 mm outside diameter conduit pipe is used for handle of the tool
carrier. Length of handle is calculated based on average standing elbow height of female operators.
Average standing elbow height of women workers = 100 cm.
Distance of wheel centre from the operator for the operator height of (95 to 105 cm) in operating
condition = I 15 cm.
Therefore, angle of inclination (0 11) with the horizontal (Fig. 6.8).
tan (011) = 80/115 = 0.696
or (01i) = 34.82° say 35°
Now, sin (011) = 801111
where, l1, = length of handle
or l1, = 80/sin35° = 80/0.5735 = 139.49 cm or 140.0 cm
· U
E
0
0
.....
Fig. 6.8: Handle length of hand tool carrier

So, in order to accommodate 5 - 95% of operators, a 27.5 mm outer diameter conduit pipe having
140 cm length is used for handle whose operating height can be adjusted from 95 cm to I 05 cm from
the ground. A plastic handgrip of 27 .5 mm outer diameter, 215 mm long fitted at the end of conduit
pipe for easy grip and operation of the machine shall be used. A schematic diagram of wheel hand hoe
is given in Fig. 6.9.
35
I• ., I
115
Top view
1. Frame, 2. Handle, 3. Handle support.

4. Grip, 5. Wheel, 6. Standard, 7. Tool.
Front view Side view
Fig. 6.9 : Schematic diagram of\vheel hand hoe
6.2. DESIGN OF CRUST BREAKER

The hand operated crust breaker shall be used for breaking the crust formed in the crop due to frequent
rains during rainy seasons. Thus, it will be mainly used in kharif crops i.e. cotton, sorghum (jowar),
pearl millet (bajra), green gram (moong), guar, etc. The design of manually operated crust breaker
(Fig.6.10) is discussed below:
Assumptions
• The tool shall be a rolling type single row.
• Since, most of above crops are sown up to a depth.of 4-5 ems, the pegs of crust breaker should
penetrate up to a depth of 2.5-3.0 cm only to avoid damage to the emerging seedlings.
• The tool shall be a rolling type single row.
• For proper balancing of machine and effective crust breaking two rollers having pegs will be
used.
• Diameter of the rollers of crust breaker= 11.5 ems and length would be 10.0 ems.
• Length of pegs= 2.5 to 3.0 ems sharpened at the end.
• All the pegs shall be spaced along circumference as well as length wise at 2.50 ems. However,
these shall be staggered on alternate rows for effective crust breaking.
• The crust breaker will be operated twice over the crusted rows.
· Fig. 6.10: Manually operated crust breaker
Power developed by the operator: According to Campbell et. al. ( 1990) the power of useful work
HP = 0.35 - 0.092 log t
where, t = time in minutes
Now, for 3-4 hours continuous work the power developed by the operator would be' 0. 10-0.13 hp
say O.l I hp.
We know that
HP= Push (kgf) x Speed (mis)

75
Therefore,
HPx75 0.l lx75
Push (kgf) = - -- - = - - - k g = 10.3 kg= I 0.5 kg (say)
Speed (mis) 0.8
Hence, force developed by an average human worker = 10.5 kgf.
I
6.2.1 Number of pegs

Number of pegs provided on each roller arc calculated as under:
Roller diameter= 11.5 cm
Circumference= re D = 1t x 11.5 cm
'I
Distance between two pegs = 2.54 cm
Number of rows of pegs on roller= ((rc x 11.5)/2.5) = 12
i! For proper staggering four pegs each on six rows and three pegs on another six rows will be
provided.
Total number of pegs on roller = 6 x 4 + 6 x 3 = 24 + 18 = 42 pegs
:. Total number of pegs in the machine= 2 rollers x 42 pegs/roller= 84 pegs.
!: 6.2.2 Frame
,f' I
!i Both the rollers are mounted on M.S. flat frame with help of bushing in the centre of frame, M.S.
conduit pipe handle used in the manually operated seed drill is attached for easy operation of crust
breaker. Top view, front view and side view of manually operated crust breaker is given in Fig. 6.11 .
~:::::::==@~b=======-:;::::::::::::~~rt:;_~ I
li I TOP VIEW
0
a,
1. Frame 7. Circular plate

2. Handle 8. Axle support
3. Handle support 9. Peg
4. Gnp 10.Bush
@ 5. Drum 11 Bolt wifl, nut
6.Axle
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

Fig. 6. 11: Manually operated crust breaker
6.3 DESIGN OF HIGH CLEARANCE COTTON CULTIVATOR SUITABLE FOR 30 HP TRACTOR.

High clearance cotton cultivator, as the· name implies has more ground clearance and it is used for
doing interculture operation in cotton crop. The design of high clearance cotton cultivator (Fig. 6.12)
suitable for 30 hp tractor is discussed below:
q DESIGN OF INTERCULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 199
l
II
Fig. 6.12: High clearance cotton cultivator
Calculating drawbar horse power (DBHP)

Given: Brake Horse ,Power (BHP) of tractor= 30 hp
Drawbar Horse Power (PBHP) is given by
I
L
i Calculating drawbar pull
DBHP = 60% of BHP
DBHP = 0.60 x 30 = 18 hp
l
L DBHP = Pull (kg) x speed (m/rnin)
I
4500
Pull (kg) = DBHP x 4500

speed (m/min)
(6.4)
I
L For proper interculturing with cultivator, the speed of operation should be 5-7 km/hr. Hence, letlhe
speed of interculturing be 6 km /hr. Therefore, the pull is given by
18 45
Pull (k ) = x 00 ::; 810 k
g 6000/60 g
Calculation of width of implement

The width of an implement (W;) can be calculated from the following formula.
Total draft (kg)= Unit draft (kg/crn2)><width of implement (cm)x depth of interculturing (cm)
Let the unit draft for heavy clay soil be= 0.75 kg/ cm 2.
Let the depth of weeding be = 10 cm
810
Width of implement= = 108 cm
0.75xl0.
The row to row spacing between cotton crops ranges between 50 to 80 cm.
Therefore, Jet the row to row spacing be = 60 cm.
Design of cutting blade: The design of cutting blade (sweep) can be done in two ways.
Option 1: The cutting width of sweep type tyne (Fig. 6.13) can be found by using the formula,
Sc= z1 + ZP
where. Sc = crop spacing, cm
z1 = effective soil failure zone, cm
I! ZP = protection zone, cm
i Let the crop _protection zone (ZP) be 8 cm.
Z1 = Sc - zp = 60 - (8 x 2) = 44 cm
II
,i
rProtection zone is multiplied by 2 since protection zone has to be provided on both sides of crop]
l Also, referring to Fig. 6.13, we know that
z1 =W+2dtan<l\ (6.5)
where, Z/ = effective soil failure zone, cm
W = cutting width of sweep, cm
d = depth of weeding, cm
<1>s = angle of internal friction which ranges between I 0° to 30° depending upon type of soi I.
Let <1>s = 20°
Let d (depth of weeding) be = IO cm
44 = W + 2 x IO x tan 20°
W= 44 - 20 tan 20°
W = 36 cm
Thus, cutting width of one sweep (W) = 36 cm
But, the total working width of implement can be = I08 cm.
Therefore, number of sweeps that can be provided = I 08 / 36 = 3.
So, a three-row cultivator with full sweep type tyne having 36 cm width can be provided as given
in Fig. 6.13.
I @ @
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1~=~6
I
Cd
z,=~4cm z,= ~cm
'
Sc= 60 cm
'
Sc=60cm Sc= 60cm
W = Width of tyne
Zp = Protection zone z, = Effective soil failure zone
Sc = Crop spacing · @ = Cotton crop
Fig. 6.13: Three row cultivator with full sweep tyne

Option 2: Rather than providing a big full sweep type tyne, we can provid~ a small full sweep type
tyne and two half sweep type tynes as shown in Fig. 6.14.
In this case, effective soil failure zone (Z
1
J is given by
Zf = l[W + 2d tan ¢s ]j+ j2[Wj + d tan ¢s JI

t i (6.6)
For full sweep For two half sweep
where, W = width of full sweep; W 1 = . width of half sweep

Let W= 2W1
Therefore, putting the values in the eqn. 6.6, we get,
44 = [W + 2 x 10 x tan20°] +[W + 2 x IO x tan 20°] [S ince, 2W1= W, z1 = 44 cm]
44 =[W + 20 x 0.36]+[W + 20 x 0.36]
44 = 2W + 14.5
W = l 5 cm Wj =7 .5 cm
Providing the above width oftyne will create a gap (untitled soil) of3 .5 cm on both sides of the full
sweep type tyne (Refer Fig. 6.14).
Therefore, width of full sweep may be taken as 20 cm in place of 15 cm to oaverlap the tynes.
From the above, we may have width as per the following:
Width of full sweep= 20 cm
Width of half sweep= 7.5 cm (say 8 cm)
Thus, we can provide a three row cultivator with three full sweep and six half sweep tynes as given
in Fig. 6. I 5.
I
I
I
I
l*tI
I
I
I
I
I
·
I
I
•
I
I
I
'
I I
I I I
I I
I I : I I
I I
:-....:
w1=7.5an
t..c---.i----i,,.-1
I • I r+---!
! W.15an Wi\117.5 cm
I I
I j j I
,◄---1--------------~----------------j----f
~ •
.I
I
SC =SO
,
cm
.I
• ~
. .I
~--------~----------------+!
Zr .
z1 =Effective soil failure zone W = Width offull sweep w1 = Width of half sweep
Sc= Crop spacing @ = Cotton crop ZP = Protection Zone
Fig. 6.14: Cultivator with full sweep and half sweep tyne
I @ ij
!
i
i i
w1=7.5cm
...... i
!, @
I
I
,
I I I
I i I
I
I
W= 0cm
I
• I •
I I
i 36cm i 1 ..;.
j4••····..·-..-•·H~··. ··..··········~ I
ZP:: B cm : ZP -:s 6 cm ~ . 1
➔. ~ _., ~! . . . .
@! : ! @! !@ ! !®
◄ ···I• . • . . • • • . . 1. . . . . . . . . . l . . "'"'-..C· · l • · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·····I··· ►◄· ·r •. • . . • • • · ~• • • • • • · · · T · · ►
, ! Sc= 60 cm ! . ,, Sc= 60 cm . , . Sc = 60 cm .
..............-········-········-··········►'
Z,=44 cm
Fig. 6.15: Three row cultivator with full sweep and half sweep tyne
Thus, Width of full sweep = 20 cm
Width of half sweep = 8 cm
bESIGN OF INTERCULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 203
6.3.l Apex angle of blade
The apex angle (2 0) is the included angle formed between the two cutting edges (Fig. 6.16).
According to Singh (1998),
0 = 90° - ,h
'l'w
where w = Angle of friction between weeds and cutting edge and it ranges between 30° to 56°
(Let w= 45°)
= 90° - 45° = 45°
0
Therefore, apex angle = 2 x 45° = 90°
Fig. 6.16: Apex angle of cutting blade
6.3.2 Design of shank

The maximum draft on the three-row cultivator with three full sweep type tyne is
= Maximum draft = 810 ;::;: 270 kgf
No. of tynes 3
Maximum force at tip of sweep = 270 kgf.
Taking factor of safety to be 2 and taking 2 times of maximum force for impact loading,
Bending load in sweep will be = 270 x 2 x 2 = 1080 kg.
Let the height of shank of high clearance cultivator suitable for cotton crop be 600 mm (Fig. 6.17).
The maximum bending moment (M) for a cantilever length of 600 mm = 1080 kg x 600 mm
= 648000 kg-mm.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I 600mm
I
I
I
I
I
I
' I
"
Fig. 6.17: Details ofshank/tyne of cultivator

Using the formula,
fb=MC
I
where, / b = bending stress , kg /mm 2
M = bending moment, kg-mm
C = distance from the neutral axis to the point at which stress is determined.
I = moment of Inertia of section (mm4)
Z = !_ = M = 648000 = 21600 mm3

C fb 30
Moreover,
b3
Z=-
6
b3 = Z x 6 = 21600 x 6
b =V21600x6
Size of square rod = 50 mm
In wide row crops, tynes of rectangular cross-section and reversible shovels in place of fttll and
half sweeps are used for weeding and intercultural operation.
Top plan and isometric view of designed high clearance cultivator with one full sweep and two half
sweep tyne is shown in Fig. 6.18 and Fig.6.19 respectively.
230
Fig. 6.18: Top plan of high clearance cultivator

,DESIGN OF INTERCULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 205
Fig. 6.19: Isometric view of high clt!arance cultivator
6.4 DESIGN OF RIG JD TOOTH ZIG-ZAG HARROW

Design a zig-zag tooth type of harrow for 35 hp tractor for intercultural operation
Solution:
Given Brake Horse Power (BHP) of tractor= 35 hp
1. Calculating Draw bar Horse Power (DBHP)
Drawbar Horse Power (DBHP) is given by
DBHP = 65% of BHP
:. DBHP = 0.65 x 35 ::.: 22. 75 hp
2. Calculating Drawbar pull
DBHP ,..., Pull(kg) xspeed(mlmin)

4500
DBHP x4500
:. Pull(kg) == - - --·· ---
speed(m I min)
For proper interculturing with zig-zag type harrow, the speed of operation should be 5-7 km/hr.
Hence, let the speed of interculturing by the harrow be 6 km /hr. Therefore, the pull is given by
22 75 x 45 00 = 1023.75 k
Pull(k ) = - ·
g 6000 / 60 g
3. Calculation of width of implement

The width of an impl,ement (W;) can be calculated from the following formula.
Total Draft = Unit draft x width of implement x depth of interculturing
Let the unit draft for silt loam soils be = 0.4 kg/ cm 2 •
Let the depth of weeding be "" l O cm
Therefore,
Draft = 0.4 kg/cm 2 x width of harrow x IO cm
Or, 1023.75 kg =4 x width (Wh)
Wh "" 1023.75/4 = 255.96 cm say 270 cm
Also, we know that,
Width (Wh) = No. of sections (N) x width of each section of harrow (B)
Or, B = N w,;
Take N =3
Therefore, B = 270/3 = 90.0 cm
So, we may take section width (B) = 100 cm
Length of harrow
Q)
>
~
I
1 2 5 6
t!
I'
0
C:
0
n
I!!
□
Width
Fig. 6.20: Details of rigid toothed zig-zag harrow section

To calculate number of tynes along traverse width of zone in a section of harrow, we may use
S1 = 2a tang>+ d (6.8)
Where, S1 = traversal spacing of tynes in harrow
 = angl~ of internal friction of soil
D "" tyne thickness or diameter, cm
DESIGN OF INTERCULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS 20i
Frame
Soil surface
Soil zone
Fig. 6.21: Traversal spacing of tooth in zig-zag harrow

In order to have protection zone (ZP) or the crop row the operating traversal spacing is determined
as
SO = 2amax + d + ZP (6.9)
Where, S0 = operational traversal spacing, cm
amax = lO cm as for ~ = 45° tan 45 = I
ZP = protection zone, usually 2-5 cm can be taken say 4.0 cm in the present case
Assume d = 1cm
Therefore,
SO =2 x 10 + 1 + 4 = 25 cm
Now, number of tynes along traverse path (N)
= No. of coil (K) +1
And, K = B/S0
N = BISO +I= (100/25) +l = 5
Let, N1 = Number of rows of teeth in harrow
S1 = Spacing between the traces made by the tynes in the field
Now, S0 = N 1 x S 1 = BIK =25cm (in the present case)
or, B =S0 x K=N1 x Kx S 1
Therefore,
Take,
So, B/4 = N 1 • S 1
K & N1 cannot be arbitrarily chosen. It is based on the method of development of multi coil helix in
such a way that no traces oftynes overlap and interval between the traces S1 are the same. This would
be possible if
1. K > 1
2.N1 >K+ l
3. N1 & K have no common division
So, for N1 = 5, K should be equal to 2 or 3 &
N1 = 7, Kshould be 2, 3, 4 or 5
Classification of Sprayers and Dusters: The common sprayers are classified-as under:
I. Manual Operated:
i) Hand sprayers (Intermittent flow or continuous flow)
ii) Foot sprayers
iii) Rocking sprayer
iv) Knap-sack sprayers
v) Compression sprayers
vi) Stirrup pump sprayers
vii) Wheel barrow sprayer
viii) Slide pump sprayer
ix) Ultra low volume sprayer
II. Power Operated Sprayers
1. Hydraulic sprayer
i) Tractor mounted row crop sprayer
ii) Tractor mounted high clearance sprayer
iii) Self propelled light weight boom sprayer
iv) Self propelled high clearance sprayer
2. Hydro-pneumatic sprayers
3. Blower sprayers :Knapsack Power Sprayer and Duster
4. Fog generators :Tractor drawn aero blast sprayer
III. Aeroplane Sprayers
Classification of Dusters:
1. Hand dusters: Hand Rotary Duster
2. Traction Dusters
3. Power Dusters
4. Aeroplane dusters
Construction of Sprayers: Sprayers commonly consists of
1. Container: The spray solution is kept in container
2. Pump: Increases the pressure of solution passing through the nozzle
3. Lance or boom: Nozzles are mounted on lance or boom at uniform spacing
4. Nozzle: The nozzle atomize the liquid solution
5. Hose : It is provided for suction of solution and extension of spray lances
6. Strainers: The strainers are kept for keeping the solution free from dirt and metal particles
7. Valves: The valves regulate the pressure and discharge of solution.
DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 211
A variety of sprayers are available to suit specific requirements of different jobs. They mainly differ
in
I. Container size and shape 2. Pump design
3. Source of power 4. Spray pattern
• 5. Mountings and transportation.
Tractor mounted sprayer: Sprayer is equipment for application of chemicals i.e. insecticide, pesti•
cides, fungicides and weedicides in liquid form. It is tractor PTO operated (Fig. 7. I) which consists of
frame, tank (about 100 to 500 litres capacity) with agitator, positive displacement pump, suction and
discharge pipes, control valves, pressure regulator, pressure release and by•pass valve, spray booms
with nozzles and pressure gauge. The positive displacement pump develops sufficient pressure to
force the liquid chemical through nozzle orifice and atomize the same in fine form of droplets. Atomi•
zation of spray chemical is ·required for effective control of insects, pests and diseases.
1. Pump 6. Fluid pipe 11 . Bush

2. Liquid fluid pipe 7. Pressure gauge 12. Nozzle
3. Frame 8. Value 13. Fluid pipe
4 . Strainer and cap 9. Top link hitch point 14. Drain plug
5. Pipe 10. Plastic pipe
Fig. 7.1: Tractor drawn sprayer

Duster: Duster is an equipment for application of chemicals i.e. insecticide, pesticides, fungicides and
weedicides in powder or dust form. A duster mainly consists of hopper with agitator, blower fan,
discharge tube, and nozzle. It can be manually operated (Fig.7.2), engine operated (Fig.7.3) or tractor
PTO o'perated. For uniform application of dust, mechanical agitator stir the dust in the hopper and
blower sucks the dust from hopper through the discharge tube at a very high velocity.
Fig.7.2: I-land rotary duster Fig.7.3: Power mist blower
7.1 FIELD CAPACITY OF SPRAYERS
The actual licld capacity (AFC) of sprayers is given by

AFC "-' (N x S x w/1000) x n (7.1)
where, N "" Number of nozzles
S "' Speed of forward travel of machine, km/hr
W = Spacing between the nozzles, m
N = Spraying efficiency, %
7.2 VOLUME APPLICATION RATE (A)

The volume application rate (A) of sprayers is given by
A = 60000 DI (S. W) (7.2)
where. A ,= Arptication rate, I/ha
D ·., Nm:zlc discharge rate, I/min
S ""' Speed, km/hr
If' • _Spray swath width. cm
ll.il
7 .3 Nozzu: D1sC1-JARGE RATE (D)
The nozzle discharge rate (D) of sprayers is given by
D -= A.S.WI 60000 (7.3)
Also. D = Cd a (2gh) 112
[j
(7.4)
where. D =Nozzle discharge rate. I/min
111
rn
Cd ""' Coefficient of discharge
w a = /\rca of nozzle
Ill h = Pressure head causing flow
iJ
rn
I'1 g '"' Acceleration due to gravity
I
II
7.4 SPEED OF OPERATOR (S)

The speed of operator (S) of sprayers is given by
s = DI (d x v0 ) (7.5)
where, S = Speed of operator, m/min
D = Discharge of a nozzle,
I/min
D = Row to row distance of crop, m
VO =Spray volume, I/ sq. m
7.5. SPRAY DROPLET SIZE

Spray droplet size is highly important for efficient and effective utilization of pesticides with mini-
mum contamination of environment. Spray droplets are classified as under:
Sr. No. Droplet volume mean dimneter (pm) Classification of droplets
<50 Aerosols
2 51-100 Mist
3 101-200 Fine spray
4 201-400 Medium spray
5 More than 400 Coarse spray
Spray droplets diameters are expressed as:
7.5.1 Volume mean diameter (vmd)
The most commonly used parameter of droplet size is vmd measured in micrometer. A representa-
tive spray sample is divided into two equal parts by volume so that, one half of the volume containing
droplets smaller than a droplet whose diameter is vmd, and the other half of the volume contains larger
droplets.
7.5.2 Number mean diameter (nmd)
It is the average diameter of droplets without any reference to their volume. The ratio between vrnd
& nmd is often an indication of the range of sizes, which means more uniform the size of droplet, the
nearer the ratio to 1.0.
Mean dia = Ind/In (7.6)
Surface dia = Ind3/"'i,nd2
where, d = Average diameter of each size group
n = Number of droplets in each size group
7.5.3 Optimum droplet size (mmd)
Optimum droplet size of spray ~s defined as its mass median diameter(mmd). It is expressed as
mmd = Diameter of 84% collected mass/Diameter of I 6% collected mass
= dg/d16
where, mmd "" mass median diameter or optimum droplet diameter
d 84 == diameter of 84% collected mass

d 16 = diameter of 16% collected mass
The relationship between optimum doplet siz~ (mmd) and droplet diameter (µm) is given in Fig.7.4.
1000
E
::L
....-
d94 ----------------- I
2Q) 100 I
I
E I
(I) I
'6 I
Q) I
a. 10 mmd = d84'd 16 :
e
Cl J
I
I
d1s I
I
0.1
0.01 20 40 60 80 100
Percent of mass collected
Fig,7.4: Relationship between mmd and droplet diameter (µm)
A good sprayer, should be able to produce optimum droplet size of 90-160µm. It should produce
droplets of uniform size. It also depends on type of chemical (systemic or non-systemic) applied on the
crop. For systemic sprays optimum droplet size is 100-200 µm while in non-systemic spray chemicals
it should be 60-90 µm. The optimum droplet size exhibits higher chemical effectiveness with increased
droplet density (number of droplets/area) and greater spread factor.
7.5.4 Droplet density (No. of droplets/cm2)
It is the droplet density obtained if uniform droplets are distributed over a flat surface (with spray-
ing one litre of chemical evenly over one hectare area). The number of droplets available from a given
volume of spray chemical is inversely proportional to cube of droplet diameter. Thus, droplet density
over a flat surface is given by
n = (60ht)((l00/d) 3 x A (7.7)
where, n = mean number of droplets falling on a square cm on a flat surface
d = droplet diameter, µm
A =Application rate, I/ha
7.6 UNIFORMITY OF SPRAY APPLICATION

During spraying of insecticides, pesticides and fungicides on the crops, certain amount of overlap
in spray patterns (Fig. 7 .5) is required for uniform application and effective control. The uniformity of
spray application depends on:
- Spray boom height
- Spray angle, and
- Degree of overlap
; DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 215
Pressurized liquid chemical in

t
Fig.7.5: Spray pattern of a hydraulic energy nozzle

Thus, the extent/degree of overlap will depend on the spray boom height (hn) and spray angle (0) of
the nozzle and nozzle spacing (sn) on the boom as given in Fig. 7 .6.
Fig.7.6: Overlap of spray pattern in boomtype field sprayers

Now, referring to Fig. 7.6, for spray overlap it is essential that
Sn.< DP
Moreover, degree of overlap will depend upon hn> e, Sn and DP, which is given by following
relationship:
tan 0/2 = D,J2hn
But,
DP =Sn x 0 1
where, DP = diameter of spray pattern at deposition level
Sn = Nozzle spacing on boom, cm
0 1 = multiplying factor for overlap (A factor that multiplies nozzle spacing to get spray
pattern at deposition level)
Or, tan 0/2 = Sn. 0 1I 2h (7 .8)

In order to get correct overlap of spray pattern at deposition level, correct height of sprayer boom
is very vital as displayed in Fig.7.7. Excessive boom height will result in too large overlap and excessive
application in overlap zone. On the other hand lower boom height will result in sufficient or no overlap
and non uniform application of chemicals on the crop.
,, '
/\
/ \ , I
\
\
/ '' , /
/
'\ , I
, /
'' I
\
,, / \
\
/
/
/ , JI
\ /
/\
\
\
\
,. / ,/ '' I \
I
I
' \
I• Overlap ..' I
(a) Too large overlap, noozle height too high above crop
9lJI \
I
~\ ffl=J
/\
I \ I I \
I \ I \ I \
\
-J I- No overlap
(b) No overlap, nozzle height too low above crop
,. \
,I \
, \
\
,. ' yi
V
,. ✓ \ / '
\
\
:::f 'r:= corr:ct o~erlapping

(c) Correct overlapping, nozzle at appropriate height above crop
Fig.7. 7: Boom height above crop and extent of overlapping of spray pattern
7. 7 DESIGN OF SPRAYER COMPONENTS

7.7.1 Design of Sprayer Tank
The spray solution is kept in tank of sprayer which should be corrosion resistant, easy to fill and
clean.
z) Tank capacity of manually operated sprayer
The tank of manually operated sprayer should be such a size that it can supply liquid for about I 0-
15 minutes of continuous spraying. The minimum capacity of manually operated sprayer tank can be
estimated as under:
Q, = DX t (7.9)
where, Q1 = tank capacity, litres ,
D = Nozzle discharge rate, I/min
t = duration of use, minutes (usually 15-20 minutes)
i:fESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTI.ON EQUIPMENTS 217
Most commonly used material of tank of manually operated sprayers are brass, polyethylene plas-
tic.
·•· it) Tank capacity of tractor operated sprayers
The capacity of tank of tractor drawn sprayers depend on location of source of water supply, type
of agitation of chemical in the tank, area covered, hydraulic lift capacity of tractor and boom length of
sprayer. It should be such that it can provide liquid for treatment of one hectare area. It can be
estimated as under:
Q, = Db X t (7.10)
where, Q1 = tank capacity, litres
Db = Total discharge rate of all nozzles of the boom, I/min
t = duration of use, minutes
Usually, the tank capacity of tractor mounted sprayer's ranges between 400-2-500 litres depending
on the size of power source and boom length of sprayer. Most commonly used materials for sprayer
. tank are fibre glass, aluminum, galvanized steel, stainless steel and polyethylene plastic.
iii) Agitation:
Agitation of chemical mix is essential for continuous mixing in the sprayer tank for uniform flow of
liquid through nozzles. Applications that require vigorous agitation may need mechanical agitation such
as propellers or paddles on -a rotating shaft provided at the bottom of tank. For most spraying situa-
tions, hydraulic agitation is sufficient. Hydraulic agitation requires a portion ofth~ flow from the pump
to be diverted back to the tank. The amount of flow for agitation will depend on chemical formulation,
tank size and shape. For example, wettable powders require more agitation than emulsifiab!e .concen-
trates to keep them in suspension. Usually use 5 to 10 percent of the tank's capacity .for agitation flow.
For example, a 300-litre tank should have a 15-30 !pm flow into the tank.
Qa = (0.05-0. 10) Q1 (7 .11)
where, Qa = Agitation Requirements, 1pm
Q1 = tank capacity, litres
7.7.2Pump
Pump converts mechanical power to fluid power. A pump is a major component of the spray,.!!r.
Most pumps are categorized as
i) Positive displacement pump
A pump moves a specific volume of liquid with each stroke or revolution. The pump output is
· proportional to speed and virtually independent of pressure. Examples of positive displacement pumps
include piston, roller vane, gear and diaphragm. The different types of positive displacement pump are
given in Fig. 7.8.
Liquid chemical out Liquid chemical out .•

Rotor
Vane
Driven gear Liquid chemical in

Liquid chemical in
Vane pump (unbalanced type)
Fig.7.8: Different types of positive displacement pump
it) Non positive displacement pump
The output of non ·positive pumps varies directly with pump speed and is sensitive to pressure
which decreases dramatically with increasing pressure. An example of a non positive pump is a cen-
trifugal pump which has in impeller with curved vanes that rotates at high speeds (Fig. 7.9). The
centrifugal pump is widely used to apply pesticides. One reason for its popularity is its simple flow
control system. The pump is recommended for solutions that require add itional mixing (i.e. wettable
powders) and agitation. Since this is a non positive displacement pump, the output can be completely
shut off without using a pressure relief valve.
1. Inlet 2. Outlet
3. Impeller 4. Casing
5. Bearing 6. Shaft
7. Outlet
Centrifugal type pump
Fig.7.9: Non positive displacement pump

The details of various types of pumps like displacement, operating speed, pressure range. discharge
and material of construction used in, sprayers are given in Table 7. 1.
f:'J DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 219
):j)~{-
Table 7.1: Details of various types of pumps used in sprayers
--};~~~L.:- Pump type Displacement Operati11g Pressure Discharge, Material of
/fi}lit ·- . speed, rpm ra11ge, kPa !pm co11structio11
::~}ff:-
:/~t:::::· 'Centrifugal Non positive 1000-5000 49-294 40-70 Cast iron, Bronze
· Roller Vane type Positive 500-2000 294-980 10-55 Cast iron, alloy steel,
Stainless steel
} Piston or plunger Positive 500-800 490-686 5-30 Brass, Bronze,
/ barrel type Cast iron, Stainless steel
Semi positive 500-800 490-686 5-15 Rubber, plastic
Positive 500-2000 490-1960 10-40 Brass, Bronze, Alloy steel
Pump discharge
The theoretical pump discharge (Q1h) is given by
Qth = DP X N (7.12)
Q,11theoretical flow, I/min
:
DP = volume of displacement of pump in one revolution, I/rev
N = pump speed, rpm
·. For plunger barrel type pumps
The theoretical pump discharge (Q1h) for plunger barrel type pump is given by
. 3
Qth = A.L.N. x 10- (7.13)
A = area of plunger, cm 2
L = length of stroke, cm
N = pump speed, rpm
. " Qact =DPxNx71v (7.14)
: Or, for plunger barrel type pumps, the actual pump discharge (Qact) is given by
. Qact = A.L.N x 1o-3x11v (7 .15)
. where, 'llv = volumetric efficiency of the pump,% expressed as decimal fraction and it is dependent
on internal leakage and compressibility of the oil.
. Discharge capacity is an important criterion for selection of pump for a sprayer. The pump should
> have sufficient capacity to supply all the nozzles and other accessories, provide agitation and offset
· pump wear (20 percent greater capacity). Following equation can be used for to determine the pump
capacity:
Qp = {Qb + Qa + Qs + Qo + l.0} x 1.2 (7.16)
QP = Pump capacity, 1pm
Qb = Boom requirement, 1pm = n x D
n = Number of nozzles
D = flow discharge per nozzle, 1pm
Qa = Agitation Requirements, 1pm
Qs = Extra flow needed for self cleaning of strainer, 1pm
Q0 = Flow for other accessories, 1pm
An extra flow of one 1pm is provided for proper operation of the bye-pas~ valve. 20% extra flow is
taken to account for pump wear.
iv) Handle speed for knap-sack sprayer
In order to maintain adequate mean working pressure inside the pressure chamber of plunger
barrel type pump of knap-sack sprayer, the number of strokes made by the operator is calculated as
under:
N = Qth x 103/ (Vs x llv) (7.17)
And, Vs = (n/4) D/ x L (7. I 8)
where, Q,h = Theoretical flow, I/min
Vs = Swept volume of pump, cm 3
N = Number of strokes per minute
DP Diameter of piston, cm
L Length of stroke, cm
'llv = volumetric efficiency of the pump,% expressed as decimal fraction & is dependent
on internal leakage and compressibility of the liquid.
v) Pump torque and power requirements
a) Torque (Tu,)
The theoretical input pump torque is given by
1'11i = (P x D)/2n x I 00 (7. I 9)
Where. T11, = theoretical input torque, N-m
P = pump outlet pressure-pump inlet pressure (bar)
The actual input pump torque is given by
Tact = (P x D)/2n x I 00 x llt (7:20)
where,11 1 = torque efficiency of pump, %
Force required in handle for operation of knap-sack sprayer
Necessary force required for operation of knap-sack sprayer by the operator to develop desired
mean working pressure in the pressure chamber is estimated by:
Fh = Fp x Lj Lh (7.21)
where, F 11 =;:: Force required at handle grip for spraying, N
FP ,,,;'Force on the piston of pump, N
=0. l { (/4)D/ x Pa}
DP = Diameter of"J:>iston, cm
J
Pa = Air pressure insi.d e,the chamber, Pa

Lc = Effective length of crank, cm
L11 = Effective length of handle, cm
Or, Fh = 0. 1{ (n/4) D/ x P111 } x (Lj L1i) (7.22)
where, Pm= Mean working_pressure in chamber, Pa
. i DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 221
Now, for the design purpose maximum force required for handle operation, the peak pressure
occurs during pressure stroke should be taken. It may be taken as 2-3 kg/cm 2 for knap-sack
b) Input or Shaft Power (Ws)

The input or shaft power (Ws) is given by
~ = T x N x 1.05 x 10-(kW) (7.23)
T = input shaft torque, N-m
N = shaft speed, rpm
c) Fluid power of pump (Wi
The fluid power of pump (W} in KW is given by
ffl;- = Q x P/60 (7 .24)
where, Q = actual pump discharge, 1/m
P = pressure across the pump, MPa
And, the fluid horse power (HP} is given by
HP! = Q x H 175 (7.25)
,where, Q = a<:tual pump discharge, 1/s
H = Head, m
~z) Overall Efficiency of Pump ( Tim)

· The overall efficiency of pump (TJm) is given by
11m = WJ Ws (7.26)
This is also equal to the product of torque and volumetric efficiencies, i. e.
Tim = Tit x 11v (7 .27)
y ii) Pump performance Characteristics
The pump characteristics of efficiencies can be established by comparison between the pump
performances at no load and loaded at a given condition of speed, pressure and displacement. The
typical pump performance curves for a variable displacement piston pump are shown in Fig.7. I 0.
100
11.,
~
0
::,;.
u
C
Ill
·.:; 50
~
0
µN/SP
Fig.7.10: Typical torque (TJ 1), volumetric (TJv) and overall (TJm) efficiencies of pump
7.7.3 S,trainers and Screens

The impurities from the chemical solution are filtered by strainers and screens before their entry
into pump, cut off device and nozzles and their aperture size varies from 180-420 microns. Properly
sized and placed strainers will prevent plugged or partially plugged nozzles and the uniformity problems
associated with them. The mesh size of a strainer refers to the openings in a screen per linear inch.
These are provided at tank filling hole, suction hose and nozzles. The recommended mesh size for
different strainers/screens is given in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: strainers and screen sizes for sprayers
Locatio11 offilterslscree11s Size (meslteslcm 2J
Tank filling hole 4~
Pump 150-200
Nozzles 150-200
*Nozzles requiring greater than 50 mesh sizes (i.e. 80 or 100 mesh) are prone to frequent plugging.
7.7.4 Design of Nozzles
The nozzle is an important component of sprayer which atomizes the liquid solution in small drop-
lets. Depending upon type of application, various types of nozzles used in sprayers are given in Table
7.3.
Table 7.3: Various types of nozzles for agricultural sprayers
Type of nozzle Type of energy used Spray angle, Pressure, Discharge, Applications
degrees • kPa ml/milt
Solid cone nozzle Hydraulic energy 70 275 450 Pesticides
Hollow cone nozzle -do- fl) 295 150 -do-
80 295 450
Tripple action nozzle -do- 70 275 570 Pesticides and
weedicides
Flat fan nozzle -do- fl) ff) 675 Weedicides
Flood jet nozzle -do- 25 ff) 172 -do-
-do- -do- 40 ff) 470 -do-
-do- -do- 95 ff) 1230 -do-
-do- -do- 110 ff) 2040 -do-
-do- -do- 115 157 600 -do-
Spinning disc atomize Centrifugal - - 17.5 - 90.0 Insecticides
energy at,1d weedicides
a) Design of swirl nozzle:
It is a pressure nozzle in which stream of Ii.quid is set in a rotary motion and broken before leaving
the nozzle under the effect of intemal:and centrifugal force. Various dimensions of swirl nozzle to be
designed are:
i) Radius of swirl chamber = Rs
~bESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 223
ii) Outer radius of orifice = r0

iii) Inner radius of orifice = ri
iv) Inlet opening or air core radius= rin
Fig.7.11: Air core in swirl nozzle

For determination of size of above parameters of swirl nozzle, first of all determine discharge of
each nozzle (Dn)
Dn= Q/n (7.28)
where, Dn = discharge rate of nozzle, ml/min
QP = Pump discharge, ml/min
n = number of nozzles
Now, in order to develop uniform spray pattern by the sprayer, the operating pressure should vary
between 2 to 5 kg/cm2. Based on the nozzle discharge and pump pressure, dimensions of nozzle can be
calculated as given below.
Fig. 7.12: Details of swirl nozzle

,)Outer radius of orifice (rJ

The outer radius of orifice (r0 ) is given by
r0 = [ ( Dn) I {n K(2g Pa)°- 5 }]0•5 (7.29)·
where, r0 = Outer radius radius of orifice, cm
Dn = discharge rate of nozzle, ml/min
P O = Actual fluid pressure in the nozzle, Pa
K = A coefficient, whose value depends on theoretical outflow coefficient, Stf
And, Strcan be estimated by the equation given by Domus (1972) for a given value ofnozzle angle (00 )
as under
ea = 43.5 Stf. Log 14 (7.30)
The outflow coefficient can also be calculated as
S'f = I - r I.2 / r 0 2 (7.31)
Now, diameter of outer orifice of nozzle is given by
d 0 = 2 r0 (7.32)
ii)Inner radius of orifice (r;)
The inner radius of orifice (r;) can be estimated by the relationship
ri = ro -f (7.33)
f = film thickness, cm (depends on a design and nozzle working conditions)
iit)lnlet opening radius (rin)
The fluid inlet opening radius of nozzle is calculated by using following equation:
"in = Dj Ain = Djn ri/ (7.34)
where, V;,, = velocity of water stream at inlet opening of swirl chamber, mis (Normally it can be
taken as 25 mis)
Dn = discharge rate of nozzle, ml/min
r;n = Swirl chamber inlet opening radius, cm
So, the diameter of inlet opening of swirl chamber (din) is given by
d;11 = 2 rin (7.35)
iv)Radius of swirl chamber (R5 )
The radius swirl chamber is given by (Rs)
Rs = Sc1}!r0 (7.36)
1
where, Rs = Radius of swirl chamber, cm
Sc = Swirl coefficient a function of outflow coefficient s , if value of outflow coefficient is
1
known. Otherwise Sc can be estimated from the hand book.
r;11 = Swirl chamber inlet opening radius, cm
rO = Outer radius of orifice, cm
· ..· DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 225
Therefore, by using above relationships one can select the dimensions of swirl nozzle for sprayers.
b) Design of spinning disc type rotary nozzle
For obtaining required droplet size and uniform spray patterns with spinning disc type sprayer. it is
essential that the discharge of liquid and speed of disc are optimized . .The diameter of droplets pro-
duced is determined by
dd = K (1/ro) {yl(Ds .p1)}0.5 (7.37)
where, dd = Droplet diameter
K = Constant (may be taken as 3.76)
ro = Angular velocity of spinning disc, rad/s
Ds = Diameter of spinning disc, cm
p1 = Density of liquid
Distance of droplet deposition in spinning disc sprayer/mist blowcJ.""s: In motorized mist blow-
ers, actual distance (S) over which the droplets are thrown from the periphery of disc is important for
obtaining uniform spray pattern and can be estimated by following equation :
S = 1.3 (dd x Ds)°- 5 (7.38)
where, S = actual distance of droplets release, cm
dd = mean droplet diameter, ~tm
Ds = Disc diameter of blower, cm
7.8 DESIGN OF DUSTERS
7.8.1 Air Output of Duster (Q)
Duster primarily applies the insecticides and fungicides in powder form (particle size 2-60 mi-
crons) Its main components includes a dust hopper and a fan producing a stream of air which carries
the chemical powder in suspended form to apply on the plants. The air velocity in the powder delivery
pipe should be adequate to keep the dust in the suspended form and the axial velocity of air (va) in the
duster can be calculated by following equations:
Q = 60 x A x. V{I
= 60 x A x 2gh ly (7.39)
where, Q = Air output, m3/min
A = Cross secti.onal area of fan outlet, m2
Va = Mean axial air velocity, m/s
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
h = Mean of velocity pressure in water column, mm
y = Specific weight of air, kg/m 3
7.8.2 Orifice diameter of duster (d0 ):
The orifice diameter of duster (d0 ) can be determined by following equation.
d 0 =v/0.194 (7.40)
where, d 0 = orifice diameter of the duster, mm

vO = outflow velocity of air in duster, m/s (It varies between 20-100 mis)
The orifice diameter of duster can also be found out by using standard curve or data table in
handbook.
Application of 1.5 kg of insecticide in 750 litres water is to be applied with the help of knap-sack
sprayer in one hectare. The sprayer is equipped with a nozzle having a rated delive,y of2.5 I/min at a
pressure of 2.5 kg/cni2. Assume that the swath width covered by the nozzle is 60 cm. Calculate the
forward speed of operator for pump pressure setting of 2. 0 kglcm 2.
Solution:
Given: Application rate of chemical (A) = 750 I/ha
Number of nozzles fitted with sprayer = one
Swath width of sprayer = 60 cm
Pump pressure setting = 2.5 kg/cm 2
Rated nozzle delivery rate (D) = 2.5 I/min
Let S 1 be the speed of travel ofoperator at 2.5 kg/cm2 pump pressure setting and S 2 be the speed of
travel at 2.0 kg/cm 2
Then,
Area covered per min = (60/100) S 1/ 10000, ha (7.41)
Now, Application rate (A)= 750 litre/ha
Also net rate of discharge from 'N' nozzles (D 1) = 2.5 I/min
Therefore, time to finish 750 litres = 750/ 2.5 min
Therefor~, 750 / 2.5 minutes time is required to cover one hectare area
Or, Area covered in one minute= 2.5 /750, ha (7.42)
From eqns. 7.41 & 7.42, we have,
(60/100) x S/10000 = 2.5 /750
Or, S 1 = 55.55 m/min or 3.33. Km/hr
It is also known that discharge is proportional to the square root of pressure if other parameters of
pump are constant.
Suppose D1 & D2 are the rate of discharges at pressures P 1 = 2.71 kg/cm 2 & P2 = 2.1 kg/cm 2
So, D 1 ID 2 = (P/P 2) 0•5
Or, D 2 = 2.5 (2.0/2.5)0•5 = 2.25 I/min
Therefore, speed of travel when the discharge is 2.25 I/min
= 55.55 (2.25/2.5) m/min
= 49.995 m/min or 2.978 km/hr
;: DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 227
I~
I . --i::
I
~
il
~ ..
~ A selfpropelled high clearance sprayer having 7.5 m swath is spraying the chemical in cotton crop at
~
the rate of 56 !Im at a forward speed of4.2 km/h,: Determine the rate of chemical application in /Iha.
~
I
Solution:
Given: Swath width of sprayer (W) =7.5 m or 750 cm
Nozzles discharge rate = 56 I/min
I Forward speed of sprayer = 4.2 km/hr.
I~.I .-.-;.,·-~- We know that for a given sprayer
A = 60000 DI (S. W) (7.43)
Where, A = Application rate, I/ha
D = Nozzle discharge, I/min
W = Spray swath, cm
S = Speed, km/hr
Or, A = 60000 x 56 I/min/ (4.2 km/hr x 6m x 100 cm)
A = 1066.67 I/ha
!I Nozzle discharge ofa power operated sprayer is 36 llm at its designed pressure. When the pressure ofthe
L
~ .":
pump is doubled, what would be the nozzle discharge?
L
r
I
Solution: ·
Given: Nozzle discharge (D 1) = 36 I/min at pump pressure (P 1)
f Pump pressure P 2= 2P 1
tr- We know that in a sprayer

DifD1 = (PifP1)°-5 (7.44)
1:
j Putting the values in eqn. 7.44, we get,
! So, D2 = D 1 (2P 1/P 1)°- 5 = 36 x (2)°- 5
L
f.
= 36 x 1.41 = 50.76 I/min
A weedicide solution is to be applied in wheat crop at the rate of 1000 !Iha by a knapsack spraye1: ff
the operator is moving at a speed of3 km/hr and swath width ofsprayer is 5 0 cm, determine the nozzle
discharge ofthe sprayer.
Solution:
Given: Chemical application rate (A) = 1000 I/ha
Speed of operator= 3.0 km/hr
Spray swath width = 50 cm
Now, we know that
A = 60000 DI (S.W)
Where, A =Application rate, I/ha]
D = Nozzle discharge, I/min
W = Spray swath, cm
S = Speed, km/hr
Or, D = ASW/60,000 (7.45)
D = I 000 I x 3 km/hr x 50 cm /60000
= 2.5 litres/min
A field crop power sprayer with horizontal boom having 20 x 40 cm nozzles is used for spraying
insecticide at a forward speed of 4. 5 km/hr. Determine the actual field capacity ofsprayer if its field
efficiency is 80%. Also determine nozzle discharge ofthe sprayer ifinsecticide application is 1000 !Iha.
So/11tio11:
Given:
Size of boom of sprayer = 20 x 40 cm
Operation speed of sprayer = 4.5 km/hr
Field efficiency of sprayer = 80%
Insecticide application rate = I 000 I/ha
We know that the actual field capacity (AFC) for a sprayer is given by
AFC = (N x w x S/10) x 11 (7.46)
Putting values in eqn.7.46, we get.
AFC = [(20 x 40/100) x 4.5/1 O] x 0.8
= 2.88 ha/hr
Now, we know that
D = ASW/60,000 (7.47)
Putting values in eqn.7.47, we get
D = I 000 1/h :x 4.5 km/hr x 800 cm/60000
= 60 I/min
Now discharge of each nozzle = D/No. of nozzles

= 60 l/min/20 = 3.0 I/min Ans.
Calculate the droplet density (number of droplets/c1ri2) if mean diameter of drop/els produced by the
sprayer i~ 200pm and the spray chemical is applied at the rate of500 /Iha.
Solution:
Given:
Mean droplet diameter (d) = 200 µm
Application rate of spray chemical (A) = 500 I/ha
We know that,
n = (601) (( I 00/d)3x A (7.48)
Where, n = mean number of droplets falling on a square cm on a flat surface
d = droplet diameter, µm
A =Application rate, I/ha
12= (60ht) ((100/200)3 x 500
n = 1200 droplets/cm 2
A tractor mounted row crop sprayer with boom having 20 x 40 cm nozzles is moving at a speed of4.2
km/h,: The nozzles ofthe sprayer are set at a pressure of 7.4 kglcm 2 for an application rate of 1000 II
ha. The nozzles fitted on the sprayer are hollow cone type with spray angle of 75°. Calculate the height
ofspray boom ofsprayer from the deposition level so that each nozzle spray pauern at deposit level is
30% greater than the nozzle spacing.
Solution:
Given: Size of boqm = 20 x 40 cm = 800 cm
Application rate = I 000 I/ha
Nozzle pressure = 7.40 kg/cm 2
Sprayer operating speed = 4.2 km/hr
Nozzle spray angle (0) =7 5°
Degree of overlap= 30% greater than nozzle spacing
As given above in the present case, the nozzle spray pattern at deposition level is 30% greater than
nozzle spacing.
So,
DP = sn x 0 1
Where, DP = diameter of spray pattern at deposition level
sn = Nozzle spacing on boom, cm
0 1 = multiplying factor for overlap (A factor that multiplies nozzle spacing to get spray
pattern at deposition level)
Or, DP = 40 cm x 130/100 = 52 cm
Fig. 7.13: Spray pattern of boom type field sprayers

In right angled triangle CAB (Refer Fig. 7.14.)
tan 0/2 = AB/h (7.49)
= 12 cm/h
or, h . = 12 cm/ tan 0/2 = 12 cm/tan37.5°
= 15.63 cm
40cm 40cm
h I
I
1
F A
__..-+------'--t-:--~.,,-=~B:-:--Jf--.f----\------1----~-~Crop level
4c 12cm 14cm
Overlap
Fig.7.14: Elevation of spray boom

Again in right angle triangle DFB

tan 0/2 = FB/hn = (FA + AB)lhn (7.50)
Therefore, from eqns. 7.49 & 7.50, we have
AB/h = (FA + AB)lh11
Or, hjh =(FA+ AB)IAB = 14 cm +12 cm/12 cm =26 cm/12 cm
Or, h11 = h x 26/12 =15.63 cm x 26/12 = 33.86 cm
A motorized mist blower having blower disc diameter of9 cm is depositing droplets at a distance of 90
cm from its outlet to the target. Determine the droplet diameter developed by the machine.
Solution:
Given: Distance at which droplets are released (S) = 90 cm
Diameter of blower disc (Ds) = 9 cm
We know that;
S = 1.3 (dd x Ds)°- 5 (7.51)
Where, S = actual distance of droplets release, cm
dd = mean droplet diameter, µm
Ds = Disc diameter of blower, cm
90 cm = 1.3 (d x 9.0 cm)°-5
Or, d = 90 x 90/(9 x 1.3 x 1.3)
d = 532.5 µm
Design a plunger barrel type hydraulic pump to deliver a pump discharge of2 litres/min at a speed of
JOO rpm. The pump efficiency should be 75%. Also find out power required to operate the pump !f
pressure developed in the pump is 2. 0 MP a.
Solution:
Given:
Pump _discharge (Q) = 20 litres/min = 2 x I03 cm 3/min
Pump effi::Elcy 01) = 75%
Pump speed (N) = 100 rpm
Pressure developed by the pump = 20 MPa
Assume that the stroke bore ratio of plunger pump is I. I
So, LID = 1.1
or, L = 1.1D take L = 35mm

Now,
We know that for a plunger barrel type of pump
Theoretical volume of oil pumped/min (V) = A.L.N
and Actual volume (Q) = V. 11v = A.L.N. ·riv (7.52)
where, A = area of plunger, cm2
L = length of stroke, cm
N = pump speed, rpm
llv = volumetric efficiency of pump, %
2 x 103 cm3/min = n/4 .Ifl x 3.0 cm x 100 x 75/100
or, D2 = (2 x 103 x 4 x 100)/ (1t x 3.5 x 100 x 75)
D = 3.11 cm say 31.5 mm
So, designed dimensions of pump plunger is 31.5 mm diameter and 35 m stroke length.
A plunger barrel type pump of a tractor PTO operated sprayer is required to deliver fluid at the rate of
91.6 litres/min at a speed of 1500 rpm against a fluid pressure of 15 MPa. Calculate pump efficiency if
shaft power needed to operate the pump is 27.5 kW. Also determine torque requirement of the pump.
Sol1.1tio11:
Given:
Pump discharge (Q) = 91.6 litres/min
Pump speed (N) = 1500 rpm
Pressure developed by the pump = 15 MPa
Shaft power (Ws) = 27.5 kW
We know that
Fluid Power (W ) = Q.P/60 (7.53)
1
Shaft Power (W5) = WJri (7.54)
From eqn.7.53, ~ = 91.6 litres/minx 15 MPa/60
= 22.9 kW
Also from eqn. 7.54, ~ = WJri
, i . Or 11 = W/ Ws
'
Tl = 22.9/27.5 = 0.833 or 83.3%
Torque requirement of pump (Tp)
We know that, torque required for the pump is given by
w;: .
U,;J{;{io·ESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 233
TP = op.D,J2nri 1 (7.55)
TP = torque required to drive the pump, N-m
op = Pressure developed across the pump, MPa
DP = pump displacement, cm3/rev
DP = QIN= (91.6 litres/min x 103 cm3/liter)/1500 = 61.1 cm 3/rev
TP = 15 MPa x 6l.lcm 3/rev/ (21t x 83.3/100)
= 175.04 N-m
A gear type pump (Fig. 7.15) in a sprayer is operating at a speed of 1000 rpm at 15 JvfPa pressure has
a displacement of 20.5 cm 3/min. Calculate the following if mechanical and torque efficiencies ofthe
pump are 85% and 90% respectively.
a)Delive,y rate ofpump in litres/min
b)Shaft power of the pump
c)Torque required for driving the pump.
Liquid chemical out
Driven gear Liquid chemical in

Gear type pump
Fig. 7.15: Gear type pump
Solution:
Given:
Pump speed (N) = I 000 rpm
Pump displacement (DP) = 20.'5 cm 3/rev
Pressure developed = 15 MPa
Overall efficiency of pump (rJin) = 85%
Torque efficiency of pump (T11) = 90%
a) Pump Delivery Rate (Q)

Q =Dp X N
Q = 20.5 cm3/rev x 10-3 litres/cm3 x 1000 rpm
= 20.5 litres/min
b) Shaft power of pump (W5 )
We know that
Fluid Power (~) = Q.P/60 (7.56)
Shaft Power (Ws) = W/rim (7 .57)
~ = (20.5 litres/min x 15 MPa)/60
= 5. 125 kW
Again from eqn. 7.57, we get,
Ws = W/ 01 = 5.125kW/0.85 = 6.029 kW
Therefore shaft power of the pump would be 6.029 kW.
c) Torque requirement of pump (Tp):
We know that, torque required for the pump is given by
TP = 8p.DJ2nri 1,,
TP = (15--MPa x 20.5 cm3/rev)/ (2n x 0.90)
TP = 57.55 N-m
The torque required to operate the pump would be 57.55 N-m
A roller vane type pump in a tractor pto operated spraye,; operating at a speed of I 000 rpm is
developing a pressure of IO MPa. It requires input power of I 0. 7 kW ff its mechanical efficiency is
taken as 70%, calculate oilfl,ow rate in the pump in litres/min and its displacement volume per revolu-
tion. Also calculate theoretical discharge'ojpump if its volumetric efficiency is 80%.
Solution: •
Given:
Shaft power (Wf) = 10.70 kW
Pressure developed (P) = IO MPa
Mechanical efficiency of pump (ri 01) = 70%
Pump speed (N) = -1000 rpm
We know that
Shaft Power ( Ws) = W/ri 111
Or, wf = w:f x 11m = 10.7 kW x 70/ 100
= 7.49 kW
·/ DESIGN OF PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS 235
Also, Fluid Power (W ) = Q.P/60

1
; .Or, Q = wf x 60/P =7.49 kW x 60/ 10 MPa
=44.94 Litres/min
Again, DP =QIN= 44.94 x 103/1000 = 44.94 cm3/rev
We know that Qth = Q)Tlv= Q/11v
Or = 44.94 litres/min/0.80 = 56.17 litres/min
Design a swirl nozzle (Fig. 7.16) for following operating condition:

i) Nozzle discharge rate, Dn = 4 lit/min
ii) Film thickness, f= 4mm
iii) Nozzle angle, 00 = 70°
iv) Pressure in nozzle, P O=IO atmosphere
Fig. 7.16: Details of swirl nozzle

f solutioll:
Given:
Nozzle discharge rate, Dn = 4 lit/min
Film thickness, f = 4mm
Nozzle angle, 0a = 70°
Pressure in nozzle, P0 =IO atmosphere
Now, Outer radius of orifice (r0 ) can be determined by following equation

ro = [ ( D11) I {1t K(2g Pa)°-5}]0.5 (7.58)
D 11 = discharge rate of nozzle, ml/min
Pa = Actual fluid pressure in the nozzle, Pa
K = A coefficient, whose value depends on theoretical outflow coefficient, S1r
And Stf can be estimated by equation given by Domus ( I 972) for a given value of nozzle angle (08).
i.e., 0a = 43.5 S1r. Logl4 (7.59)
For a nozzle angle of 70°, we can find out S1r by using equation 7 .58 as given below
70° = 43.5 log 14 x S1r
Or, St/ = 70°/(43.5 logl4) = 2.85
Now, corresponding to Stf =2.85, from curve or table from hand book, K = 0.22
Now, putting values in equation 7.58, we get
rO = [ ( 4.0 I/min) / { x 0.22(2 x 981 x 10)°-5 }]0.5
Or, r0 = 1.8 mm
And, d 0 = 2 r0 = 2 x 1.8 mm= 3.6mm Ans
Inner radius of orifice (r;)
The inner radius of orifice (1) can be est~mated by the relationship
r; =ro-f (7.60)
where, r 0 = Outer radius of orifice, cm
F = film thickness, cm (depends on a design and nozzle working conditions
So, r; = r 0 - f= 1.8 -0.4 = 1.4mm
And,
Inner diameter di =2 r; = 2 x 1.4 =2.8 mm
Radius of swirl chamber (Rs)
The radius of swirl chamber (Rs) is given by
Rs = Scr/lr0 (7.6 I)
And
The outflow coefficient can also be calculated as
s'f = l - r.I2 Ir0 1 (7.62) ]
j
Sf = I- (I.4)2/(1 .8)2
Or, Sf = 0.395
Now, from the curve, for Sf= 0.395, the value of coefficient Sc= 3.5
Therefore, putting val~es in eqn.7.61 we get,
Rs = 3.5 (I.4)2/1.8=4.15 mm
And, diameter of swirl chamber Ds= 2 Rs= 2 x 4.15 = 8.30 mm

So,
The designed dimensions of swirl nozzle are
Diameter of inlet orifice, di= 2.8mm
Diameter of outlet orifice, d0 =3.6 mm
. Diameter of swirl chamber, Ds = 8.30 mm
EXERCISE
1. A Tractor drawn sprayer is operated at a forward speed of 5 km/hr. Its boom size is 15 x 45 cm. The time
lost in turning is 10% and tank filling is 8%. Calculate the area covered per hour.
2. Calculate the time required to spray IO hectares of cotton crop by a self propelled sprayer with 14 x 40
cm boom operating at a forward speed of 6 km/hr. The time lost in turning is I 0% and filling the tank is
also 10%.
3. Insecticide solution is to be applied @ 300 I/ha by a tractor drawn field crop sprayer operated at a
forward speed of5 km/hr. The size of spray boom is 14 x 40 cm. Calculate the nozzles discharge rate of
the sprayer and also the discharge per nozzle.
4. Design a swirl nozzle for following operating condition:
I) Nozzle discharge rate, D,, = 5 lit/min
ii) Film thickness,!= 4mm
iii) Nozzle angle, 03 = 70°
iv) Pressure in nozzle, PO = 15 atmosphere
CHAP'fER 8
Design of Crop Harvesting Machines
Crops arc harvested after normal maturity with the objective to take out grain, straw, tubers etc.
without much loss. It involves cutting/digging/picking, laying, gathering, curing, transpor1 and stacking
of the crop. In case of cereals like wheat and paddy the plants are straight and smooth and it contains
grains at the top whereas most of oilseed and pulse crops have branches, which create problems in
harvesting by manual or mechanical means.
Timeliness of harvest is of prime importance. During harvesting season, often rains and storms
occur .causing considerable damage to standing crops. Rapid harvest facilitates extra days for land
preparation and earlier planting of the next crop. The use of machines can help to harvest at proper
stage of crop maturity and reduce drudgery and operation time. Considering these, improved harvesting
tools, equipment, combines are being accepted by the farmers.
In this chapter design of vertical conveyor reaper (manual, self-propelled and tractor front mounted)
and combine harvesters are discussed in detail.
8.1. DESIGN oF VERTICAL CoNV~YOR REAPER (VCR)

It. is used for harvesting of crops mostly at ground level. It consists of crop row divider, star wheel,
cutter bar, and a pair of lugged canvass conveyor belts. This type of machines cut the crops and
conveys vertically to one end and windrows the crops on the ground uniformly. Collection of crop
for making bundles is easy and it is done manually. Self-propelled walking type, self-propelled riding
type and tractor mounted type reaper-windrowers are available. These types of reapers are suitable
for crops like wheat and paddy. Different types of vertical conveyor reapers are given in
Fig. 8.1. In this section designing of following vertical conveyor reapers are explained as solved
examples.
I. Manually operated vertical conveyor reaper.
2. Self-propelled vertical conveyor' reaper.
3. Tractor front mounted vertical conveyor reaper.

DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 239
Manually o perated VCR Self-propclled VCR
Tractor front mounted VCR
Fig. 8. 1: Di(!erent types of vertical conveyor reapers (VCR)

I.
I 240
8.J.l Forces Acting on Cutter Bar of a Reaper

Forces acting on cutter bar (P): The total resisting force (P) acting on the cutterbar is the sum of
all the forces acting on the knife (Fig. 8.2).
p =pc+ Pf + P; (8. I)
where, P = total resisting force in cutter bar, N or kg
Pc = average resistance to cutting, N or kg
Pf = frictional force, N or kg.
P1 = inettia force of knife section, N or kg
Cutting force in cutter bar (Pc): The total cutting force (Pc) on a cutter bar is given by
Pc = E.F1.Z/Xc (8.2)
where Pc = total cutting force in cutter bar, N or kg
E = 2.0 N-cm/cm2 (for paddy) and 1.25 N-cm/cm 2 (for wheat)
F 1 = knife load area (41.9 cm2) ..,
Z = number of knife sections in the cutter bar
Xe = displacement of knife, start to end of cutting= 2.81 cm
Fig. 8.2: Forces acting on a cutter bar of VCR

Frictional force in cutter bar (P ): The frictional force (Pf) acts on the kinfe as it slides over the
1
finger bar and is given by
Pf = PJJ + Pfl. (8.3)
Pfl = force due to weight of cutter bar, N or kg which can be calculated by
Pf\ = Gkf (8.4)
Gk = weight of cutter bar (20-22 Nim length of cutter bar)
f = 0.2 - 0.3
Pfl. = force caused by normal component of force exerted by connecting rod on knife,
Nor kg
(8.5)
Inc;rda force in cutter bar (P;): The inertia force (Pi ) acting on the cutter bar is given by
P; =Mkro:i(l-xlr) (8.6)
where Mk = mass of knife section, kg
r = radius of crank, cm
ro = angular velocity, rad/s
x = length of stroke, cm
At initial and final points of stroke, P; would be maximum
So, Pi max = Mk rro 2 (8. 7)
The details of crank pitman mechanism with cutter bar of a VCR is given in Fig. 8.3.
JU
1. Cutter bar
2. Knife section
3. Triangular (curved) plate
4. Pininon shaft
5 5. Crank pin
Fig. 8.3: Crank pitman mechanism with cutter bar of a VCR
8.1.2. Selection of Cutting Unit of VCR

I. Length of cutter bar (Le) : The length of the cutter bar is selected on the basis of the row to row
spacing of cereal crops. Generally, length of cutter bar is in between 1-3 m. If, length of cutter bar is
less than 1 m, it creates problem in collection of cut crop.
2. Type of cutter bar: A reciprocating type cutter bar having 76.2 mm stroke length and two cuts per
stroke is generally used.
3. Selection of guards : Standard size twin guards with lip are used in reciprocating knife type cutter
bars for harvesting cereal crops.
4. Size and shape of knife sections: The size and shape of knife section of cutter bar is selected on
the basis of the following parameters:
(i) Gripping of stalk by cutting pair: The crop is cut by impact and shear action between the
knife section and guard lip. Owing to the defletion of the crop, the height of stubble is somewhat
greater than the height of the cutter bar above ground surface. For normal cutting action, the stalk
should be pinched between cutting edge of knife and guard lip as given in Fig. 8.4. This condition is
satisfied when
La + LP s; Lq>1 + LCf>2 (8.8)

where, La= angle between cutting edge and axis of knife section
LP = angle between cutting edge and axis of twin guard
Lcj> 1 & Lcj>2 = angles of friction between the crop and cutting edge of knife and guard lip respectively.
(ii) Rake angle, sharpness and thickness of cutting edge: The smaller rake angle and greater the
sharpness, the greater is cutting ability of the knife. Knives of small rake angles and sharp cutting edges
become blunt more rapidly. The knives with rake angle of22° are sharp for longer time. So, a rake angle
of 22° with sharp cutting edge is generally selected.
► STALK
KNIFE SECTION
+
30
All dimension are in mm
1.. 76.2 .. I
Fig.8.4: Stalk pinching between knife s~ction and twin guard lip
(iiz) Pitch of serrated knives: In order to avoid slipping off the stalks, the knife sections should be
serrated. If the pitch of the serration is equal to stalk diameter, the stalk will choke the cutter and result
in high power requirement. To avoid this, pitch of the serrated kinves is selected two or three times
smaller than the diameter of paddy or wheat stalk. The diameter of paddy and wheat stalk varies
between 2--4 mm. Hence, the pitch of serrated knives is kept in the 'range of 1 to 1.2 mm.
(iv) Clearance between knife section and twin guard: The quality of cutting is governed by the
clearance between the cutting pair. For'serrated cutting knives best results are obtained when clearance
between and ledger plates is maintained at 0.3 mm. So, a clearance of 0.5 to 1.0 mm is generally kept.
(v) Velocity of knife sections (Vk): The velocity of knife section is a function of forward speed of
the machine. The velocity ratio (K) between the two is expresed as
K = V,(v,11 = 1.3 to 1.4
where, Vk = average knife velocity, m/s
Vm = machine forward speed, mis
(vi) Fonvard speed of the machine: The bevel angle (ex.) of knife section is a function of forward
speed of the machine. The minimum permissible forward speeds for ex.'= 26° and 31 ° should be 0.5 ml
sec and 0.8 m/sec respectively.
8.1.3 Design of Crop Lifter and Divider

The crop divider guides the machine to insert the lifters in the crop smoothly for proper cutting or
harvesting of the crop (Fig. 8.5).
3
Side View
50 Top View
-------!-+!---,--
Fig. 8.5: Star wheel crop lifter

Minimum star wheel velocity (Vw): The velocity of star wheel is given by
<~
V.w- (8.9)
coscx.
where, Vw = star wheel velocity, m/s
Vm = machine forward speed, mis
ex. = angle of inclination of star wheel = 20~22°
For a.= 22°,
(8.10)
Cover angle of lifters:
According to Bailling (1985) to insert the lifter smoothly, smaller the angle of cover of lifter ex. or p
(Fig. 8.5) the better it is. But, it is advisable to have ~ >ex.as the star wheel is involved with the side of
angle p. For better performance of lifters the angles with ex.= 12°and ~ = 16° is preferable.
8.1.4. Design of Crop Conveyor

When the machine travels at the designed speed in the field, the crop lifter guides the crop to the cutter
bar with the help of star wheel and the crop is cut by the cutter. The cut crop is conveyed to one side
by the lugged belt conveyor at an angle of 90° for esay collection and bundling. For this purpose the
conveyor of the machine must convey the bunch of cut crop on a vertical platform continuously and
without blockage. The details of conveyor (Fig. 8.6) are discussed as under:
. I I I I I !
(+)- ' -·-·- ·-·- ·- ·- ·-· - ·- ·{!)--
! I I I I I !
I v;- ij
vm
Vm = Forward speed of machine
! I I I I I !
·{b-·-·-·-----·-·-·-·-·-·E]) ·-
i I I IW= Vc-t
I I i
Fig. 8.6 Lugged belt conveyor of VCR
(l) Speed of lugged belt (Vb): For a lugged flat belt the belt speed is given by
Vb =1t.Dp.N/60 (8. 11)
where, Vb = peripheral speed of flat belt (1.33 to 1.5 mis)
DP = diameter of lugged belt pulley, m
NP = speed of lugged belt pulley, rpm
Diameter of pulley (DP) is given by
DP= vb x 60l1t.NP (8. 12)
(ii) Pitch of lugs (P): According to Devnani (1985), the pitch of lugs on flat belt of conveyor is given
by
1t.Ds = P. Ns (8 .13)
or, P= 1t.DSINS (8 .14)
where, P = pitch of lugs on belt, mm
Ds = diameter of star wheel (outside), mm
Ns = number of arms on star wheel
(iit) Number of lugs on belt (N1): The number of lugs on conveyor belt is given by
N 1= LIP (8.15)
where, L = length of belt, mm
P = pitch of lugs, mm
(iv) Length of lugged belt of conveyor: The length of lugged belt is given by
L = 2C + 1t (D + d)/2 + (D-d) 2l4C (8.16)
where, L = length of belt, cm
C = center to center distance between lugged belt pulleys, cm
D = diameter of driving pulley, cm
d = diameter of driven pulley, cm
(v) Lug height and clearance: In order to determine the height of conveyor it must be ensured that
the branches of cut crop can be continuously conveyed without any blockage. This is only
possible when conveyor output per unit time is greater than or equal to cutter output.
i.e. output of conveyor~ cutter bar output
h. W.p2 ~ P1· wi.Vn/Vc (8. 17)
h ~ P1· W2.Vn/P2.W.Vc
or, h ~ (Wlq) x (V,,/Vc) (8 . 18)
where, h = height of lug, cm
W = cutting width, cm
V111 = machine speed, m/s
Ve = conveyor belt speed, mis
p 1 = density of crop plants in field
p 2 = density qf cut crop on vertical platform
q = gathered crop parameter= Pi p 1= AifA 2
A 1 = one m2 area in field
A 2 = area of circle of bunched cut crop from I m2 area in the field
Alsoq = 41tC2
C = Circumference of the cut crop bunch whose area is A2
8.1.5. Total Power Required for Operation of Machine (W,,,)

The total power required for operation of the machine ( Wm) is given by
Wm= w,. + wn + WW (8 . I 9)
where, W,. = power for rolling machine, w
W,, = power for no-load working of parts of machine, w
W,v = power required for full load working of machine, w
Power for rolling of,machine (Wr) is given by
W,.= (P 1 + P2 + P3). v/f\,/lls (8.20)
where, P 1 = resistance to rolling of machine, N
P2 = resistance to rolling of trailer coupled to machine, N (P2 = 0 for reaper/mower)

P 3 = resistance to rolling of tractor, N (P 3 = 0 for self-propelled combines)
l'ltr = transmission efficiency,%
1')
5
= coefficient of skidding of machine
Design a manually operated vertical conveyor reaper (VCR). A view of manually operated VCR
alongwith the components is given in Fig. 8. 7.
Solution:
According to Campbell (1990) the power of useful work done by human being is given by
H.P = 0.35-0.092 log t (8.21)
Where, t = time in minutes.
Fig. 8.7 : Manually operated vertical conveyor reaper

For four hours continuous work, H. P developed by man = 0.13 hp
We know that,
HP= Push (kg) x speed (m/sec)

75
Let the speed of operating the machine be =0.8 m/sec.
;, DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 247
Therefore,
75x0.13
Push = - - - = 12.19 kg = 12.5 kg (say)
0.8
1. Determine force resisting the cutter bar knife movement of VCR: The total resisting forces
· (P) affecting the cutter bar of reaper is the sum of all forces acting' on knife (Fig. 8.8 )
P=Pc + P1 +PF (8.22)
where, Pc = Average resistive force, N
P1 = Inertia force of knife section, N
PF= Frictional force, N
These forces are calculated as under:
Fig. 8.8: Forces acting on cutter bar of reaper

Resistance to cutting (Pc): To estimate resistance to cutting for cereal crops, it is assumed that
the plants are uniformly distributed in the rows and two rows will be cut by manually operated machine.
Pc= E.F1.N!Xc (8.23)
where, E = 1.25 N-cm/cm2 for wheat and 2.0 N-cm/cm2 for paddy
F 1 = knife load area; 41.9 cm2 for a single stroke cutter with 5.5 cm knife sweep
N = number of knife sections in cutter bar, 4 for 30 cm cutter bar
Xe = displacement of knife from start to end of cutting (2.81 cm for standard knife section)
Putting values in equation 8.23, we get.
Pc = 37.3 N in wheat crop. and 59.6 Nin paddy crop respectively.
Inertia force (F1): The inertia is governed by the mass (Mk) of reciprocating cutter bar which is
given by
P 1 = Mk.r.ro 2 (1 - xl!) (8.24)
where, Mk = mass of knife section, kg
r = radius of crank, cm
ro = angular velocity, rad/s
x = length of stroke, cm
At initial and final points the inertia force will be maximum.

Therefore,
plmax = Me·.ro 2 (8.25)
For reapers weight of cutter bar per metre length is 20-22 N.
Weight (Mk) of 30 cm long cutter bar is 6 N.
At V=I m/sec and r = 3.81 cm of a 30 cm long cutter bar, using equ. 8.25, we get,
Pima~ = 16 N
Frictional force (PF): It acts on the knife as it slides over the finger bar and is given by
PF= Pfl+Pfl (8.26)
where, P11 = force due to weight of cutter bar, N
Pfl= force due to action of connecting rod, N
Also, P/1 = Mk x f (8.27)
f = 0.2 to 0.3 take as 0.25
p/1 = 6 N x 0.25 = 1.5 N
Pfl is the force caused by normal component of its force exerted by connecting rod on knife as
under:
Pfl ={(Pc + Plmax + P_/1) tan a/ {[-ftan~)} x/ (8.28)
(For, r = 3.81 cm and 1 = 10 cm, tan~ = 0.22)
Pfl = 4.31 N in wheat crop and
Pfl = 4.98 Nin paddy crop
Therefore, total frictional force (P} for' wheat crop is = Pf! +Pf2
=1.5 N + 4.31 N=5.81 N
Therefore, total force resisting the motion cutter bar in wheat crop is
p = p c + p /max + pf
P = 56.5 N + 16 N + 5.8 IN= 78.31 N
Similarly in paddy crop, P = 90.6 N
2. Power requirement for reaper: The power required to overcome the resistance to motion of
cutter bar (W) is given by
W=PxV (8.29)
where, W = power in watts
P = resistive force, N
V = knife speed, mis in present case 1.0 m/s
Putting values in eqn. 8.29, we get,,
W = 78.31 watts in wheat and 90.6 watts in paddy crop respectively.
; DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 249
According to FAO Report (1960) the average power produced by a man during continuous work is
74.6 watts. Since power requirement for cutting two rows of wheat crop is nearly eq ual to average
power produced by a man for continuous work, the development of 30 cm size cutter bar reaper for
cutting two rows of wheat is feasible. However, in paddy crop two persons would be required to
operate this machine.
3. Design of crop cutting unit of manually operated VCR: The cutting unit of the manual
operated reaper is selected on the basis of following points (See Fig. 8.9).
Hf Hf
4
1. Cutter bar
2. Knife section
4. Pininon shaft
5 5. Crank pin
Fig. 8.9: Crop cutting unit of VCR

(i) Length of cutter bar: The length of cutter bar is selected on the basis of row to row spacing of
crops. In general, row to row spacing in- .wheat paddy ranges between 15-20 ems. So, a cutter
bar length of 30 cm is selected for two rows of ,the crop.
(ii) Type of cutter bar: A reciprocating type cptter bar having standard knife section of 76.2 mm
stroke length and two cuts per stroke is sel~cted.
(iii) Selection of guards: Standard size twin guards with lip available in the market are used in
reciprocating knife type cutter bar for harvesting cereal crops.
(iv) Size and shape of knife section: It is selected based on following parameters:
(a) Gripping of stalk by cutting pair: For normal cutting action the stalk should be pinched
between the <:utting edge of knife section and guard lip (Fig.8.10). This condition is satisfied
when
(8.30)
La. = angle between cutting edge and axis ofknife section

L~ = angle between cutting edge and axis of finger guard lip
L~ 1 +Lq>2 = angles of friction between the crop and cutting edge of knife section and twin
guard lip.
a,should range from 25~35° for moisture content 14-22% in wheat crop. Therefore, for-operating
speed of 0.8 mis of machine, the knife section having an angle a. of 31 ° or below is selected.
250 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PR9BLEMS
I - --► GUARD LIP
.
--L--- ► STALK
'
85
I
KNIFE SECTION
30
+ +
7 .2 All dimension are in mm

Fig.8.10: Gripping of stalk by cutting pair
(b) Rake angle, sharpness and thickness of cutting edge: According to Klenin (1985) the
knives of rake angle of 22° are sharp for longer time but force requirement for cutting is
higher as compared to rake angle of 19°. But, with the existing tool grinders the rake angle
obtained varies from 22-25°. So, rake angle of 22° with sharp cutting edges is selected for
the knife section. Thickness of knife section should not exceed 120-130 mm for most of the
cereals.
(c) Pitch of serrated knives: In order to avoid slipping off the stalks, the knife section should
be serrated. The pitch of serrated knives is selected two or three times smaller than the
diameter of paddy and wheat stalk i.e. the pitch should be l-1.2 mm.
(d) Clearance between knife section and twin guard: Best results are obtained when clear-
ance between knives and ledger plates is maintained at 0.3 mm. So, a clearance of 0.5-1.0
mm is selected.
(e) Velocity of knife section: The cutting of stalk is greatly affected by knife speed. The
velocity of knife section is expressed as:
vk =RX vm (8.31)
where, Vk = Average knife velocity, mis
Vm = Forward speed of machine, mis
R = Velocity ratio
For best results, according to Klenin ( 1985) for ex. of 31 ° the knife velocity should be 1.5 mis. The
value of R falls between 1.3 to 1.4 with available cutter knives (Bansal, 1989).
Taking 'R' as l.3 and Vm of 0.8 mis and 'putting values in above equation, we get
. .
Vk = 1.04 mis or say 1.0 mis.

For a standard 76.2 mm knife section, the velocity translates into 800 strokes/min or 400 rpm of
knife section.
• ,;,DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 251
(/) Forward speed of machine (Vm): The minimum permissible speed for 31 ° should be
0.8 mis. The normal walking speed of human labour is about 0.7-0.8 mis. Therefore, for-
ward speed of machine is selected as 0.8 mis
On the basis of above discussed design parameters, the dimensions. of different components of
crop cutting unit selected are furnished in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Specifications of crop cutting unit of manually operated VCR
S. No. Particulars Specificatio11s
1. Type of cutter bar Reciprocating knife sections

2. Length of cutter bar 304.8mm
3. Knife section Standard
3.1. Type Trapezoidal
3.2. Blade Serrated
3.3. Length x Height 76.2 mm, 85 mm
3.4. Angle between cutting edge and axis of knife section (CL) 31°
3.5. Rake angle 22°
3.6. Thickness of cutting edge 25-30 µm
3.7. Pitch of serrations 1 to 1.2 mm
3.8. Clearance between knife and twin guard 0.5-1.0mm
3.9. Material High carbon steel
4. Knife back M.S flat 25 x 5 mm
5. Finger guards
5. 1. Type Twin guards with lip
5.2. Overall length 162mm
5.3. Overall width 33mm
5.4. Lip spacing 30mm
6. Main bar M.S angle, 40 x 40 x 5 mm size
7. Height of cutter bar above ground level I 00 mm for 31 °bevel angle
8. Cutter bar height adjusting wheel diameter 200mm
4. Design of main frame assembly: The main frame assembly of manual operated VCR
·. (Fig. 8.11) has been selected on the basis of crop parameters and load requirements as under:
Wheel base: The wheel base is selected c.onsidering the row to row spacing of paddy and wheat
· crops and number of rows harvested.
Row to row spacing of wheat 20 cm.
Row to row spacing of paddy 15-20 cm.
Wheel base for two row machine 10 +20 +IO= 40 cm.
Frame Rectangular frame 700 x 180 mm size made of
M.S angle 40 x 40 x 3 mm.
Support for main cutter bar M.S Angle 40 x 40 x 5 mm 360 mm long
Support for crop divider Conduit pipe 20 mm diameter 550 mm long.
l
0
I
(0
/I
I()
N
_l. All dimensions in cm.
Fig. 8.11: Top view of VCR

.DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 253
Vertical supports to main frame and cutter Two numbers M.S angles 40 x 40 x 3 mm.
bar 300 mm long.
Support for counter shaft M.S angles 40 x 40 x 3 mm
Brackets Two brackets to support the countershaft wi th
suitable size bearings.
Support for cutter bar driving shaft M.S angle 40 x 40 x 3 mm on left side of main
frame.
Ground wheels 400 x 40 mm size locally available auto wheels or
M.S wheels.
Brackets Two brackets to support the wheels with suitable
size shaft and bearing.
Front wheels The height of cut of I 00 mm above the ground level
is to be maintained. Therefore, 200 mm diameter
front wheels are fitted at a distance of300 mm from
the cutter bar, which will be sufficient to maintain
a cutter bar height of I 00 mm from ground level.
- -- - - - -- - -------- -- - ·· -- -- .- -- ------ -----.
S. Design of crop dividers and lifters : The crop divider guides the machine to insert the lifters
in the crop smoothly for proper cutting or harvesting of crop. The optimum inclination of s tar ~heels
should be 22° and for the machine to do job well, the horizontal component of velocity of star wheel
should be greater than or equal to forward speed of machine.
Velocity of star wheel (Vw) is given by
vw > v
111
; cos a. ... (8.32)
where, Average star wheel velocity, mis

V 111 Machine forward velocity, mis
a. = Angle of inclination of star wheel (20-22°)
Thus, for 22° angle of inclination the above equation becomes
v;v> 1.08 v 111
... (8.33 )
But. for proposed machine speed v, = 0.8 mis

11
Vw > 0.864 mis

According to Ba illing ( 1985) to inse1t the lifter smoothly, smaller the angle of cover of lifter a. or I~
(Fig. 8.12) the better it is. But, it is advisable to have p > a as the star wheel is involved with the side
. of angle p. For better performance of lifters the angles.
a. = 12° and p = 16° with deflection of 50 mm should be selected.
A standard star wheel (Fig. 8. I 2) is selected for lifting and conveying the crop to the cutter bar of
machine. The specifications of star wheel are:
•I:
3
SIDE VIEW
50
TOP VIEW
10R
9 cp
1~a!I J
I
'"',.____
15_2_4>
_ _ _.....,.,~ All dimensions in mm
Fig. 8. 12: Details of star wheel assembly

Particulars Specijicatio11s
Outside diameter (D,) 200mm

Inside dia~eter (D;) 152mm
Internal diameter of star wheel bearing {d) 15mm
Material of star wheel Plastic
6. Design of power transmission unit: The ground wheel act as the driving force to operate the
cutting and conveying mechanism of the machine. The complete design is reported in chapter 3.
7. Design of crop conveyor: T he crop cut by the cutting unit is conveyed to one side by the
lugged belt conveyor at an angle of 90° for easy collection and bundling. For this purpose the
conveyor of the machine must convey the bunch of cut crop on a vertical platform continuously
without blockage. The details of conveyor design are given in Fig. 8. 13 .
! I I I I I I
(+)-- ·-. - --- - -- .- ·- ·-· - .- .{j)·-
I I I J_ I I i
Ve ,
Vm = Forward speed of machine
i I .I I I I !
·{0-·------ --- ·-·-·-· -· --f1) ..
I I I
W= Vc-t
l I
Fig. 8.13: Lugged belt conveyor
(1) Speed of lugged belt and diameter of pulley: For lugged belt conveyor the belt speed (VII is
given by
Vb= DpN/60 (8.34)
where, DP = diameter oflugged belt pulley, m
Vb == peripheral speed of flat belt, mis (1.33 to 1.5 m/s)
,I
Assume, DP= 10 cm and Vb= 1.4 mis

Putting values in the eqn. 8.34 we get,
NP = 267.3 rpm
so, NP = 400 rpm
[Since, same shaft is used for conveyor which is used for driving the crank shaft having rpm of
300 to 400] · ·
Re-calculating, we get Vb = l .5 mis
DP = Vb x 60lrc NP= 7.2 cm say 7.5 cm
So, diameter of7.5 to 10 cm may be used for driving conveyor belt of the reaper.
(ii) Length of lugged belt: It is calculated based on length of cutter bar and length of vertical
platform required for supporting the crop.
Length of cutter bar = 30.48 cm
Length of vertical platform = 30 cm
Now, center to center distance between driving and driven pulleys = l 012+30+ l 012 = 40 cm.
The length of flat belt required for belt conveyor (calculated under design of power transmission
system in Chapter 3) = l 02 cm
(iii) Pitch of lugs : According to Devnani (1985), the pitch of lugs on flat belt of conveyor is given
by
rcDs= p.Ns
where, -Ds = diameter of star wheel, 280 mm
Ns = number of arm of star wheel, 7
P = pitch of lugs on the belt, mm
Therefore, p = re x 280/7 = 125.66 mm
Now, number of lugs on conveyor belt= Lip= 1020/125.66 = 8.12 = 9 say
Adjusted length of belt = p x number of lugs = 125.66 x 9 = 1130.94 mm
or, = l 13.09 cm
(iv) Lug height and clearance: The lug height should be such that the branches of cut crop can be
conveyed continuously without any blockage. This is only possible when conveyor output per unit
time is greater than equal to cutter output.
Therefore, output of conveyor ~ cutter bar output
or h. w .p2 ~ p 1. w 2. Vm/Vc
j or h ~ (p 1.w2.Vm)l(w.p2.Vc)
;
!i . ;' Take p/p 1 = q = A 1IA 2
Then, h ~ (w21q) x (V,11 /Ve) (8.35)
w = cutting width of machine, cm
Vm = travelling speed of VCR, mis
Ve = speed of belt conveyor, mis

p 1 = density of.plant in field
p 2 = density of cut crop on vertical platform
q = gathered crop parameter
A 1 = I m2 area in the field
A 2 = area of circle of bunched cut crop from I m2 in the field. Its tightness being similar to
cut crop on vertical platform. Figure 7. I4. shows the relationship between conveyor
belt and machine forward speeds.
A 2 = cross-sectional area of plants from I m2 area
= (m 2/plant) x (number of plants/m 2 )
For wheat crop: A2 = 1.5 x I o-5 x 500 =0.0075 m2=o.oI m2
For all cases we can take A2= 0.015 m 2
Putting the values of A I and A2, we get, q = 110.0 I 5 = 66. 77
Putting values of q in the eqn. 8.35 we get,
h ~30.48/66.7 = 2.62 cm
The. fingers of star wheel should strike at the centre of lug.
Therefore, a clearance of 12-15 mm between flat belt and tip of star wheel should be maintained.
Height of lug= 2.62 + 1.4 = 4.02 cm. Hence each lug on both upper and lower conveyor belts may
be kept as 40 mm high.
8. Design of crop supporting unit •: The cut crop is to be conveyed in vertical position on
platform of the reaper. The forces acting on cut crop bunch while on vertical platform can be
analyzed as in Fig.8.14. (Bailing, 1985).
- Ve
F3
I I
F1
d H d
D
\ F2Tc \
/ t /
vm Sideview
Fig. 8.14: Crop supporting unit of VCR
While the cut crop is conveyed in standing position, the sum of torques acting on bunch should be
zero.
or I.M = F2c + F 3D - F 1a=0
where. F 2 = force acting by lugs of lower conveyor belt, N or kg
F3 = force acting by lugs of upper conveyor belt, N or kg
Fl =F+Ff
where, F = complicating force between cut crop bunches, N or kg
F = friction force between crop and perpendicular platform, N or kg
1
Also, Fr = f (F4+ F5 + F6)
where f = Coefficient of friction
F4 :a Reacting inertia force from uncut crop, N or kg
F5 = Squeezing force from the uncut crop on cut crop, N or kg
F6 = Squeezing force from the compression spring and star wheel on the crop bunch. N or kg
As long as the torque is balanced the distance d between the two conveyor belts can be kept from
I30-230 mm (Bailing, 1985). However, for convenience purpose it can be taken as 200 mm.
Total height of vertical platform (H)·= Average plant height clearance between cutter bar and ground
surface and lift of crop by star wheel after cut
= 700 - 100 + 50 mm = 650 mm
So, height of vertical platform (H) may be selected between 600-650 mm.
9. Design of handle: To operate, guide and balance the forces during operation of reaper two side
arms made up of black pipe of 25 mm diameter and length 1250 mm is provided at a distance of 150
mm from centre of axle of the wheel. The angle of handle is adjustable between 30-45° in order to
adjust the height of operator and increase push or pull on the drive wheel of the machine.
Design a self-propelled vertical conveyor reaper operated by 5 hp diesel engine for harvesting Q(
paddy and wheat crops. The components of a self-propelled VCR is given in Fig. 8.15. ]11e plan of the
same is given in Fig. 8. I 6.
Solution:
l. Design of crop cutting unit of self-propelled VCR : The cutting unit of the self-propelled
vertical conveyor reaper is selected on the basis of following points:
(1) Length of cutter bar: The length of cutter bar (Lc) is selected on the basis of the condition
that Lc = 1-3 mas less than I rri size cutter bar creates hindrance in collection and bundling of crop. So,
a cutter bar length Le = 1.0 m is selected.
(it) Type of cutter bar: A reciprocating type cutter bar (Fig. 8.17) having standard knife section
of 76.2 mm stroke length and two cuts per stroke is selected. Number of knife sections required for
the cutter bar of VCR would be:
(ii,) Number of knife sections = L/ size of knife section
/ Handle s4pporl
/ , Main frame
i~~. / /_,/
. ·"' / _ ,n / Vertical platform
Lugged belt
Engine
_.-Crop divider
Star wheel
Traction wheel
Fig. 8.15: Selt~propelled vertical conveyor reaper (VCR)

Scl~ction of guards: Standard size twin guards with lip available in the market are used in
Size and shape of knife section: It is selected based on following parameters:
(i) Gripping of stalk by cutting pair: For normal cutting action the stalk should he pinched be-
tween the cutting edge of knife section and guard lip (Fig.8.18).
This condition is satisfied when
La ·I L~ = L<j> 1 +L<j> 2
where /.a = angle between cutting edge and axis of knife section.
L~ = angle between cutting edge and axis of finger guard lip.
L<j> 1 +L<J>i = angles of friction between the crop and cutting edge of knife section and twin
guard lip.
'a.' should range from 25-35° for moisture content 14-22% in wheat crop. Therefore,
for operating speed of I mis of machine, the knife section having an angle a. of 31 c
or below is selected.
(ii) Rake angle. sharpness and thickness of cutting edge: According to Klenin (I 985) the knives
of rake angle of 22° are sharp for longer time but force requirement for cutting is higher as
compared to rake angle of 19". But, with the existing tool grinders the rake angle obtained varies
from 22-25°. So, rake angle of 22° with sharp cutting edges is selected for the knife section.
Thickness ofkn·ife section should not exceed 120-130 mm for most of the cereals.
(iiz) Pitch of serrated knives: In order to avoid slipping off the stalks, the knife section should be
serrated. The pitch of serrated knives is selected two or three times smaller than the diameter of
paddy and wheat stalk i.e. the pitch should be 1-1.2 mm.
( 1) Handle ' (2) Engine (3) Lugged wheel

(4) Conveyor belt (5) Crop row divider (6) Star wheel
Fig. 8.16: Plan ofself-propt:lled vt:rtical convt:yor reaper (VCR)
1. Cutter bar
2. Knife section
4. Pininon shaft
5 5.. Crank pin
I - --► Guard lip
--L-- ►
85
. Stalk
I
KNIFE SECTION
+ +
30
76.2 All dimension are mm
Fig. 8.18: Gripping of stalk by cutting pair

{iv) Clearance between knife section and twin guard: Best results are obtained when clearance
between knives and ledger plates is maintained at 0.3 mm. So, a clearance of 0.5-1.0 mm is
selected.
(v) Velocity of knife section: The cutting of stalk is greatly affected by knife speed. The velocity of
knife section is expressed as:
vk = R x vm (8.36)
where, Vk = average knife velocity, mis
. Vm = forward speed of machine, mis
R = velocity ratio
For best results, according to Klenin (I 985) for ex. of 31 ° the knife velocity should be 1.5 mis. The
value of R falls between 1.3 to 1.4 with available cutter knives (Bansal, 1989).--
Taking 'R' as 1.4 and Vm of 4.2 km/hr (1.17 mis) and putting values in eqn. 8.36, we get
Vk = 1.4 x l.l 7 m/s = 1.63 mis
Also,
We know that Vk. =X. N,130
where, X = stroke length and
Nk = RPM of knife section
Therefore, Nk = vk x 301 x
= 1.63 mis x 100 cm/m x 30 I 7 .62 cm. = 643 rpm or say 640 rpm.
For a standard 76.2 mm knife section, the above velocity translates into 1280 strokes/min or 640
rpm of knife section.
Now, engine rpm= 3200.
Assume a speed reduction of 1 : 2 from engine to intermediate shaft and 1 : 3 from intermediate
shaft to cutter bar shaft.
Therefore,
Knife rpm (Nk) is given by
Nk = 3200 x ½ x 1/3 = 640 rpm
Assume l 0% slippage in belt drives
Therefore, Nk = 640 x 901100 = 576 rpm
The actual average knife speed of cutter bar of self-propelled reaper would be
Vk = 576 X 7.621 (30 X 100)
= 1.46 mis
For this knife speed rake angle of 19°-22° is selected.
(vi) Forward speed of machine (Vm): The minimum pennissible speed for 31 ° should be 0.8 mis.
Normally, working speed of self-propelled vertical conveyor reaper ranges between 4-5 km/hr.
Therefore, average forward speed of machine can be taken as 4.2 km/hr which is equal to 1.17
mis.
Check for self-propelled VCR forward speed: The power tiller is powered by a 5 hp, 3200 rpm
diesel engine. It is fitted with iron wheels with outside diameter of55 cm. The engine is fitted with 6 cm
diameter pulley and there is speed reduction at two stages and over all transmission speed ratio of 64: 1.
Therefore, theoretical forward speed of power tiller is
V,n = 1t Dw x 3200 / (60 x 100 x 6) = 7t x 55 x 32001 (60 x I 00 x68) = 1.58 mis.
Assuming 15-25% wheel slippage during motion of reaper.
Therefore, actual speed of VCR Vm = 1.58 mis x 75/ 100 = I. 18 mis which is about
4.25 km/hr almost equal to assumptions made for calculation of knife speed of the reaper.
On the basis of above discussed design parameters, the dimensions of different components of crop
cutting unit selected are furnished in Table 8.2.
i DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 263
Table 8.2: Specifications of crop cutting unit of self-propelled VCR

No. Particulars Specijicatio11s
I. Type of cutter bar Reciprocating knife section~
2. Length of cutter bar I 000 111m
3.1 Type Trapezoidal
3 .2. Blade Serrated
3.3. Length " Height 76.2 mm, 85 mm
3.4. Angle between cutting edge & axis of knife section (o:) 31°
3.5. Rake angle 22°
3.6. Thickness of cutting edge 25-30 µm
3.7. Pitch of serrations I to 1.2 mm
3.8. Clearance between knife and twin guard 0.5-1.00mm
3.9. Material High carbon steel
5. Finger guards
5.1. Type Twin guards with lip
5.2. Overall length 162mm
5.3. Overall width 33mm
5.4. Lip spacing 30mm
6. Main bar M.S angle, 40 x 40 ~ 5 mm size
7. Height of cutter bar above ground level 80-100 mm for 3 I O bevel angle
2. Design of crop dividers .and lifters: The crop divider guides the machine to insert the lifters in
the crop smoothly for proper cutting or harvesting of crop (Figs. 8.19 and 8.20).
3
SIDE VIEW
50
TOP VIEW
Fig. 8.19: Crop Ii fter

10 R
i~a:1 I
I
""',..__ _1_5_2...:~---.ii,, All dimensions in mm
Fig. 8.20: Details of star wheel
For lifting and conveying crop to cutter bar, the size of crop lifter= 30 cm.
Therefore, number of crop star wheel type crop lifters
= Size of cutter bar/ size of one crop lifter = I 00 cm/30 cm =3
Therefore, three number star wheel type crop divider/lifters will be used in the machine.
The optimum inclination of star· wheels should be 20° and for the machine to do job well, the
horizontal component of velocity of star wheel should be greater than or equal to forward speed of
machine.
.
Velocity of star wheel (V,) is given by
v;v > Vm/cos a (8.37)
where, Vw = average star wheel velocity, mis
Vm = machine forward velocity, m/s
a = angle of inclination of star wheel (20-22°)
Thus, for 20° angle of inclination the eqn. 8.37 becomes
vw > 1.08 v 111
'
tJ.?<.DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES · 265
But, for proposed machine speed Vm = 1.17 m/s

Vw > 1.264 mis
According to Bailling ( 1985) to insert the lifter smoothly, smaller the angle of cover oflifter a. 1 or ~2
(Fig.. 8.19.) the better it is. But, it is advisable to have p2 > a. 1 as the star wheel is involved with the side
of angl~ ·p2 • For better performance of lifters the angles · a. 1 = 12° and p2 = 16° with deflection of 50
mm shbuld be selected.
A standard star wheel (Fig.8.20) is selected for lifting and conveying the crop to the cutter bar of
Particulars Specijicatio11s
Outside diameter (D0 ) 200mm
Inside diameter (D;) 152mm
Internal diameter of star wheel bearing (d) 15mm
3. Design of power transmission unit: The 5 hp diesel engine act as the driving force to operate
the cutting and conveying mechanism of the machine as well as to move the machine forward at desired
speed (4.2 km/hr in the present case). The complete design of power transmission mechanism i.e. from
engine to ground traction wheels and cutting and conveying mechanism of the machine is discussed in
chapter 3.
I I I I I
· I I I I l ·
{!f•- ·- ·-·-·-·-·-·-·f~)-
1 I I I I
W=Vc.l
I·
Vm::Forward speed of machine

4. Design of crop conveyor: The crop cut by the cutting unit of self-propelled machine is conveyed
to one side by the lugged belt conveyor at an angle of 90° for easy collection and bundling. For this
purpose the conveyor of the machine must convey the bunch of cut crop on a vertical platform
continuously without blockage. Therefore, rate of cut crop conveyed by the conveyor should be
greater than the crop cut by the cutting unit of reaper.The details of conveyor design (Fig. 8.21) are as
follows:
(1) Speed of lugged belt and diameter of pulley: For lugged belt conveyor the belt speed is given by
Vb= nDP N/60 (8.38)
where, DP= diameter of lugged belt pulley, m

Vb= µeripheral speed of flat belt, m/s (1.33 mis to 1.5 m/s)
Assume, DP = 12.5 cm or 0.125 m and Vb= 1.5 m/s
1j
I Putting values in eqn. 8.38 we get,
I l NP= 229.1 rpm say 230 rpm
Ii Since, the drive from the shaft which is used for driving the crank shaft having 580 rpm is used to
I! drive the conveyor belts through sprocket chain, the speed of pulley shaft would be NP= 230 rpm
So, the speed ratio would be = 580/230 = 2.52: 1.
I Assume number of teeth of sprocket on driving shaft: 16.
So, number of teeth of sprocket on conveyor shaft= 16 x 2.52 = 40 teeth.
So, VP= l.5 m/s,NP= 230 rpm & DP= 12.5 cm.
So, diameter of 12. 5 cm may be used for driving conveyor belt of the reaper.
(ii) Length of lugged belt: It is calculated based on length of cutter bar and length of vertical
Length of cutter bar = 100.00 cm
Length of vertical platform = 100 cm
Now, center-to-center distance (C) between driving and driven pulleys is given by
C = 12.5/2 + 100 + 12.5/2 = 112.5 cm
The length of belt is given by
L = 2C + 1t (D + d)/2 + (D-d)2/4C
L = 2 x 112.5 + 1t (12.5 + 12.5)/2 + 0
L = 225 +12.5 + 0 = 237.5 cm.
The length of flat belt required for lugged belt conveyor would be 237.5 cm.
(iii) Pitch of lugs: According to Devnani ( 1985), the pitch of lugs on flat, belt of conveyor is given
by
7t Ds = p. Ns
where, . Ds = diameter of star wheel, 210 mm

P = pitch of lugs on the belt, mm
Therefore, p = 1t x 210/7 = 94.29 mm say l 00 mm
Now, number of lugs on conveyor belt= Lip= 237.5/10.0 = 23.75 say 24
Adjusted length of belt = p x number of lugs= I 00 x 24 = 2400.0 mm
or, 240.00 cm
(iv) Lug height and.clearance: The lug height should be such that the branches of cut crop can
be conveyed continuously without any blockage. This is only possible when conveyor output per unit
?~ DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 267
Therefore, output of conveyor ~ cutter bar output

or, h. w .p2 ~ p 1• »? V,,/ Ve
or h ~ (p 1.w2 . ~n)/(w.p2.Ve)
Take pifp 1 = q = A /A 2
Then, h ~ (wlq) x (V11/Ve) (8.39)
w = cutting width of machine, cm
V 111 = travelling speed of VCR, mis
p 1 = density of plant in field
A 1 = 1 m2 area in the field
A 2 = area of circle of bunched cut crop from I m2 in the field. Its tightness being similar to
cut crop on vertical platform.
A 2 = cross-sectional area of plants from 1 m2 area= (m2lplant) x (Number of plants/m2)
For wheat crop: A 2 = l.5 x 1o-5 x 500 = 0.0075 m2 = 0.01 m 2
For all cases we can take A2= 0.015 m2
Putting the values of A 1 and A 2, we get q = 1/0.015 = 66.77
Putting values of q in eqn. 8.39, we get
h ~ (I 00/66. 7) x 1.0/ 1.5 = 2.62 cm
The fingers of star wheel should strike at the centre of lug.
Therefore, a clearance of 12-15 mm between flat belt and tip of star wheel should be maintained.
Height of lug= 2.62+ 1.4 = 4.02 cm. Hence each lug on both upper and lower conveyor belts may
be kept as 40 mm high.
5. Power requirement of vertical conveyor reaper: ,Total power required for operation of self-
propelled harvesting machine (W,) is given by the equation
Wm = Wr + Wn + W,1,
where, W,. = power for rolling machine, w
W,, = power for no-load working of parts of machine, w
~v = power required for full load working of machine, w
Power for rolling of machine (Wr) is given by
W,. = P. v/T]tr·Tls
where, P = resistance to rolling of machine, N
Tlir = transmission efficiency, percentage
TJs = coefficient of skidding of machine
According to Devnani (1985), the power required for cutting crop at a knife speed of 1.52 mis of
cutter bar can be taken as 0.513 hp/m length of cutter bar and power required for conveying cut crop
as 50% of the cutting' power.
Therefore, power required for full load working of machine (Ww) = We+ Wcon
Ww = 0.513 hp+ 50% of0.513 hp
= 0.513 kW+ 0.2565 hp= 0.7695 hp
Power for rolling of machine (W,.) is estimated as: W,.= P. v/75.
Let the coefficient of rolling resistance be 0.2 and weight of machine as 220 kg operating at a
forward speed of 1.18 mis.
Therefore, W,. = 220 kg x 0.2 x 1.18 /75 = 0.692 hp
Total power= w; 1
, + W,. = 0.7695 hp+ 0.692 hp = 1.4615 hp
Assuming 90% power transmission efficiency at each stage and there would be three reduction
from engine to cutting and conveying unit and two reductions from engine to drive wheels of power
tiller. Let us assume, the average efficiency as 70%.
Therefore, power requirement of self-propelled VCR= 1.46 I 5/0.70 = 2.086 hp.
Therefore, 5 hp diesel engine will be adequate to operate the machine in the actual field conditions
for harvesting of crop.
Design a tractor mounted vertical conveyor reaper operated by 25 hp tractorjor harvesting ofpaddy
and wheat crops. A view oftraclorfront mounted vertical conveyor reaper is given in Fig. 8.22. Top
view and side view of the same alongwith the componenls is given in Figs. 8.23 and 8.24 respectively.
Mounting f r a m e ~
Balancing spring,
Power transfer .
shaft
Crop travel
nat belt
Crop shield
Star rotor/
Cutter bar Cutter bar Outer guard
guard assembly
Fig. 8.22: Tractor front mounted vertical conveyor reaper

Fig. 8.23: Top view of tractor front mounted vertical conveyor reaper
I . Tractor 2. Mounting frame 3. Depth adjusting wheel

4. Lugs 5. Pressure spring 6.Star wheel
7. PTO pulley 8. Drive shaft 9. Wire rope
Fig. 8.24: Side view of tractor front mounted vertical conveyor reaper
1. Design of crop cutting unit of tractor drawn VCR: The cutting unit of the tractor operated
vertical conveyor reaper (Fig. 8.25) is selected on the basis of following points:
· Length of cutter bar: The length of cutter bar (Le) is selected on the basis of the condition that
c = I to 3 m as less than 1 m size cutter bar creates hindrance in collection and bundling of crop and
6 \1tilize full power of tractor the size of machine would be very large, but, because of crop yield
evels, machine design factors and maneuverability of machine, the length of cutter bar is limited to
· bout 3.0 m. So, a cutter bars length Le= 2.0 m is selected which will be suitable for harvesting of
1ine rows of wheat crop at a spacing of 20~23 cm.
JU
4
1. Cutter bar
2. Knife section
4. Pininon shaft
5 5. Crank pin
Type of cutter bar: A reciprocating type cutter bar having standard knife section of 76.2 mm
stroke length and two cuts per stroke is selected. Number of knife sections required for the cutter bar
of VCR would be:
Number of knife sections= L/ size of knife section= 200 cm / 7.62 cm"' 26.
Selection of guards: Standard size twin guards with lip available in the market are used in
Size and shape of knife section: It is selected based on following parameters:
(i) Gripping of stalk by cutting pair: May be selected as per given for manually operated or self-
propelled machines.
(ii) Rake angle, sharpness and thickness of cutting edge: According to Klenin ( i 985) the
knives of rake angle of 22° are sharp for longer time but force requirement for cutting is higher
as compared to rak~ angle of I 9°. But, with the existing tool grinders the rake angle obtained
varies from 22-25°. So, rake angle of 22° with sharp cutting edges is selected for the knife
section. Thickness of knife section should not exceed 120-130 µin for most of the cereals.
(iii) Pitch of serrated knives: In order to avoid slipping off the stalks, the knife section should be
serrated. The pitch of serrated knives is selected two or three times smaller than the diameter of
paddy and wheat stalk i.e. the pitch should be 1-1.2 mm.
(iv) Clearance between knife section and twin guard: Best results are obtained when clearance
between knives and ledger plates is maintained at 0.3 mm. So, a clearance of 0.5-1.0 mm is
selected.
(v) Velocity of knife section: The cutting of stalk is greatly affected by knife speed. The velocity
of knife section is expressed as:
Vk = RxVIll (BAO)
where, Vk = average _knife velocity, m/s
V111 = forward speed of machine, mis
R = velocity ratio
For best results, according to Klenin ( 1985) for o. of 31 ° the knife velocity should be 1.5 mis. The
value of R ranges from I .3 to 1.4 with available cutter knives (Bansal, 1989).
Taking 'R' as 1.4 and Vm•of 5.0 km/hr (1.39 mis) and putting values in eqn. 8.40, we get
Vk = I .4 x 1.39 mis = l.95 mis
Also,
we know that Vk =X. Nk / 30
where, X = stroke length and
Nk = RPM of knife section
Therefore,
Nk = vk x 30I x
= (1.95 m/s x 100 cm/m x 30)/ 7.62 cm.
J.
= 765.S rpm or say 770 rpm.
J
/ Rora standard 76.2 mm knife section, the above velocity translates into 1440 strokes/min or 770
rpm of knife section. ·
Now, we know that tractor PTO rpm = 540 or I 000 rpm.
For PTO rpm of 540, in order to obtain desired number of strokes per minute to the cutter bar
of the reaper, there is speed ratio of 1: l.S .
Therefore, knife rpm (Nk) is given by
Nk = 540 x l.5/l ·= 8 IO rpm
Assume 10% slippage in belt drives
Therefore,
Nk = 810 x 90/100 = 729 rpm say 730 rpm
The actual average knife speed of cutter bar of tractor drawn reaper would be :
vk = 130 x 1.621 (30 x 100)
= l.854 m/s.
For this knife speed rake angle of 19°-22° is selected.
(v1) Forward speed of machine ( V,11): The minimum permissible speed for 31 ° should be 0.8 m/s.
Normally, working speed of tractor drawn vertical conveyor reaper ranges between 4-6 km/hr.
Therefore, average forward speed of machine can be taken as 5.0 km/hr which is equal to 1.39
m/s.
On the basis of above discussed design parameters, the dimensions of different components of
crop cutting unit selected are furnished in Table.8.3.
272 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEM!=;
Table. 8.3: Specifications of crop cutting unit of tractor mounted VCR

S.No. Particulars Specijicalio11s
I. Type of cutter bar Reciprocating knife sections
2. ~ength of cutter bar 2000 mm
3. 1 Type Trapezoidal
3.2 Blade Serrated
3.3 Length x Height 76.2 mm. 85 mm
3.4 Angle between cutting edge and axis of knife section (a) 31 °
3.5 Rake angle 22°
3.6 Thickness of cutting edge 25-30 µm
3. 7 Pitch of serrations I to 1.2 mm
3.8 Clearance between knife and twin guard 0.5-1.00 mm
3.9 Material High carbon steel
5. Finger guards
5.1 Type Twin guards with lip
5.2 Overall length 162mm
5.3 Overall width 33mm
5.4Lip spacing 30mm
6. Main bar M.S angle, 40 x 40 x 5 mm size
7. Height of cutter bar above ground level 80-100 mm for 3 I O bevel angle.
2. .Design of crop dividers and lifters: The crop divider guides the machine to insert the lifters in
the crop smoothly for proper cutting or harvesting of crop (Figs. 8.26 and 8.27).
3
SIDE VIEW
50
TOP VIEW
Fig. 8.26: Crop lifter

10R
Fig. 8.27: Details of star wheel

For lifting and conveying crop to cutter bar, the size of crop lifter= 21 cm
Therefore, number of crop star wheel type crop lifters
= Size of cutter bar/size of one crop lifter
= 200 cm/2 l cm = 9.
Therefore, nine number star wheel type crop divider/lifters will be used in the machine.
The optimum inclination of star wheels should be 20° and for the machine to do job well. the
horizontal component of velocity of star wheel should be greater than or equal to forward speed of
machine (Fig: 8.27). Velocity of star wheel (Vw) is given by
Vw > V,,/cosfJ.
where, V,v = average star wheel velocity, mis
V111 = machine forward velocity, mis
fJ. = angle of inclination of star wheel (20-22°)
Thus, for 20° angle of inclination the above equation becomes
vw > 1.08 vm
But, for proposed machine speed V,11 = 1.39 mis
Vw > 1.5 mis.
According to Bailling (I 985) to insert the lifter smoothly, smaller the angle of coverof lifter a 1 or P2
(Fig. 8.27) the better it is. But, it is advisable to have p2 > 0'.. 1 as the star wheel is i11volved with the side
of angle p2. For better performance of lifters the angles cx 1 = 12° and p2 =16° with deflection of
50 mm should be selected.
A standard star wheel (Fig. 8.27) is selected for lifting and conveying the crop to the cutter bar of
Particulars Specifications
Outside diameter (D) 200mm
Inside diameter (D;) 152mm
Internal diameter of star 1vheel bearing (d) 15mm
I I I I I
~\-· 1·-·1 ·-1-·-1·-{?-
I
I I I I I ·
I·
Vm=Forward speed of machine
3. Design of power transmission unit: The 25 hp tractor with 540 PTO rpm act as the prime
mover to operate the cutting and conveying mechanism of the machine as well as to push the machine
forward at desired speed (5.0 km/hr in the present case). The complete design of power transmission
mechanism i.e. from tractor engine to ground traction wheels and from PTO shaft to cutting and
conveying mechanism of the machine is discussed in chapter 3.
4. Design of crop conveyor: The crop cut by the cutting unit of tractor front mounted machine is
conveyed to one side by the lugged belt conveyor at an angle of 90° for easy collection c1;nd bundling.
For this purpose the conveyor of the machine must convey the bunch of cut crop on a ve,tical platform
continuously without blockage. Therefore, rate of cut crop conveyed by the conveyor should be greater
than the crop cut by the cutting unit of reaper. The details of conveyor design are presented in Fig. 8.28.
(I) Speed of lugged belt and diameter of pulley: For lugged belt conveyor the belt speed is given
by
Vb = n DP N/60 (8.41)
where, DP = diameter of lugged belt pulley, m
Vb= peripheral speed of flat belt, mis (1.33 mis to 1.5 mis)
Assume, DP= 12.5 cm or 0. I 25 m and V6 = 1.5 mis.

Putting values in eqn. 8.41 we get,
NP= 229.1 rpm say 230 rpm.
Since, the drive from the shaft which is used for driving the crank shaft of cutter bar having 730
rpm is used to drive the conveyor belts through sprocket chain mechanism, the speed of pulley shaft
would be NP=230 rpm .
So, the speed ratio between driving and driven shafts would be = 7301230 = 3 . 18: I
Assume number of teeth of sprocket on driving shaft as 15.
So, number of teeth of sprocket on conveyor belt shaft = I 5 x 3. I 8 = 48 teeth
So, VP = 1.5 mis,
NP= 230 rpm, and
DP= 12.5 cm
So, diameter of I2 .5 cm may be used for driving conveyor belt of the reaper.
(it) Length of lugged belt (L) : It is calculated based on length of cutter bar and length of vertical
Length of cutter bar = 200 cm
Length of vertical platfonn = 200 cm
Now,
Center-to-center distance (C) between driving and driven pulleys is given by
C = 12.512 + 200 + 12.512 =212.5 cm
Therefore. L = 2C + 1t (D + d)l2 + (D-d)214C
L = 2 x 212.5 + 1t (12.5 + 12.5)12 + 0
L = 425 + 12.5 + 0 = 437.5 cm.
The length of flat belt required for lugged belt conveyor would be 437.5 cm.
(iii) Pitch of lugs: According to Devnani ( 1985), the pitch of lugs on flat belt of conveyor is given
by
nDs=p.Ns
where, Ds = diameter of star wheel, 210 mm
P = pitch of lugs on the belt, mm.
Therefore, p = (1t x 210)/7 = 94.29 mm say 100 mm.
Now, number of lugs on conveyor belt= Lip= 437.5110.0 = 43.75 say 44.
Adjusted length of belt= p x Number of lugs= 100 x 44 = 4400.0 mm or 440.00 cm.
(iv) Lug height and clearance: The lug height should be such that the branches of cut crop can
be conveyed continuously without any blockage. This is only possible when conveyor output per unit
Therefore, output of conveyor ;?: cutter bar output
or, h .w.p2 ;?: p 1.w2. Vn/Vc
276 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: .PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
or, h?:. (P1·W2.v,,y(w.p2.Ve )

Take P/P1 = q = AifA2
Then, h ?:. (wlq) x (Vm /Ve) (8.42)
where, ·· h = height•of lug, •cm
· w . ~ cutti~g width of machin~, cm
· Vm = travelling speed of VCR, mis • • · •, • . ' I

p 1 = density ,o f plant in field
A 1 = 1 m2 area in the field . .. . .. .
A 2 = area of circle of bunched cut crop from 1 m 2 in tbe field. Its tightness being similar to
cut crop on vertical platform. .
2
A 2 = cross.:.sectional area of plants from I m area
(m 2/plant) x (Number of plants/m2) ..
5 2
For wheat crop: A 2 = l.5 x 10· x 500 = 0.0075 m =0.01 m · 2
For all cases we can take A2= 0.015 m2

Putting the values of A I and A2, we get q = 1/0.015 = 66. 77
Putting values of q in eq~. ·8~42 w~ get, ·. · · . . · ·..· . .
h ?:. (200/66.7) x 1.0/1.5 = 4.49 cm.
The fingers of star wheel should strike at the centre of l~g.
Therefore, a clearance of 10-11 ~m between flat belt and tip of star wheel should be maintained.
Height of lug= 4.49 + 1.1 = 5.5 cm. Hence, each lug on both upper and lower conveyor belts may
be kept as 55 mm high . .·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·
8.2 DESIGN OF COMBINE HARVESTER

Harvesting : The operation of detaching, picking, cutting the crop from the undesired portion of
the plant rooted to the ground 'is known as harvesting.
Combine harvester: A machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separatingi cleaning and
collecting grain while moving through standing crop. It may be used for handling crop that has been
swathed. Thus, the combine harvester perfonns four major operations: · ·
I. It cuts the crop.
2. Threshes or beats the kernels from the heads.
3. Separates the kernels from the straw. .. •·
' 4; Cleans and grades the grain before elevating it into storage tank: .· .··
. . : . .-·· · , .· .:·_:- . ..
A view of self-propelled combine harvester and tractor mounted co1nbine is given in Figs. 8.29
and 8.30 respectively. The components of combine harv~ster is given in Fig. 8.31 anclt he crop flow
diagram is given in Fig. 8.32.The power transmissio~ diagram of combine harvester is given in Fig. 8.33.
i:;:-: DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES. . ·. • 277
Main Assemblies of a Combine Harvester

Header: It comprises the mechanism for gathering, cutting, stripping or picking up the crop and
delivers it to threshing cylinder at prescribed rate;,Main components of header are:
l. Reel; 2. Cutter bar and knife section ;iiBhiiifJf ; J ;::J.abl;ahf~f ; 5. Feeder chain; 6. Stone
trap.
Fig. 8.30: Tractor mounted combirte frarvester

~~:- - iri+i":i::i:'::f:&riff· "nc:t i strt::N:i ·o,··· ·:m1: :m:srr::nn::C'.W:''crn::- .... ..i..
··-----------·· -···-·· -""•·™•tctr"'<~= ~--;....!..J.?,Xf™"'4 .
:'Jl'c'~ ~!
"->
17 -..i
5 26 23 24 6 22 18 19 20 21 27 - 0:,
\ \
I
'
1 I
I I
' /
.
/
/
' I
1,
1
i !j
\
I / j'
I· t
I
\i
•
W•;;;"
~
~:o~
- ,• ~
_!
--y-
'
'
J !i
I :
/,
. '
1
i
I
I
\ ,,;,v. "
,, -- I--./-,- ..,: :~~~
,,,,-..,. . t ••~ ~
I ,,-~
.. •'.~
" ,.X, .- + "

.' . I --
\
\
~
,.; :• :~... -v...-~ .·· '".'
f
. .·- ..
I ...,
rr
. • ~., •:I_~ . ;
.,, • . ,. . .• -...
!":~ · ----- ·
·-,,. • · ••
b
!~
•~,.Y~-8
, . _,;;,..
. . -~-
~A~'.
\ ·· t~~
,1\~-<:
•i
t✓
-~ ._..___..__,_, . !'
.:.-~, ' . • i
/•-:\otF~
e.~::~"{r"..
~
::0
:l:
I
\ : i
~
:I:
I
I \ \ z
m
~
1 2 3 4 14 30 29 7 8 12 9 16 10 25 11 13 15 28
0
rn
G)
I. Reel 2. Culterbar 3. Feeding Auger 4. Chain conveyor
~
5. First cylinder 6. Guide cylinder 7. Cylinder concave 8. Guide concave "C
9. Grain pan l 0. Oscillating rake 11. Adjustable screen 12. Fan ::0
13. Rear door of shaker shoe 14. Hydraulic lift 15. Rake 16. Grain elevator z
0
17. A,vner 18. Second cleaning system 19. Lever for awner 20. Second cleaning Sieves ,i
2I. Cleaned grain 22. Cleaned gruin auger 23. Gr~in !auk 24. Cleaned grain elevator ....m
25. Unthreshcd grain elevator 26. Relum auger 27. Straw walker 28. Curtain VJ
29. Gear box )>
z
0
"C
~
aJ
Fig. 8.31: Components of combine ....
m
:l:
VJ
0
I.
6.
Header
Cylinder (beater)
2.
7.
Auger
Clutch pedal
3.
8.
Reel
Steering wheel
4. Chain conveyor
9. Grain tank
5. Inclined platform
10. Bucket elevator
rn
G5
11. Engine 12. Bame 13. Straw walker 14. Rear wheel 15. Tailing auger z
16. Auger 17. Blower fan 18. Front wheel 0
'Tl
C')
.,,~
:::r:
)>
~
m
en
12 ::!
z
G)
13
:s:
,, ~
Ir ~ ---:.-.:;.
~ ,.. .,... ~ :. - .. -·
.. -- ;:;.-
f,
:::r:
-;~ ~~-rr~
-.~~~,,..,..,,.,.. ~
I • ,,,
• ' ';
z
m
en
I\ h
~I \1
Fig. 8.32: Crop flow diagram of combine harvester
I\)
--1
<D
~7it~.§:i}~~-:;_;~~~~~~:-:~::.~.~~~=~~--='.~~~~~~~-~ ~~}'.?~~~7;7~ii~%£;:~~~-~~~~~~f*7~~~~--;;;;~_,_·~-=-:·i·~'~w!!~~=~:~~;;,~.±:....:~--.,~•-•~a,.w,~-·.~=.c:--:~·~~~-~~~~-~'.-.~:.'":.:,,~ff-c-•---::·.- •-::.~~•="~----~~.:::!.~.~---···
N
I. Sieve drive pulley 4. Threshing Drum Variator Driven Pulley 7. Upper Tailing Auger Drive Pulley 00
0
2. Straw Walker Drive Pulley 5. Unloading Auger Drive 8. Blower Drive
3. Upper Grain Auger Drive Sprocket 6. Tailing Elevator Driven Pulley 9. Threshing Drum Drive Pulley
6
4 5 7
"Tl
)>
::0
3:
3:
li
:c
z
m
~
CJ
m
en
c5
z
"ti
::0
z
()
=o
r-
rn
~
0
Fig.8.33: Power transmission diagram of combine harvester "ti
~
IJJ
r
m
s:
en
8.2.1 . Design considerations: The following parameters are considered before designing a
combine harvester.
• Sickle speed = 400-550 cycles per minute
• Ground speed = 5.0-6.5 km/hr
• Reel axis ahead of cutter bar = 150-300 mm
• Reel speed index = 1.25-1.50
• Reel axis ahead of cutter bar (in lodged crop) = 230-300 mm
• Pick up reel tooth clearance from cutter bar = 50-75 mm.
8.2.2. Design of header (working width of combine): Compare the header length (l1,) with length
of drum (ld) and the surface of concave (cs). The optimum relation between these values would be
l h : l d : cs .S I : 0.36 : 1.2 (8.43)
As the size of sifting surface of walker restrict the output of harvester, the present trend is to have
increased surface area. The proportion between header length (111), length of drum (ld) and the surface
of concave (cs) for different sizes of combine are as follows:
I. For small combines (/ h .S 2.1 m)
l h : l d: c s .S 1 : 0.37 : 0.8 (8.44)
2. For medium combines (2.1 m < l1, < 3m)
l II : l d: cs= l : 0.36 : l (8.45)
3. For large combines (/ 11 2:__3 m)
I 1, : Id : cs= l : 0.36 : ( 1.25-1.5) (8.46)
These proportions are tentative. But they can be useful for designers.
Now capacity of combine for harvesting cereals is .
Q=I0- v,, I; l1, qg[1+½]
2
(8.4 7)
where, Q = capacity of combine, kg/sec
v 11 = harvesters working speed, m/sec
I; = factor of use of cutting width = 0.9 - 0.95
111 = header length, m
o' = straw factor= qg I qs. [The straw factor (o') is the reciprocal of straw grain ratio (&).
The straw grain ratio of wheat and paddy is given in Table 8.4J
where, qg = quantity of grain, q/ha.
qs = quantity of straw, qlha
Table 8.4: Straw grain ratio, moisture content, maximum rack and shoe loss
Crop Range ofstraw MCofgrni11 MC ofstraw Max. rack amd

grai11 ratio ( %) {%) sltoeloss %
Wheat 0.6-1. 2 10-15 10-20 2
Paddy 1.0-2.5 15-25 20-65 2
(MC-Moisture content)
8.2.3. Design of crop conveyor: In a combine harvester, the cut crop should shift constantly to the
threshing unit. Theoretically,
Combine output (q) = header output (qh)
= conveyor output (q)
= thresher output (q 111)
Fig. 8.34: Chain conveyor of combine header

The output of chain conveyor of combine header is given by:
% = Lc. Wc. E • s. Ve 'Ym (8.48)
where, Lc = length of inclined conveyor, m
Wc = width of undershot conveyor, m
E = factor of filling slot between lower part of conveyor band and inclined plane with crop
material
s = percent slip of material in conveyor slit
v c = linear speed of conveyor, mis
y 01 = bulk density of crop material in conveyor slit, kg/m 3
8.2.4. Threshing mechanism: The operation of detaching the grains from the ear heads, cobs or
pods. Here, the grains are shattered out of the head by the impact of blows from the cylinder and
concave. Main components are:
I. Cylinder.
2. Concave.
3. Separating grates.
4. Cylinder stripper bar.
5. Rear beater.
Cylinder or drum : A cylinder is a balanced rotating assembly comprising rasp, beater bars or
spikes on its periphery and their support for threshing the crop. Rasp bar type cylinder and spiked (peg)
.· tooth cylinder are the generally used threshing cylinders in a grain combine.
Rasp bar cylinder: It has transverse bars with rasp like surface or grooved metal faces cut
· diagonally in opposite directions across adjacent bars (Fig. 8.35). The ruhbing action takes place
· between rasp bars and concave bars. This type of cylinder is used for threshing wheat, soybean and
maize crops.
Spiked (peg) tooth cylinder: It has a series of spiked teeth carried in the transverse ·bars of
!cylinder which rotate between stationary spikes located on the concave (Fig. 8.36). It is used for
crops which are difficult to thresh like paddy.
The recommended peripheral velocity of rasp bar and spike (peg) tooth threshers is given in
Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Recommended peripheral velocity of rasp-bar and peg tooth threshers
Name of crop Peripheral 11e/ocity (v), mis
Rasp bar Peg tootlt
Wheat, barley 30-32 28-30
Bean, soybean, sunflower · 14.5 10.5-11.5
Corn 14-15.7
I. Rasp bar 2. Cylinder 3. Concave I . Cylinder 2. Spikes 3. Concave

Fig. 8.35: Rasp bar cylinder Fig. 8.36: Spike (peg) tooth cylinder
Design of rasp bar threshing mechanism: In this section, design of rasp bar type threshing mecha-
nism alongwith its power requirement is discussed in detail. ·
. Design considerations: The following parameters are considered while designing a rasp bar type
·hreshing mechanism.
Cylinder diameter = 480-600 mm (conventional)
= 432 mm (double rotor axial flow)

= 610 mm and 762 mm (single rotor axial flow)
No. of rasp bars = 8-10 uniformly spaced (conventional)
= 2 pairs 180 degree apart (double rotor axial flow)
= 3 equally spaced helical bars ( single rotor axial flow)
Cylinder speed = 20-30 mis depends upon type of crop to be threshed
Mean cylinder-concave clearance= 5-13 mm
Front clearance to rear clearance ratio= 3.
The performance of rasp bar cylinder with open grate depends on:
• Concave length
• Cylinderdiameter
• Cylinder speed
• Cylinder-concave clearance
• Feed rate
• Moisture content, and
• Time of day.
A line diagram of cylinder and concave of rasp bar type threshing mechansim is given in Fig. 8.37.
Feeding chute
No. of rasp-bars D
(Rb)
Concave
Peripheral speed tv). 111/scc·
Fig. 8.37: Cylinder and concave of rasp bar type threshing mechanism
Collect the desired information about the following:

• Power source - engine, or tractor and its size.
• Type of crop to be threshed and desired output/hr.
• Straw grain ratio, 6
• Peripheral speed (v) of drum for the crop to be threshed.
grDESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 285
Determine the feed rate (q) of thresher on the basis of grain output and straw grain ratio (8):
The straw grain ratio (o) is given by
where, qs = straw output

qg = grain output.
Determine revolutions of thresher cylinder per sec (ll): The cylinder revolutions is given by
peripheral speed (v)
n =-=---.....c...---=------'--
1t D
where, D = diameter of cylinder in 'm'

Determine the length of drum (Id): The length of drum of rasp bar type threshers is
.· '' determined by using Winkler formula which is as follows :
0.25x Rb xn x lc1 xk
q= + , (8.49 )
1 0
;, where, q = feed rate of thresher, kg/sec
Rb = number of rasp-bars.
n = revolutions of threshing drum /sec
ld = length of drum, m
k = 0.17-0.32 kg per metre length of drum
8' = 1/8
Rearranging the eqn. 8.49, we get,
t' == q(l + o')

' 0.25x R,, xnxk
Alternatively, we may use the formula,
q =qa xl,. x Rb
: where, q = feed rate of thresher, kg/sec
qa = allowable feed rate , kg /sec/m length of rasp-bar
(Generally it varies between 0.35 - 0.4 kg/sec/m)
Ir = length of rasp-bar
R6 = number of rasp-bars
Calculation of power requirement for threshing mechanism: Power requirement for
threshing system of combine is given by the formula
q(v, -v1)v 3
P= - +mv+nv· (8.50)
I - Cf
where, p = power required for operation of thresher, watt

q = feed rate, kg/sec i
vi = initial velocity of plants, m/sec =
3 m/sec ·-~
V2 = velocity of plant mass after impact '..~
V = peripheral velocity of threshing drum, m/sec

=
c1 = coefficient of friction between straw and thresher 0.6 (assumed)
m = a constant = 0.85 -0.90 N per 100 kg weight of threshing drum
=
n = a constant 0.065 N-sec2/m 2
Velocity of plant mass after impact (v2) is given by
v 2= Ct • V
where, a = 0.7 - 0.8

v = peripheral velocity of threshing drum, m/sec.
Threshing efficiency: Threshed grains from all the outlets of the combine with respect to total
grain input expressed in percentage by weight.
Threshing efficiency (%) = 100 - percentage of unthreshed grain.
8.2.5. Cleaning mechanism: The operation of isolating the detached grain, small debris and
incompletely threshed or completely threshed grain from bulk of straw stem or stalk. Separating a1:1d
cleaning devices are provided at the rear of threshing mechanism for providing clean grains. It is also
known as winnowing unit. The major components of cleaning mechanism are as follows :
1. Straw walkers
2. Grain pan
3. Chaffer or upper sieve
4. Chaffer extension
5. Lower sieves
6. Fan and wind boards
7. Return tailings.
Straw walker: An unit used for removal of threhsed grains from mass of straw. It tosses and
Ii tumbles the straw and propels it to the rear of the combine (Fig. 8.38). The grains fall through openings
i in the bottom on the grain pan. The surface of walker sections used in combines is fitted with sells or
cascades to increase the sifting surface on the walker. Each section has 3-5 cascades and 3 to 6 side
II
by sections, each 203 to 305 mm wide and have the following specifications.
Crank throw = 102 to 152 mm
Crank speed = 185-225 rpm
Angle of individual cascade is different.
Middle part = 19°-26°
Atside = 12°-18° and 8°-1~0
Lower surface = 7°-15°
Crank speed can be determined from following the relationship

ro:J = 2g
where, r = crank radius,
ro = crank speed, radians/second
g = acceleration due to gravity.
In other word the centrifugal force is twice the force of gravity.
The handling capacity of a straw walker is restricted by permissible grain loss i.e. 0.4-0.5%.
Fig. 8.38: Straw walker

The design aspects of straw walker like length of straw walker, straw layer thickness and the width
of straw walker are determined as given below.
(i) Length of straw walker (L): The length · of straw walker is determined by using the following
equation:
L % ::a: fs x I 00 x e-µL,
(8.5 I)
6'xq
where, L% = permissible grain loss from straw walker 0.4 - 0.5% of total grain.
fs = feed rate to
straw walker (kg/sec)
6' = straw factor = (I/6)
q = amount of plant mass being fed to the combine (feed rate), kg/sec.
µ = coefficient of separation, depends on straw layer thickness (h) on walker.
Ls = length of straw walker, cm
For h = 20 cm, µ = 0.018/sec
:. For known q, fs, 6' and L%, length of straw walker (Ls) may be determined.
288 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES ANO PROBLEMS
(ii) Straw layer thickness (/z): For specified percentage of grain loss, the thickness of straw layer,
h can be expressed as
h = _q(_I--8~')
(8.52)
where, h = straw layer thickness in walker, in m

q = feed rate, kg/sec
o' = straw factor = ( I lo)
ws "' width of straw walker, m
va,•= average speed of straw grain mass over straw walker. mis
p5 = bulk density of straw layer on the walker, usually it is I 2-17kglm3
Also,
; =[~r ... (8.53)
m = 0.8 for heavy load

m· = 1.2 for light load
For h = 20 cm, µ=0.018lsec. So, ~t
1 at any other layer thickness h 1 can be determined from the
eqn. (8.53).
(iii) Width of straw walker (w5): Width of straw walker (w) may be decided on the basis of
width of combine or length of threshing cylinder.
Cleaning Unit
Cleaning is the operation of isolating the desired grain from chaff, small debris and incompletely
threshed and completely unthreshed grains. The cleaning unit include a grain pan, set of sieve placed in
a casing generally called a basket and an exhaust fan.
(i) Screening : The operation of isolating the desired grains by mechanical device where the desired
grain is carried over the device and undesired material penetrates the device.
(ii) Sieving: The operation of separating the desired grains by a mechanical device where the desired
grain penetrates the device and the undesired material is carried over the device (Fig. 8.39).
(iii) Chaffing: The process of pneumatic cleaning of grains.
Chaff sieve and shoe sieve are oscillated either together or in opposition with oscillating frequencies
from 250-325 cycles per minute.
Cleaning area = 11.4-14.7 cm 2 per mm threshing cylinder width.
Cleaning fan: Paddle type centrifugal fan or cross flow (traverse flow fan).
Suspension velocity = 5.1-9.7 mis wheat, barley and oat
= 2.0-6. 1 mis straw pieces up to 18 cm length
"" I .5-2.5 mis chaff
Air flow through chaffer sieve is usually at an angle less than 45° above horizontal.
iif~gii~
= --=\ .. - · .-...=·
r-
,
. ;. - l" .
-· .; ~~
~==~==
-~=-
:;c: -;::;:
:~~
.. ·::G...:· .
i: 7·
'. \\ i:\'
Fig. 8.39: Cleaning sieve

The design aspects of sieve are discussed below:
1. Width of sieve (W5 ): It may be determined from following empirical formula
Wsieve = (0.9 - 0 .9S)W51 v

where, Wsw = width of straw walker
2. Specific load of sieve (q5 ): When dry weed free cereals are gathered, it may be assumed that
specific load of an adjustable shutter sieve be
qs = 0.1 S - 0.17 kg/sec/decimetre of sieve width

and for unfavourable condition
q5 :;:; 0.10-0.12 kg/sec/decimetre of sieve width
3. Sieve area (Asieve): When the amount of material (grain. kg/sec) supplied to grain pan per unit
time is known, then the sieve area is given by
q'
Asieve :;:; - ,- (8.54)
qsieve
where, Asieve -- area o f sieve,
' .tn m2
q'sieve of sieve (kg/sec/m 2)
= specific load
q' = Q (1-o'C), in kg/sec/m 2 (8 .55)
where, Q = output of threshing unit
o' = straw factor (qg I qs)
C = coefficient which depends on moisture content of grain.
The value of coefficient, C for different range of moisture content is given in the following table.
.;
Moisture co11te11t Value o/C

2: 90% 0.6-0.7
= 90- 85% 0.7-0.8
< 85% 0.8-0.9
Cleaning efficiency: Clean grain present in the total grain obtained from the main grain outlet
expre.ssed in percentage by mass.
Cleaning efficiency (%) = (1/.J) x I 00
where. I = weight of whole grain per unit time at main grain outlet
J = weight of whole material per unit time at the main outlet.
II 8.2.6. Power requirement for combines (We): Total power required for operating a self-
propelled combine is given by following equation:
I WC= w,.+ wn + WW (8.56)
where. We = total power required for operating the combine, kW
W,. = power for rolling of combine, kW
Wn = power required for driving working parts at no load, kW
~ • = power required for driving working parts at load, kW
I 1
W,. is given by
I where, P
W,. = P. v/Tjtr · lls
= resistance to rolling of machine, N
771,. = transmission efficiency, percentage
(8.57)
17s = coefficient of skidding of machine

W,1 is governed _by the construction of machine and condition of machine. It can be reduced by
proper and timely maintenance of the combine.
ww = w0 x q (8.58)
where, W0 = power required to perform harvesting for a load of I kg/s
q = feed rate of machine, kg/s.
Generally, maximum engine power rating= 70-100 W per mm of cylinder width of self-propelled
combine.
Total power requirement (including propulsion)= 28-41 kW at 0.13-0.15 kg/min of non-grain feed
rate per mm cylinder width.
Closed grate requires 25% more power than open grate at cylinder speed of26-33 mis. Increasing
length of open grate concave from 338 mm to 506 mm increases power requirement by 10%.
Determine the header length (L1) of a 5.5 kgls capacity self-propelled combine harvester (Fig. 8.40)
being used in harvesting of wheat crop (Average yield 45.0 q/ha) at a speed of 5.4 km/h,: Assume that
90% ofcutting width is utilized effectively during harvesting operation and straw factor for wheat crop
as 1:1.5. Also design threshing mechanism for the combine and power required to operate.
Solution:
Given: q = 5.5 kg/sec,
o' = 1:1.5,
v,, = 5.4 km/hr (l.5m/sec),
I; = 0.9,
qg = 45 q/ha
Fig. 8.40: Self-propelled combine harvester
1. Header length (L1,):

Putting the values in eqn. 8.47, we get the length of header.
5.5 kg/sec= 10-2 x 1.5 m/sec x 0.9 x t,. x 45 q/ha [1 + 1.5]
11, = 3.62 m;; 3.75 m (say)

Since lh > 3m, therefore, it is a large combine harvester.
Therefore, using the fonnula,
/h: Id: c5 = 1 : 0.36 : 1.25
Determine length of threshing cylinder and concave surface area.
Thus
Ii, 1
-=--
Id 0.36
or Id = 0.36 x lh
id = 3.36 x 3.75 m = 1·35 m
Also
cs 1.25
or cs= 1.25 x 3.75 = 4.68 m = 4.7 m (say)
Concave surface of combine= 4.70 m
2. Design of rasp bar type threshing mechanism:
Now, capacity of combine q = 5.5 kg/s (given)
Therefore, feed rate q = qs + qg = 5.5 kg/s
Revolutions of thresher per sec (n) is given by

n = -'---=---~-~
1tD
Let peripheral speed of cylinder for wheat crop be 30 mis.
Let diameter of cylinder is 80 cm.
n =~=11.9379
7CX 0.8
n = 12 rev/sec. (say)
Id = 1.35 m already calculated
Now, determine the number of rasp bars on the cylinder by using Winkler formula for rasp-bar
threshers.
Winkler formula is given by
0.25 x Rb x n x Id x k
q= 1+6'
where, q = feed rate of thresher, kg/sec
Id = length of drum, m
61 = 1/6
Thus,
Let us assume that the number of rasp-bars in the threshing drum '--= 4
Let k =0.25 kg / m
Rearranging the Winkler formula. we get
,i = q(I + o')
(8 .59)
' 0.25 x Rb x nxk
1.35 = 5.5 (l + l / 1.5)/ (0.25 x Rb x 12 x 0.25)
or Rb = 5.5 x 2.5/ (1.5 x 1.35 x 0.25 x 12 x 0.25) = 9.
Alternatively, we may use the formula
q = qa x I,. x Rb (8.60)
qa = allowable feed rate , kg /sec/m length of rasp-bar
(Generally it varies between 0.35 - 0.4 kg/sec/m)
l,. = length of rasp-bar
Rb = number of rasp-bars which should be equal to length of drum Uc1), m
Putting values in the eqn. 8.60, we get
5.5 = 0.4 kg/s/m x 1.35 x Rb
or, Rb = 10
Therefore, 9 to IO rasp bars may be welded on the periphery of 80 cm diameter and 1.35 m
threshing cylinder.
Thus, we can safely select a drum of 80 x 135 cm size threshing cylinder with 9-10 rasp bars
for the combine harvester;
Therefore, the des igned specifications of the rasp-bar type threshing mechanism for
· 5.5 kg/sec capacity of wheat crop would be as given in Fig. 8.41.
Concave extension
No. o('rasp-hars (R ,.) =-9

-1 0=80 cm Ras p oar
8 D._____
'W Peripheral speed (v) =30 m/sec
RPM = 720
J
Fig. 8.4 t: Threshing cylinder and concave of combine
Calculate the straw walker length for the combine harvester having a feed rate of5.5 kgls in wheat
crop. Assume permissible grain loss fi'om straw walker as 0. 3% oftotal grain output ofcombine and
· straw layer thickness on straw walker 15. 0 cm. Also calculate the power requirement for threshing
mechanism.
Solution:
Given: q = 5.5 kg/s,
L% = 0.3
h1 = 15 cm
It is reported that, feed rate to straw walker ifs) in combines ranges between 16-20% of q.-
So, fs = (20/100) x q
= 0.20 x 5.5 kg/s = l. 1 kg/s
For wheat crop o= q/qs = I : 1.5
Also, we know that,

m = 0.8 for heavy load, m = 1.2 for light load
For h= 20 cm, µ=0.018/sec.
Now, for h 1 = 15 cm determine the value of µ 1 by using above equation
So, µ/ µ 1 = (h/h)ffi = (15/20)1- 2
or, µ 1 = 0.020/sec
Therefore, determine the length of straw walker (Ls) by using following equation:
' X lQQ X e-µL,

L% = .:....
;::....·"'- -- - (8.61)
8' x q
where, L% = permissible grain.loss from straw walker 0.3 - 0.5% of total grain.
fs = feed rate to straw walker (kg/sec)
o' = . straw factor.
q = amount of plant mass being fed to the combine, kg/sec.
µ = coefficient of separation, depends on straw layer thickness (h) on walker.
Ls = length of straw walker
For h = 20 cm, µ = 0~·018/sec
Putting values in eq. 8.61, we get Ls = 240 cm or say 250 crri
(a) Determine width of straw walker(ivs): We know that for specified percentage of grain loss,
the thickness of straw layer, h can be expressed as
h:;;q(l-o')
(8.62)
w_,.vavPs
where, h = straw layer thickness in walker, in m
o' = straw factor
ws = width of straw walker, m
vav= average speed of straw grain mass over straw walker, mis
ps 12-17kg/m3•
= bulk density of straw layer on the walker, usually it is
Assume average velocity of straw as 0.75 m/s and bulk density of straw layer as 17 kg/m3 at straw
layer thickness of I 5 cm or 0. I 5 m.
Putting values in eq. 8.62 we get,
Ws = {5.5 kg/s (I- 1/1.5)}/ (0.15 m x 0.75 mis x 17 kg/m 3)
or, Ws :;; 0.95 m or 950 mm
Therefore, 3 straw walkers of 315 mm may be used in the combine.
Calculation of power requirement for threshing mechanism
Power requirement for thresher is given by the formula
q(v2 -v1 )v
p:;; +mv+nv3 (8 .63)
1-C1
where, P = power required for operation of thresher, watt

v 1 = initial velocity of plants, rn/sec (3 m/sec)
v2 = velocity of plant mass after impact
v = peripheral velocity of threshing drum, m/sec
m = a constant 0.85 -0.90 N per I00 kg weight of threshing drum
n = a constant 0.065 N-sec2/m 2.
Velocity of plant mass after impact (v2) is given by
v2 = Ct • V
where, a. = 0.7
v = peripheral velocity of threshing drum, m/sec
Therefore,
v2 = 0.7 x 30 = 21 m/sec
5.5 kg/sec x (21-3) rn/secx30 + O.9N x 30 mI sec + O.065N-sec2/m2 x (30 mlsec)3
P =----''-------'----'-----
1-0.6
P= 5.5 x l8x30x9.81 +0.9x30+0.065(30)3

0.4
(Multiplied by 9.81 to conve11 kg to N)
Ir p = (5.5 X 18 X 30 X 9.8 )/0.4) + 0.9 X JO + 0.065 (30)3
j P = 72839.25 + 27.00+ 1755.00 = 74621.25 N-m/s or watts
. '
P = 74.62 kW Ans.
Considering transmission losses and extra starting power, 75kW may be selected for threshing
mechanism of combine.
8.3 DESIGN OF GROUNDNUT DIGGERS

I. Tractor drawn groundnut digger shaker
It is tractor PTO operated machine which digs the groundnut vines below pods zone and elevates them
by an elevator - picker reel and drop on the ground. It consists of a digging blade whose length will
depend on the size of tractor and soil conditions. The vines are dropped on the ground in such a way that
the pods get exposed to sun for early drying.
Fig. 8.42: Tractor drawn groundnut digger elevator

Usually a straight, curved or V-blade is used in groundnut digger for digging groundnut pods. At soil
moisture of about 20-22.5%, the light soil having micro cracks contributes to brittle failure of soil
around pods during operation of digging machine.
Let Lb be the length of digging blade operated up to a depth of 15 cm and the unit draft of light to
medium soils ranges between 0.2 to 0.5 kg/cm 2 ( Avg. 0.35 kg/cm 2).
Now. let us design a groundnut digger suitable for 30 hp tractor.
t) Calculating Draw bar Horse Power (DBHP)
Drawbar Horse Power (DBHP) is given by
DBHP = 60% of BHP

:. DBHP = 0.60 x 30 = 18hp
iz) Calculating Drawbar pull

DBHP = Pull(kg)xspeed(mlmin)
4500
.·. Pull(kg) = DBHP x 4500
speed(m I min)
For proper digging of pods with groundnut digger, the speed of operation should be 3-4 km/hr.
Hence, let the speed of digging be 3.5 km /hr. Therefore, the pull is given by
Pull(k ) = 18 x 4SOO = 1388.50 k

g 3500/60 g
Now, Draft is the horizontal component of pull. Assume that the pull is exerted by the tractor at an
angle of 25° with the horizontal
So, draft (D) is given by
D = P cos 0
D = 1388.5 x cos25°= 1258.40 kg
iii) Calculate the length of digging blade (Lb)
We know that,
Draft of digger (kg)= Lb (cm) x depth of operation (cm) x Unit draft (kg/cm2)
Putting values we get,
1258.40 kg = Lb x 15 cm x 0.35 kg/cm2
Or, Lb = 239.69 cm
However, considering the tread width of tractor and crop ridges we may select the size of blade as
200 cm
Now,
Draft load on the blade would be
Draft (kg)= 200 cm x 15 cm x 0.35 kg/cm2 = 1050 kg
Let, the speed of operation of groundnut digger is 3.6 km/hr
DBHP of tractor required = Draft x speed (m/min) / 4500
= 1050 kg x (3600/60) m/min /4500
= 14 hp
Generally, the width of digger blade (b) = L/20
b = 200 cm/20 = 10 cm
Also, thickness (t) of digging blade = b/10
t = lOcm/10 =I cm or 10 mm
298 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS ]
Therefore, the designed dimensions of digger blade are

Lb = 200 cm
b = IO cm
t = IO mm
The material of digger blade should be high grade steel or spring steel (En-42)
Since, the digger blade is to cut the soil underneath and for better penetration in the soil, edge of the
digging blade should be sharpened to 20°-30° along its length (200 cm).
iv) Design of shank
As shown in Fig. 8.43, the digging blade is supported on both ends by M.S square shanks .
I----.,..t...
X ~ - · X .... b
1.. h .. ,T
I =500 mm
D I Shank
Fig. 8.43: Details of shank of tractor drawn groundnut digger

Since the shank is of square section so h = b
The digger blade tynes (shanks) will be designed on the basis of maximum bending moment.
The draft exerted at center of digging blade = 1050.0 kg
:. Maximum load =1050 x 2 = 2100 kg
Load taken by each tyne/shank = 2100 kg/2 = I 050 kgf
Maximum bending moment in each tyne = 1050 kgf x /
Take, /= 50 cm or 500 mm
Maximum bending moment in each tyne = 1050 kgf x 500mm = 525000 kgf-mm
Using the formula,
h=MC
I
Where, fb = Bending stress , kg /mm 2
M = Bending moment, kg-mm
r = Distance from the neutral axis to the point at which stress is determined.
I = Moment of Inertia of section (mm4)
;_,;- DESIGN OF CROP HARVESTING MACHINES 299
:. Z = !_ = !:!_ = 525000 =17500 mm 3

C f,, 30
Moreover,
bJ
Z=·-
6
3
:.b =Zx6=17500x6
b = {/17500 x 6
Size of square rod= 47.25 mm say 50 mm

So. 50 mm size M.S square may be used for tyne (shanks) of groundnut digger.
2. Design of BD. groundnut digger:
It is operated by a pair of bullocks and can be used for digging groundnut and potato crops. It is
provided with a crescent shaped blade attached to a square or round shank and fitted to a frame. It is
also provided with two M.S. ground wheels and a hand lever for depth control.
Usually a straight, curved or V-blade is used in groundnut digger for digging groundnut pods. At soil
moisture of about 20-22.5%, the light soil having micro cracks contributes to brittle failure of soil
around pods during operation of digging machine.
Let Lb be the length of digging blade operated up to a depth of 15 cm and the unit draft of light to
medium soils ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 kg/cm 2 ( Avg. 0.30 kg/cm 2 ).
Fig. 8.44: BD groundnut digger in operation · Fig. 8.45: Harvested groundnut crop
l) Powt!r developed by the bullocks
On an average, for 3-4 hours continuous work the power developed by a pair of bullocks would be
_I.0hp.
We know that
'
HP= Push (kgf)xSpeed (m/s)
75
Let the operating speed of digging machine be 0.7 mis i.e. 2.5 km/h
Therefore,
HP x 75 1.0 x 75 .
Push (kgt) =--------·--·.,-----kg= 107.14 kg =· 107.:, kg (say)
Speed (mis) 0.7
Let us assume that pull makes an angle of 450 with the horizontal
So, draft (D) is given by
D = P cos 0
D = l 07 .5 x cos45° = 76.0 kg
ii) Calculate the length of digging blade (Lb)
We know that,
j Draft of digger (kg)= lb (cm) x depth of operation (cm) x Unit draft (kg/cm 2)
J
Putting values we get,
j
! 76.0 kg = Lb x 15 cm x 0.30 kg/cm 2
.!'. Or, Lb "' 16.89 cm
However, considering the crop ridges we may select the size of blade as 50 cm
Now,
i
! Draft load on the blade in light soils would be
Draft (kg) = 50 cm x15 cm x 0. 15 kg/cm2 = I 12.50 kg
Let, the speed of operation of groundnut digger is 2.0 km/hr
DBHP of tractor required = Draft x speed (m/min) / 4500
= 112.5 kg x (2000/60) m/mi n /4500
= 0.833 hp
The power is within the reach of a pair of bullocks.
Now,
We know that width of digger blade (b) = L/20
b = 50 cm/20 = 2.5 cm which is too low. A minimum of7.5 cm blade width is taken.
Also, thickness (t) of digging blade= bl I 0
t = 7.5cm/l0 = 0.75 cm or 7.5 mm
Therefore, the designed dimensions of digger blade are
Lb = 50 cm
b = 7.5 cm
t a: 7.5 mm
The material of digger blade should be high grade steel or spring steel (En-42)
Since, the digger blade is to cut the soil underneath and for better penetration in the soil, edge of the
digging blade should be sharpened to 20°-30° along its length (50 cm).
iii) Design of shank

As shown in Fig. 8.46, the digging blade is supported at the centre by a M.S round or square
shank. The digger blade tyne (shank) is designed on the basis of maximum bending moment.
The draft exerted at center of digging blade= 76.0 kg
Maximum load =76.0 x 2 = 304 kgf
Load taken by the tyne/shank = 304.0 kgf
Maximum bending moment in each tyne = 304.0 kgf x I
Take, 1 = 45. cm or 450 mm
X ....i-+► X ,_,----,!j_
b
1.. h .,T
1=450mm
D l Shank
Fig. 8.46: Details of shank of bullock drawn groundnut digger

Maximum bending moment in each tyne = 304.0 kgf x 450mm = 136800 kgf-mm
Since the shank is of square section so h = b
Using the formula,
Ji,= MC
1
Where, h = Bending stress , kg /mm2
M = Bending moment, kg-mm
C = Distance from the neutral axis to the point at which stress is determined.
I =·Moment oflnertia of section (mm4)
:. Z =.!_ = M = 136800 = 4560 mm3

C Ji, 30
b3
Moreover, Z = -
6
3
b =Zx6=4560x6
b =~4560x 6
Therefore, size of square rod = 30.25 mm say 30 mm
So, 30 mm size M.S square may be used for tyne (shanks) of BD groundnut digger.
I
II 302 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
EXERCISE
I I
Based on vertical conveyor reaper
1. Describe the design considerations of vertical conveyor reaper windrower with special emphasis on
followings:
(1) Star wheel speed and inclination speed,
(ii) Height and pitch of lugs of cross conveyor belts
(iii) Cutter bar
(iv) Crop dividers
(v) Longitudinal balancing of walking type reapers.
2. Determine total forces acting on a standard reciprocating knife cutter bar of a bullock operated VCR.
Assume that bullocks are operating at a speed of3.6 km/hr. Assume any other data required.
3. A farmer has 15 hectares of cultivable area having sandy loam soil and grows wheat, gram, raya, cotton
and bajra crops. Determine the size of tractor and design a matching vertical conveyor reaper for wheat
crop.
4. A mower has the following operational parameters:
Crank speed = IO00rpm S= 250 mm L= 1.25 m R=45mm
'I
Knife mass= 4.5 kg Pitman mass= 3.25 kg and Crank pin mass =0.35 kg
Pitman has center of gravity of0.55 m from crank end.
Determine the inertia force (horizontal) at each end of stroke.
5. Determine total forces acting on a standard reciprocating knife cutter bar of a bullock operated VCR.
Assume that bullocks are operating at a speed of 3.6 km/hr. Assume any other data required.
6. A farmer has 9.0 hectares of cultivable area having sandy loam soil and grows wheat, gram, raya, cotton
and bajra crops. Determine the size of tractor and design a matching Vertical conveyor reaper for wheat
crop. Assume following data:
(a) Operating speed of reaper= 4 km/hr
(b) Value of gathered crop parameter (q) = 66. 7.
(c) Permissible shear stress of mild steel= 560 kg/cm2
(d) Density of mild steel =0.008 kg/cm3.
7. Determine the header length ofa combine operating in wheat crop at a forward speed of5.4 km/hr with
a 5.5 kg/s capacity of combine. Assume straw factor of2:3 and grain yield of wheat as 45 q/ha.
8. . What HP of power source will be required to pull a 1.5 m VCR working at a speed of 5km/h? If there is
a load of 50 kg/m length of cutter bar and mechanical efficiency is 50%.
9. Design the power transmission system of a tractor operated reaper as shown in Fig. 8.47. Assume that
15 kW PTO power is available at a_forward speed of 4.0 km/hr.Assume any other data required.
Dete1mine: i) Diameters of pulleys
ii) Size of sprockets
iii) Diameters of shafts

iv) Lengths ofV-belts
v) Length of chain
vi) Speed ratio (speed of reaper to forward speed of tractor)
Bearing
Shaft
§ - - - Chain E
u
0
0
Ii) Sprocket Pulley 0
/ Savel gear box
Vertical shaft for culler bar drive
Pulley
Fig. 8.47: Power transmission system for tractor drawn reaper

10. A self-propelled Vertical Conveyor Reaper operated by 3.73 kW diesel engine is harvesting wheat crop
at a forward speed of 4.2 km/hr. The speed of its conveyor belt is 1.4 mis. calculate the star wheel
velocity and knife speed of cutter bar and also pitch of lugs on star wheel if the diameter of star wheel
is 28 cm and it has 7 lugs on the star wheel. Assume any other data required.
I I. A manually operated vertical conveyor reaper gets drive from ground wheel through transmission gear
train. The first stage has a gear of I 00 teeth on main axle and 20 teeth on counter shaft. The second
stage drive gear has 80 teeth and crank shaft driven gear has 20 teeth. In cutter bar standard kni re
sections of76.2 mm size with a stroke length of76.2 mm are used. Calculate the number of strokes made
by the knife sections at a forward speed of2 km/hr.
Based on combine harvester
12. A combine harvester of 4.0 m cutter bar is operating at a forward speed of 4.5 km/hr in wheat
harvesting. Determine the capacity of combine. Assume any other data required.
13. A self-propelled combine harvester of 5.0 kg/s capacity is operated for harvesting of paddy crop at a
forward speed of 4.5 km/hr. Determine the size of cutter bar of combine if average yield of paddy is 50
q/ha and 90% of its width is effective during harvesting operation . Assume any data required.
14. Determine the thickness of crop material lifted by the undershot conveyor of 4.0 m header of combine
operating at a forward speed of 4 .5 km/hr in wheat crop. Speed of conveyor is 1.5 mis and width of
conveyor band is 1.0 m. Assume bulk density of plant mass as 15 kg/m 3. Assume any other data
required.
15. Design threshing mechanism for a 4.0 kg/s capacity combine harvester for harvesting of wheat crop
(Average yield 40.0 q/ha) at a speed of 5.0 km/hr. Assume that 90% of cutting width is utilized
effectively during harvesting operation and straw factor for wheat crop as I: 1.5. Also determine power
required to operate the threshing mechanism of the combine.
16. Determine the crop feed rate per kW power (q/kW) to the threshing mechanism of a combine harvester
ifthe drum speed ofthreshing mechanism is 25 mis and coefficient of resistance of drum (t) is 0.7.
I
CHAP'fER 9
Design of Threshing Machines
The operation of detaching the grains from the ear heads, cobs or pods is called threshing. Thresher
is the machine used to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain without much
loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, unthreshed grain, blown
grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum. Bureau of Indian Standards has specified that the total
grain loss should not be more than five percent, in which broken grain should be less than two
percent. Clean unbruised grain fetch good price in the market as well as it has long storage life.
A mechanical thresher (Fig. 9 .1) consists of the following parts:
1.. Feeding device (chute/tray/trough/hopper/conveyor)
2. Threshing cylinder (hammers/spikes/rasp bars/wire loops/syndicator)
3. Concave (woven wire mesh/punched sheet/welded square bars)
4. Blower/aspirator
5. Sieve shaker/straw walker.
The crop is fed from the feeding tray into the threshing cylinder. The threshing cylinder is fitted
with spikes/bars/hammers or wire loops around its periphery according to the type of thresher.
Below the cylinder there is a concave and it covers lower portion of the cylinder. The cylinder rotates
at high speed and thus the crop is threshed and the entire or a portion of threshed material falls from
the concave on to top sieve of cleaning system. Due to reciprocating motion of top siev~ lighter
material accumulate at·the top and grain falls on to the bottom sieve. In case of spike tooth thresher,
an aspirator blower sucks out the lighter material from the top sieve and throws it out from blower .
outle~. The sieves help in further cleaning of the grain by allowing heavier straw to overflow.
The type of thresher is generally designated according to the type of threshing cylinder fitted with.
the machine. The major type of threshers commercially available are as follows:
I. Drummy type,
2. Hammer mill type,
3. Spike (peg) tooth type,
4. Rasp bar type,
·1 5. Wire loop type,

I 6. Axial flow type, and
7. Syndicator type.
Fig. 9.1: High c·a pacity thresher

Performance of thresher depends upon:
• Concave length,
• Cylinder diameter,
• Cylinder speed,
• Cylinder-concave clearance,
• Feed rate,
• Moisture content, and
• Time of day.
Cylinder or drum: A cylinder js a balanced rotating assembly comprising rasp, beater bars or
spikes on its periphery and their support for thi-eshing the crop. Rasp bar type cylinder and spiked
(peg) tooth cylinder are the generally used threshing cylinders in a grain combine.
Rasp bar cylinder: It has transverse bars with rasp like surface or grooved metal faces cut
diagonally in opposite directions across adjacent bars (Fig. 9.2). The rubbing action takes place
between rasp bars and concave bars. This type of cylinder is used for threshing wheat, soybean and
maize crops. This type of cyl inder does not chop straw into bhusa.
DESIGN OF THRESHING MACHINES _,_ 307
Rasp bar
Threshing
cylinder
Concave
Fig. 9.2: Rasp bar cylinder

Spiked (peg) tooth cylinder: It has a series of spiked teeth carried in the transverse bars of
cylinder in staggered pattern for uniform threshing with less power consumption which rotate between
stationary spikes located on the concave (Fig. 9.3). It is used for crops which are difficult to thresh like
paddy.
Cylinder casin
......-::::=;;:::::z.::.....
n point
Peg tooth
Threshing
cylinder
Fig. 9.3: Spiketooth cylinder

The recommended peripheral velocity of rasp bar and spike (peg) tooth threshers is given in
Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Recommended peripheral velocity of rasp-bar and peg tooth threshers
Name ofcrop Peripheral velocity (v), mis
Rasp bar Peg tooth
Wheat, barley 30-32 28-30
Bean, soybean, sunflower 14.5 I0.5-11.5
Corn 14-15.7
In this chapter design of rasp bar type and spike (peg) tooth type thresher.s are discussed in
detail.
9.1. DESIGN OF RASP BAR THRESHERS
Generally used specifications of rasp bar cylinder are as follows:
Cylinder diameter = 480-600 mm (Conventional)
= 432 mm (double rotor axial flow)
= 610 mm and 762 mm (single rotor axial tlow)
No. of rasp bars = 8-10 uniformly spaced (conventional)
= 2 pairs I 80 degree apart (double rotor axial flow)
= 3 equally spaced helical bars ( single rotor axial flow)
Cylinder speed "" 20-30 m/s depends upon type of crop threshed
Mean cylinder-concave clearance = 5- I 3 mm
Front clearance to rear clearance ratio= 3

• Power source - engine. tractor or electric motor and its size.
• Type of crop to be threshed and desired output/hr.
• Straw grain ratio, o.
The range of straw grain ratio for paddy and wheat alongwith its moisture
content is given in Table 9.2.
• Peripheral speed (v) of drum for the crop to be threshed.
Table 9.2: Straw grain ratio range of paddy and wheat crop.
Crop Range ofstrmv MC of grain MCofstrmv
grain ratio (%) (%)
Wheat 0.6-1.2 10-15 10-20
Paddy 1.0-2.5 15-25 20-65
Determine the feed rate (q) of thresher on the basis of grain output and straw grain ratio (o)
Using the relationship,
0"' qs_
qg
where, o == straw grain ratio
qs = straw output
qg = grain output.
Let us calculate the feed rate for an output of 5 quintal/hr grain having straw grain ratio of 1.5.
Thus, q5= ox qg = 1.5 xS = 7.5 quintal/hr.
II
DESIGN OF THRESHING MACHINES 309
Therefore, feed rate q = qs + qg

= 7.5 + 5 = 12.5 quintals /hr
= 1250 kg/3600 sec
= 0.347 kg/sec
= 0.4 kg /sec (say).
Revolutions of thresher (11): The revolutions of thresher per sec (n) is given by

n =-"---'------'~--'--
TC D
where, D = diameter of cylinder in 'm'
Let peripheral speed of cylinder for wheat crop be 30 m/s.
Let diameter of cylinder be 80 cm.
Therefore, n = ~ = l 1.9379
TCX0.8
n = 12 rev/sec.(say).
Determine the length of drum (/d): The length of drum (Id) of rasp bar thresher is determined by
using Winkler formula which is given by
0.25 x Rb x n x lc1 x k
q= l+o' (9.1)

Rb = No. of rasp-bars
ld = length of drum, m
6' = 1/6
Thus,
o' =_!__= qg =.2_=_1

8 q_,. 7.5 1.5
Let us assume that the number of rasp-bars in the threshing drum =4
Let k = 0.25 kg / m
Rearranging the eqn. 9.1 we get
lc1;;; q(I + o')

(9.2)
0.25 x Rb x n x k
1
0.4[1 + - ]
ld = I .5
0.25 X 4 X }2x 0.25
0.3333 =0.35m
Therefore, select a drum of 40 cm size.
Alternatively, we may use the formula
q = q0 x l,. x Rb (9.3)
where
q = feed rate of thresher, kg/sec.
qO = allowable feed rate , kg /sec/m length of rasp-bar.
(Generally it varies between 0.35 - 0.4 kg/sec/m).
l,. = length of rasp-bar.
Rearranging the eqn. 9.3 we get
q 0.4kg/sec
l = :::;
' q0 x Rh 0.35kg/sec!m x4
== 0.2857m =30cm
Moreover, ld ~ l,
Therefore, Id= 35 cm as calculated by Winkler formula is safe.
Thus, we can safely select a drum of 40 cm length for our thresher.
Therefore, the designed specifications of the rasp-bar type thresher of 5 quintal/hr wheat grain
output would be as given in Fig. 9.4.
Id =40 cm
No. of rasp-bars
T
D=80 cm
(Rb) = 4
Peripheral speed (v) ;;;;;;3Q m/sec

RPM =720
Fig. 9.4: Dimensions ofrnsp bar threhsing cylinder
Calculation of power requirement for thresher

q(V7 - V1 )V 3
P == - + mv + nv (9.4)
1-C1

q = teed rate, kg/sec
v1 = initial velocity of plants, m/sec = 3 m/sec
vi = velocity of plant mass after impact
v = peripheral velocity of threshing drum, m/sec = 30
c1 = coefficient of friction between straw and thresher =0.6 (assumed)
m == a constant = 0.85 - 0.90 N per 100 kg weight of threshing drum
n = a constant =0.065 N-seci/m 2
Velocity of p lant mass after impact (vi) is given by
Vi= 0. . V
where, a. = 0.7 to 0.85

Therefore,
v2= 0.7 x 30 = 21 m/sec
0.4kg/sec(21-3)m/secx 30 . N x .,,. 0 m / sec+ 0065 N - sec 21 m 2 x ("O

., m / sec)·'
P = - - - " - - ' - - - ~ - - - + 09 .
1-0.6
P= 0.4 x l& x 3 0x 9 .Sl + 0.9 x 30+0.065(30)3 (Multiplied by 9.81 to convert kg to N)

0.4
P = 7079.4 N-m/sec or watts
P = 7.079 kW
Considering transmission losses and extra starting power, an electric motor of I Ok W may be selected
for thresher.
9.2. DESIGN OF SPIKE (PEG) TOOTH THRESHER
The components of spike (peg) tooth thresher is given in Fig. 9.5.

• Power source - engine, tractor or electric motor and its size.
• Type of crop to. be threshed and desired output/hr.
• Straw grain ratio, 8. The range of straw grain ratio for paddy and wheat alongwith its moisture
content is given in Table 9.2.
• Peripheral speed (v) of drum for the crop to be threshed. The recommended peripheral velocity
of spike (peg) tooth threshers is given in Table 9.3
Table 9.3: Recommended peripheral velocity of spike (peg) tooth threshers

Name of crop Peripheral velocity (v) , mis
Wheat, barley 28-30

Bean. soybean, sunflower 10.5-11.5
Determine the feed rate ({J) of thresher on the basis of grain output and straw grain ratio (b)
Using the relationship,
where, o = straw grain ratio

qs = straw output
i qg = grain output
Let us calculate the feed rate for an output of 5 quintal/hr grain having straw grain ratio of 1.5.
Tl1us, q5= o x qg = l.5 x5 = 7.5 quintal / hr.
Therefore, feed rate q = qs + qg
= 7 .5 + 5 = 12.5 quintals /hr
= 1250 kg/3600 sec
= 0.347 kg/sec
= 0.4 kg /sec (say)
11
10
9
8
7 6
I. Threshing cylinder 2. Blower fan 3. Bearing 4. Y-belt

5. Y-pulley (driven) 6. Grain outlet 7. Transport wheel 8. Separating sieve
9. Angle iron frame 10. Concave 11 . Fly wheel
Fig. 9.5: Components of peg tooth type power thresher

L oESIGN OF THRESHING MACHINES 313
The number of pegs in the peg tooth type power thresher is given by:
N,, =P(~ +1)

where, NP = number of pegs
P = number of pitch of the helix over which pegs are located
Id = length of drum (assume 750 mm)
a = assume 25 mm
Also,
P = Cb 12
where, Cb= number of cross-bars (assume c6 = 4)
Thus, P = 4/2 =2
Therefore,
N = 2( 75~m + 1) = 2(30 +I)= 62 pegs

" 25 mm
Peripheral speed (v) of thresher per sec is given by
1tDn
v=--
60
where, D = Diameter of cylinder in 'm'
n = Revolutions of thresher per minute
Let peripheral speed of cylinder for wheat crop be 25 mis and speed of drum be 700 rpm.
Therefore. the diameter of drum is given by
_ 60v _ 60 x 25 ml sec _ _ ( )
D - - - - - - - - - - 68 .24 cm= 70 cm say
1tX n 11'.X 700
Determine the length of drum (Id)

Using the formula
( = 0.36xlc1
where, le = length of concave, m
Id= length of threshing drum, m
Thus,
le == 0.36 x 75cm = 27 cm
Therefore. the designed specifications of the peg-tooth type thresher of five quintal/hr wheat grain
output would be as given in Fig. 9.6.
/d=75 cm
No. of pegs (Np) = 62
D=70 cm
0 0 0 0 0
Peripheral speed (v) =25 m/sec Length of concave (/c) = 27 cm

RPM= 700
Fig. 9.6: Dimensions of peg-tooth thr.eshing cylinder
Calculation of power requirement for thresher:

(9.5)

v1 = initial velocity of plants, m/sec 3 m/sec
v2 = velocity of plant mass after impact
v == peripheral velocity of threshing drum, m/sec = 25 ·
m = a constant 5-5 .5 N per 100 kg weight of threshing drum
n = a constant 0.045 N-sec2/m2/m length of 550 mm drum
Velocity of plant mass after impact (v2) in thresher is given by
v2= a . v
where, a. = 0.7 to 0.85
Therefore,
v2 = 0.75 x 25 = 18.75 m/sec
p = 0.4kg/ sec(18.75 -3)m /secx 25m /sec
1- 0.6
70
+ 5.5N x 25m/sec + 0.045N - sec 2/m 2 x - x 0.75 x (25m/sec)3
55
p = 0.4 X J5.75 X 25 X 9.8} + _ + 1.1
5 67 6
137 (Multiplied by 9.81 to convert kg to N)
0.4
P = 4671.35 N-m/sec or watts

P=4.671 kW.
Considering transmission losses and extra starting power, an electric motor of 7.5kW
.. may be selected for operation of this thresher.
Front view and side view of spike tooth type power thresher is given in Fig. 9.7.
'- Cl
Ql ,!:
3: (/)
0 :::l
-0
co .c
t
0
a.
U)
C
~ ...
<>
t- .c:
..,._
II)
-5
..,...
~
0
a.
.J:
0
8
<>
-"
U)
'c.
II)
Q)
c .:= :!? > '+-
0
· - (ll
.c _g Q)
Cl)
:,;; U)
>-
'-' en ~
11)
~ ·;;:
u:: Q)
..,
0
'O
·;;;
'O
C:
"'
E
e
µ.
~
0\
oil
ti:
EXERCISE
I. 1. A farmer has 9.0 hectares of cultivable area having sandy loam soil and grows wheat, gram, raya,
cotton and bajra crops. Determine the size of tractor and design a matching multi-crop thresher.
Assume following data:
Rotational speed of threshing drum for wheat =30 m(s; for gram =15m/s or 1000 and 750 rpm
respectively. Threshing capacity of multi-crop thresher= l 0 q and 8 q per hr for wheat and gram
respectively. Permissible shear stress of mild steel =560 kg/cm 2 . Density of mild steel
= 0.008 kg/cm3.
2. In a power wheat thresher IO kw power from electric motor is transmitted to the threshing drum
through spur gear train as shown in Fig. 9.8. The gears are 20° full depth and have diametral pitch of
0.2 teeth/mm. Determine
(i) Torque transmitted by the gears (ii) Design tooth loads of gears.
Gear on threshing
cylinder shaft 360 rpm
Idler gear
720 rpm
Gear on motor 1440 rpm
Fig. 9.8: Gear drive for power wheat thresher

3. An engine operated crop thresher requires 850 kg-cm torque at an operating speed of 750 rpm.
Determine the horsepower of engine required to operate the thresher assume that transmission
efficiency of the drive is 85%.
4. Design a wheat thresher on peg-tooth type mechanism with capacity of threshing 8 q/hr. Find out its
power requirement. Assume appropriate data wherever required.
5. Determine the crop feed rate per kW power (Q/kW) to a peg tooth type power wheat thresher if the
j: drum speed of threshing mechanism is 28 mis and coefficient of resistance of drum (C ) is 0.8.Assume
1
any other data required.
!
.
6. A multicrop power thresher is operated by 1440 rpm electric motor at a cylinder speed of720 rpm and
requires a torque 12.5 kg-m. Determine the size of motor if the transmission efficiency ofbelt drive is
80%.
11
I,
.,
Ii,,
CHAPTER 10
Manufacturing Limits, Fits and Tolerances in
Farm Machinery
10.1. FARM MACHINERY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Agricultural machines are manufactured by small, medium and organized large scale industrial units.
Main manufacturing processes used in these units are as under:
1. Casting: It is the process by which material from crude liquid, granular and powdered form is
converted into desired shape in a single operation. The property of a metal indicating the ease with
which it can be given various solid sound shapes from liquid state is called as its castability.
2. Forming and shearing: It includes rolling, coining, spinning, forging, extrusion, drawing, stretch-
ing, and bending, swaging, line shearing, piercing, blanking and trimming. Common forming
operations are squeezing (forging, upsetting, extruding), shearing, stretching (drawing), bending
and basic forming operation tools are: presses, hammers, rolls and draw benches. The property
of metal indicating the ease with which it can be changed in shape (in solid state) is known as its
workability or formability.
3. Machining: It includes shaping and planning, turning, facing, drilling, boring, milling, reaming,
cut off, broaching, sawing, abrasive machining, grinding, lapping and ultrasonic etc. A property
of a material indicating the ease with which it can be cut or removed by cutting tools in machining
operation is called as machineability of the material.
4. Finishing: lt improves the appearance and prolongs life of components/machines. Finishing
includes cleaning, deburring, buffing, galvanizing and anodizing, painting, etc.
5. Assembly: Assembly of machine parts includes mechanical fasteners, soldering, brazing, weld-
ing, press fitting, shrink fitting, adhesive bonding etc.
6. Inspection: It does not contribute directly in obtaining desired shape of the machine but helps in
maintaining the quality of finished product and determines whether the desired objectives have
been achieved. ·
Machine fabrication aids: Major machinery fabrication aids include for lay out of dimensions and
guiding tools and holding the work piece through jigs and fixtures. The jigs and fixtures determine
location dimensions ~nd some. times guide the tools while fixture holds the work piece. These aids help
in facilitating machine fabrica:tion work so as to make similar products having interchangeability of
parts and components. These aids also help in reducing dimensional inaccuracies and disto1tions during
manufacturing of the machine elements.
In farm machines, the correct functioning of an assembly of parts, and their replacement during
maintenance is interchangeability. It depends on the proper dimensioning and design of the part by a
design engineer. Since it is not possible to manufacture large quantities of machine parts with exactly
the same dimensions, metal fits must be specified to ensure proper assembly of mating machinery
members without sacrificing their proper functioning. Proper tolerances within specified limits of size
on the various mating parts are supposed to be given without which interchangeability would not be
achieved . In modern manufacturing with flow type mass production systems have been devised and
separate units are assembled without any need of filing operation. This is only possible if proper
tolerance and surface finishes are given to the mating parts.
10.2. TOLERANCES
It is not possible to obtain the assigned nominal size of a machine part exactly to a given dimension in
mass production due to inaccuracy of manufacturing methods and other factors. The following arc
the main reasons for the variation:
I. Difference in skills of different workers.
2. Variation in temperature of cutting tools.
3. Error in machine tool.
4. Elastic strain of holding fixture of machine.
5. High costs of production for exact nominal size of the part.
Limits of size: In order to achieve interchangeability of machine parts two limits of size (maximum
and Minimum) are assigned within which the dimensions must be maintained.
Tolerance: The difference between maximum and minimum limit of size of a part is known as
tolerance. Therefore. it is maximum permissible variation in the size of the part. It is equal to the
algebraic difference between upper and lower deviations and has an absolute value. The tolerance
value does not have a sign and expressed as figure only.
Basic size: It is the theoretical size assigned to a part by the design engineer to which tolerances are
applied to achieve final dimension of mating parts. A basic size is assigned to the· pait and each of the
two limits is defined by its deviation from this size. (Fig. I0. 1).
Deviation: Algebraic difference between actual size and the corresponding basic size.
Lower deviation: This is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of s ize and
the corresponding basic size.
Upper deviation: This is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size
and corresponding basic size.
Zero line: It is straight line to which deviations are referred. The zero line is the line of zero·
deviation and represents the basic size. By convention. when zero line is drawn horizontally. positive
deviations are shown above it and negative 9eviations below it. ·
Tolerance zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of the part to be manufactured. It is
graphical representation of tolerance and defined by magnitude and its position in relation to zero line.
MANUFACTURING LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES IN FARM. MACHINERY 319
Tolerance
Lower deviation Tolerance
Upper deviation Hole Lower devi.ition
!I Upper deviation
Line of zero deviation
Q)
~Q) t I
N
·u; E
C\l
E
C\l
'5
-~
Q)
1/1
0 ,:i .!al
"iii E 1/1
C\l E ::l C\l
Ill :> Ill
E E
·c ·x
(I)
~ ~
Fig. 10.1: Details of limits and fits

Shaft: It is a term used to designate all external features of a part, including those, which are not
cylindrical. A shaft whose upper deviation is zero is known as basic shaft. In shafts, the upper lim it
corresponds to the maximum metal conditions.
Hole: Hole is a term to designate all internal features of a part, including those, which are not
cylindrical. A hole whose lower deviation is zero is known as basic hole. In holes, the lower limit
corresponds to maximum metal conditions.
Designation of tolerance: Standard tolerance is designated with numbers and letter of the alphabet.
Capital letters are used for holes and small letters for shafts respectively. For example, 30H7 means 30
a
is the basic size, H is the class of tolerance and 7 is the grade of tolerance for hole dimension. Refer
Tables l 0.1 and I0.2 for H 7 deviation for a 30 mm hole which are +0.000. This means that the
tolerance is 0.021, + 0.021 mm for 30 mm size hole.
Tolerance diagram: Size and tolerance for a hole and a shaft are given in Fig. l 0.2. The hole is
dimensioned as 30H 7 and shaft as 30g6 .
Fig. 10.2: Tolerance dimensions in hole and shaft

The respective location on tolerance diagram for above example is shown in Fig. I 0.3.
Tolerance grade for hole : 7
+
r Line of zero deviation
Clearance
Toi~'"" g<ade foe shaft , 6 ____,,/~
Fig. 10.3: Tolerance location for hole (30 H7 ) and Shaft (30g6)
Table 10.1: Data for Fig. 9.3
No. Particulars Hole Shaft
I. Diameter (basic size) 30 30

2. Tolerance location H g
3. Tolerance grade 7 6
4. Tolerance from Table I 0.2 & I 0.3 + 0.000+0.025 - 0.009 - 0.025
5. Upper size 30.025 29.991
6. Lower size 30.00 29.975
Unilateral system: In this system the deviation in size is allowed only on one side. In this case the
part may be either large or smaller than basic size and not both. For example, a dimension +0.000,
40 + 0.02 has its size within 40 mm to 40.02 mm. In modern system a unilateral system of tolerance is
widely used.
Bilateral system: In this system, the variation in size is allowed on both sides. rn this case the size
of part is allowed to vary above and below basic size, for example a dimension+ 0.02, 40-0.03 has its
size varying from 39.97 to 40.02 mm.
Grade of tolerance: In a standardized system of limits and fits, it is group of tolerances
corresponding to the same level of accuracy for all basic sizes.
Standard tolerance: It is a tolerance belonging to any one of the standard grades. There ae 18
grades of fundamental tolerances with designation IT 01, ITO IT! to [Tl6. They are known as
standard tolerances.
In holes, the lower limit corresponds to maximum metal conditions and in shafts, the upper limit
corresponds to the maximum metal conditions and vice versa.
10.3. FIT
When two mating parts of a machine are assembled, the relation arising out of the system is referred to
as fit. The joints of machine elements may either be movable or fixed depending on the conditions in
i which these elements work. The mating parts of machine although manufactured accurately should
have different dimensions and vary from nominal size. This difference in size provides the class of fit.
I
MANUFACTURING LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES IN FARM MACHINERY 321
The fits are generally of three types and may be termed as interference, clearance or transition, depending
on whether the hole size is smaller, bigger or any where in between the shaft size.
1. Clearance fit: It is the fit where the arithmetical difference between the sizes of the
hole and shaft is positive before assembly. The tolerance zone of the ho1e is above that of shaft.
2. Interference fit: It is the fit where the arithmetical difference between the size of the
hole and shaft is negative before assembly. This fit always provides an interference.
3. Transition fit: A fit, which provides either a clearance or interference, is known as a transition
fit. The tolerance zones of the hole and shaft overlap. The principal methods of applying the system of
fits are:
(a) The hole basis system.
(b) The shaft basis system.
(a) Hole basis system of fits: In the hole basis system, the starting point is a fixed hole tolerance
which is combined with a suitable shaft tolerance to give the desired fit. In general practices, the hole
basis system of tolerance having unilateral tolerances is generally adopted. This is because of ease of
manufacture as tools for producing fixed internal dimensions are commonly available I ike standard
drills, reamers, broaches, etc. In hole based system minimum hole diameter is the nominal dimension
and shafts are later given tolerances to produce the desired fit.
(b) Shaft basis system of fits: In the shaft basis system the starting point is fixed shaft and
tolerance is given to bole which is produced later. If the shaft is made larger than hole, the result is
interferenye tit.
Standard Fits
The system of limits and fits recommended at national level comprises of 18 grades of fundamental
tolerance or in other words, grades of accuracy of manufacture, and 25 types of fundamental deviations.
Scope : This standard specified suitable hole and shaft combinations in line with IS: 2709 for I0
general fits.
. Table 10.2: Standard fits and applications
No. Type and description offit Symbol Examples
I. Clearance fit
I. Loose running H 1ifc 11 ,H9/d 10,H 8/d9 Farm equipments. gland seals, block bearing and loose
pulleys
2. Easy running H 8/d 8, H9/e 9 For general loose clearance fit and for properly lubricated
bearings requiring appreciable clearance. Several bearings
in line
3. Normal running H8/f8, H7'f7• H8/f7 Normal numing fits for grease or oil lubricating bearings,
pump or gearbox shaft bearings and bearings of small
electric motors.
4. Close running Hgfg7, H/g6, H7'h 6 Bearings for accurate Iink work and for piston and slide
valves. Sometimes used for location fits. Non-running
assemblies.
5. Precision sliding H8/g7, H7'~ Used as normal location fits or as precision sliding fits
light precision bearings
ll. Transition fit

I. Push Coupling spigots and recesses, rings clamped to steel
hub.Fitted bolts.
2. Light keying Recommended for location fits where slight interference
can be tolerated with the object of eliminating vibrations.
Couplings keyed to shafts.
3. Heavy keying For tight assembly fits
III. Interference fit
I. Light press Standard press fit for steel C.I. or brass to steel
assemblies. Gears. nuts.
2. Heavy drive Used for permanent or semi-permanent assembly of
steel or cast iron member. The amount of interference
being sufficient to provide considerable gripping force.
When using elastic materials, e.g. light alloy, it is
equivalent to the 'p' shaft fit in ferrous materials, collars
pressed on to shafts, valve seating, bearings, bushes in
alloy housings etc.
Analyze the following combinations of holes and shafts and suggest what fit will result with these
combinations
(a). 30H/h6 (b). 25H/f7 (c). 50P/h5
So/11tio11s:
a) Referring to standard tables in the Design Handbook, we get
Standard tolerance for IT6 grade for 30 mm diameter= +0.013
HOLE
i·
Basic size = Lower limit of hole= 30.00 mm
i
Upper limit of hole = Basic size + standard tolerance
= 30.00 + 0.013 = 30.013 mm
SHAFf
Deviations for shaft Jz6 {Low= -0.013 and High= 0}
Upper limit of shaft = 30.00
Lower limit of shaft = 30.00 - 0.013 = 29.987 mm
Therefore,
Minimum clearance = Lower limit of hole - upper limit of shaft
= 30.00 -30.00 = 0
Maximum clearance = Upper limit of hole - lower limit of shaft
= 30.013-29.987 = 0.026 mm
MANUFACTURING LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES IN FARM MACHINERY 323
The resultant fit is an interference fit.

b) Referring to standard tables in the Design Handbook, we get
Standard tolerance for ID grade for 25 mm diameter = 0.021
HOLE
Basic size = Lower limit of hole= 25 .00 mm
Upper limit of hole = Basic size + standard tolerance
= 25.00 + 0.021 = 25.021 mm
SHAFf
Deviations for shafth {Low= -0.041 and High= - 0.020}
Upper limit of shaft = 24.959 mm
Lower limit of shaft = 24.980 mm
Therefore,
= 25.00 - 24.98 = 0.020
= 25.021 - 24.959 = 0.062 mm
The fit is clearance fit. It is being positive in all cases.
c) Referring to standard tables in the Design Handbook, we get

Standard tolerance for IT7 grade for 50 mm diameter= 0.025
Standard tolerance for ITS grade for 50 mm diameter= 0.Ql 1
HOLE
Deviations for hole P 7 {Low= - 0.017 and High= - 0.042}
Maximum size of hole = 50.00 - 0.017 = 49.993 mm
Minimum size of hole = 50.00 - 0.042 = 49.958 mm
SHAFf
Deviations for shafth {Low= 0 and High= - 0.011 }
Upper limit ( Maximum size) of shaft= 50.00 mm
Lower limit (Minimum size) of shaft = 50.000 - 0.011 = 49.989
Therefore,
= 49.958 - 50.000 = - 0.042
= 49.993 - 49.989 = 0.004 mm
It is a interference fit.
Note: Refer tables of Standard Design Hand Book for the values of deviations.
EXERCISE
l. Calculate the values of allowance and tolerances of hole and shaft of a mating parts having following
dimensions based on hoJe system:
Hole: 35.50 mm,35.525 mm
Shaft: 35.46 mm, 35.435 mm
2. A 60 mm shaft with medium force fit require a hole tolerance of0.220 mm, shaft tolerance of0.218 mm
and average interference of0.0350 mm. Using basic hole system determine the proper hole and shaft
dimensions of the mated parts of the fit.
3. The following hole and shaft dimensions and tolerances are provided to the wheel axle assembly of a
cotton planter. Determine the hole tolerance and allowance of fit. Also analyze which type of fit will
result?
Hole: 30 mm -0.03 and +0.03 mm
Shaft: 30 mm,-025 mm, +0.00 mm
4. Give the maximum values of clearance and tolerances for the following assemblies of machine parts:
(1)35H 1 /c 11 (ii)30Hgff7 (iii)25H/p 6 (iv)25H8/d 10
5. A 50 mm diameter shaft of power transmission system of a VCR rotates in bearings. The tolerances for
shaft and bearings are 0.065 mm and 0 .055 mm respectively and the required allowance is 0.10 mm.
Using basic hole system, determine the shaft and bore size of the bearings of the ~rive.
CHAPTER 11
Material Bill and Construction Cost in Farm
Machinery Project Design
Proper planning of agro-based project not only facilitates on schedule development of the project but
also guarantees attainment of projected production levels. Such a proper project planning also forms
the basis of bankable feasibility study required for financing purpose. Assuming that at various locations,
options of setting up of manufacturing units exists, economic analysis reqttired to support each of
these options are provided as a sample in form of:
CASE STUDY
Project on Manufacturing of Multipurpose Ridger Seeder Cum Seed Fertilizer Machine
11.1. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE MACHINE

Tractor drawn ridger seeder is a tractor drawn implement which forms ridges and furrows and
carries out sowing either on the ridge, side of the ridge or in the furrows as desired. The seed drill
consists of seed hopper, fertilizer hopper, seed metering mechanism, fertilizer metering mechanism.
drive system, drive wheels, hitch system, ridger bodies, furrow openers, transport wheel and sturdy
. frame made of mild steel sections. The ridger body consists of two mouldboards and share mounted
in the front. The wingspan of the ridger can be adjusted to vary width of furrow or ridge. Seed and
fertilizer metering un!ts receive power from ground wheel through chain and sprocket system.
During operation, ridges having flattop are formed by the ridger bodies on which the seeds are sown.
The isometric view of tractor drawn two bottpm ridger seeder is given in Fig. 11 . I. The components
detail, front and side view of the same is given in Figs. 11.2, I 1.3 and 11 .4 respectively.
The tractor drawn ridger seeder can be modified into a 9 row multicrop seed-cum-fertilizer drill
simply by changing the ridger bottoms with combined inverted T-type of furrnw openers at suitable
spacing depending on type of crop sown. This can be used for flat sowing of crop. The components
of tractor drawn multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill is given in Fig. 10.5. The isometric, front and side
view of the same is given in Figs. I 1.6, 11 .7 and 11.8 respectively.
Thus, a tractor drawn ridger seeder by slight modification can also be used as multipurpose ridger
seeder cum seed fertilizer drill.
Fig. 11.1: Isometric view of tractor drawn ridger seede/

2. Ridger bottom
3. Ground wheel
4. Main frame
5. Furrow opener
6. Sprocket chain
7. Shaft
8. Seed cup
9. Shaft
10. Seed box
I 1. Fertilierbox
12. Fertilier metering roller
13. Hitch point
14. Clamp
Fig. 11.2: Components of two bottom tractor drawn ridger seeder

MATERIAL BILL AND CONSTRUCTION COST IN FARM MACHINERY PROJECT DESIGN 327
110
54
""'r""' ''
l
23 ,~, \ ;. ~1
1
------- ------207.5
~~,~ ~
Fig. 11.3: Front view of two bottom tractor drawn ridger seeder
~55--
Fig. 11.4: Side view of two bottom tractor drawn ridger seeder
I. Tool bar
2. Ridger bottom
3. Ground wheel
4. ty!ain frame
5. Furrow opener
6. Sprocket chain
1. Shaft
8. Seed cup
9. Shaft
IO. Seed box
11. Fertilier box
12 . Fertilier metering roller
13. Hitch point
I"4. Clamp
Fig. 11.5: Components of tractor drawn multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill
'
Fig. 11.6: Isometric view of tractor drawn multi crop seed cum fertilizer drill
....._ .............______.,._..,.. _____ ,.. __ .... __...,..,______

1;=========-·-=-==-=========m-.
----..--------------------·------------ , ,..
_ __ ___ .
19
110
1
54
37
Fig. 11.7: Front yiew of tractor drawn multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill
~===;T
19
I
1
54 l
9
,iA.,.,~;:&_'½.t,..,,:,iw::<~"'!;7-"'1.
I
28
-·I
Fig. 11.8: Side view of tractor drawn multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill
The two bottom ridger-seeder is mainly used for ridge-furrow planting of crops. It has got a M.S.
angle rectangular frame 1780 x 600 mm, with front and rear tool bars. The tool bars are fabricated
from two 1784-mm long M.S. angle iron 70 x 70 x S mm size welded together to form a square box.
The front tool bar is welded to the main frame on its edge while the rear tool bar with its face. In the
rear tool bar 7 .S mm diameter holes at a spacing of 25.4 mm are drilled for attaching the furrow
openers with nuts/bolts.
On both sides of the rectangular frame, 60 x 5 mm size, 160-mm long mild steel flats with suitable
number of holes are welded to support the ground wheels. On the front tool bar two ridger bottoms
at suitable distance are attached with the help of specially designed clamps, while, four shoe type
furrow openers are bolted to the rear tool bar for seeding behind the ridger.
The ridger bottoms are fabricated from especially casted cast iron wings hinged on both sides of
nose type share. The tip of share is also replaceable type. The size of ridges/furrows can be varied
with the help of suitable adjustment provided in the hinged wings. Four shoes type furrow openers
specially designed and fabricated from G.I. pipes are bolted to rear tool bar with nuts/bolts.
Loosening the clamps and raising/lowering the furrow openers in the circular clamps can vary the
depth of seeding behind the ridger bottom, either on ridges or in furrows. Row to row distance can
also be changed with the help of nuts/bolts.
Two M.S. channels 75 x 40 x S mm size, 750 mm long are welded 550 mm apart to give adequate
strength to the main frame and attaching the machine w ith the tractor. To support the seed and
fertilizer box, M.S . angle iron frames of suitable size are fabricated and welded to the main frame.
11.2. DETAILED TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF THE MACHINE

(a) As ridger-seeder (Figs. 11. 1 to 11.4)
Sr. No. Description Specifications
I. Source of power Tractor 35HP
2. Suitability for crops Mustard. Gram. Cotton. Green gram and Pearl millet
3. No. of ridger bottoms Two
4. No. of furrow openers Four
5 Row spacing adjustments 30-60 cm paired
6. Fertilizer placement with respect to seed. 1.5 to 2.0 cm below seed
7. Depth of sowing (cm) Adjustable as per needs of crop
8. Type of seed metering Fluted rollers
9. Type of fertilizer metering CJ/Aluminum casting plates with cells
10. Size of main frame 70 x 70 " 6-mm angle square box 1700 mm long
II. Size ofseedbox 1410 x 40 x 180 mm with side paititions in bottom
12. Size of fertilizer box 1410 x 40 x 180 mm
13. Ground wheel diameter(mm) 600 mm with lugs
14. Total width of ridger (mm) 730mm
15. Weight of machine (Kg) 370kg
16. Field capacity of machine (ha/hr) 0.75
17. Cost ofmachi<1e (Rs.) Rs.17500.00
18. Saving in irrigation water(%) 30-40 %
(b) As seed-cum-fertilizer drill (Figs. 11.5 and 11.8)

S1: No. Description Specifications
I. Source of power Tractor 35HP
2. Suitability for crops Wheat, Barley, Sorghum, Pearl millet, Mustard and
Gram
3. No. of furrow openers Nine
4. Row spacing adjustments 15-60 cm as per crops
5 Fertilizer placement with respect to seed: 1.5 to 2.0 cm below seed
6. Depth of sowing (cm) Adjustable as per needs of crop
7. Type of seed metering Fluted rollers
8. Type offertilizer metering CJ/Aluminum casting plates with cells
9. Size of main frame 70 x 70 x 6-mm angle square box 1700 mm long
10. Size of seed box 1410 x 40 x 180mm with side partitions in bottom
I I. Size of fertilizer box 141 0 x 40 x 180 mm
12. Ground wheel diameter (mm) 600 mm with lugs
13. Total width ofridger (mm) 730mm
I 14.
15.
16.
Weight of machine (kg)
Field capacity of the machine (ha/hr)
Cost of machine (Rs)
370Kg
0.75
Rs.17500.00
11.3. PROJECT PROFILE

11.3.1. Assumptions for Manufacturing of Equipment in Small Scale Sector
• Production target : 20 machines/month
• Quality control : According to figure, specifications and guidance given by BIS.
11.3.2. Land and Building Requirements
Constructed shed of 4.5m x l Om and land of 30 x 24m. Let, the rent of building is Rs. I 0,000/- per
month.
i~
~ 11.3.3. Machine and. Tool Requirements
I No.
I.
2.
3.
4.
Name and description
Welding set 600 Amps
Drill machine 2.5 cm diameter
Bench grinder, 20 cm diameter
Disc grinder, 20 cm diameter
Quantity
One
One
One
One
Cost. (Rs.)
35,000
80,000
10,000
10,000
5. Lathe machine (Precise) One 3,00,000
6. Gas welding set One 30,000
7. Hydraulic press One 40,000
·It~·• 8. Hand drilling machine Two 10,000
9. Tool sets Five Sets 50.000
ii
Total 5,65,000
~1-i!
11.4. MATERJAL BILL

This is not simply a material list, but is constructed in such a way that reflects the manufacturing
process. The bill of material is an ordered list of all parts that are needed, for a particular product. It
not only shows the materials, parts and components needed, but also the order in which they are used.
The bill of material can be shown as per Table 11.1, where the details of assembly and sub-assemblies
are given and show the parts needed to make each product/implement. The finished product is level
'0'; level '1' item are used directly to make 'O' level items. Level '2' items are used to make level 'l'
items and so on.
Table 11.1: Material bill of tractor drawn multicrop ridger seeder cum seed fertilizer drill
No. Name of part/assembly Remarks
I. Tool bar Sub-assembly
2. Ridger bottom -do-
3. Ground wheel -do-
4. Main frame -do-
5 Furrow opener -do-
6. Chain-sprocket -do-
7. Fertilizer metering shaft -do-
8. Seed metering shaft -do-
9. Seed cups -do-
10. Seed box -do-
11. Fertilizer box -do-
12. Fertilizer metering rollers -do-
13. Hitch point -do-
14. Clamps -do-
15. Plastic pipe -do-
Level '0' Tractor drawn ridger seeder cum seed fertilizer drill
Level '1' Main frame Ridger Drive Seed mechanism Fertilizer mechanism
mechanism
Level '2' Hitch, Mould Drive Seed box Seed Furrow Fertilizer Fertilizer Furrow
clamps, boards, wheel metering openers box metering openers
MS angles, share, (Ground mechanism mechanism
MS flats etc wingspan wheel),
etc. sprccket,
bearing
Level '3' MS Sheets, Tool bar, MS Sheets,
angles,
flats etc. {\
shovel
/shoe
angles,
flats etc. (\
I
I \
Fluted roller, seed cups, Fluted roller, orifice opening,
seed tubes, seed boot, fertilizer tubes, fertilizer
seed metering shaft, chain, sprocket, metering shaft, chain, sprocket,
bearing, seed rate indexing lever bearing, fertilizer rate indexing lever
11.5 DETAIL ANALYSIS

Source of funding
(i) Bank loan (75% of total project cost)
(ii) Personal share (25% of total project cost)
1. Raw Materials Requirements:

Angle iron, M.S. flats, M.S. pipes, M.S. rounds, Rs. 2,00,000
sprocket-chains, aluminum seed metering rollers, per month
cast iron rollers, ridger bottoms, bearing block and
bearings, belt, plastic pipes, nuts/bolts and rivets,
welding rods and paints etc.
2. Expenditure on Utilities (Monthly basis)

(i) Electricity expenditure@ Rs. 4.50/- per kW Rs. 2,500
· (ii) Water charges Rs. 500
Total Rs. 3,000
3. Manpower requirements
No. Descriptio11 No. Rate (Rs.lmollth) Amou11t (Rs.)
1. Supervisor/entrepreneur l0000/- 10,000

2. Skilled workers 3 4000/- -rr,uuo
3. Unskilled workers 4 2500/- l0,000
Total 32,000
4. Miscellaneous expenditure (monthly basis)

(5% of raw material requirement) 10,000
5. Total working capital (monthly basis)

(i) Rent of shed building 10,000
(ii) Cost of raw material 2,00,000
(iii) Expenditure on utilities 3,000
(iv) Salary of staff 32,000
( v) Miscellaneous expenses 10,000
Total Rs. 2,55,000
6. Essential working capital (15 days requirement) : Rs. 1, 27, 500

( 50% of total working capital on monthly basis)
7. Total project cost

(i) Cost of machinery Rs. 5, 65, 000
(ii) Essential working capital Rs. I, 27, 500
Total Rs. 6, 92, 500
8. Loan amount (75% of total project cost) = 5,19,375 Rs. 5,20,000 (say)
9. Production Cost
(i)Annual working capital (Rs.2,55,000 X 12) Rs. 30,60,000
(ii)Depreciation on fixed capital @ 10% of cost of machinery Rs 56,500
(iii)lnterest on capital from bank loan @ 12% Rs 62,400
Rs. 31, 78, 900
(iv)Per unit production cost (Rs.31,78,900/240) Rs . 13,245.42
Say Rs. 13,500
10. Profit from the production unit

(i) Sale proceeds @ Rs.15500/- per unit for 240 units: Rs. 37,20,000
(ii) Production cost Rs. 37,78,900
(iii) Profit = Sale proceeds-Production cost
-. Rs.37,20,000-Rs.31,78,900 Rs. 5,41,100
(iv) Monthly profit Rs. 45,092
So, starting of a manufacturing unit for tractor drawn multicrop ridger seeder cum seed
fertilizer machine is a profitable proposal.
The break even point, pay back period, return on investment and employment generation
regarding the manufacturing of tractor drawn multicrop ridger seeder cum seed ferti lizer machine is
given below.
Break even point: The break even point is given by
Fixed cost
Break even point = Fixed
. cost+ Profit
x I00
= Rs.5,65,000 x 100 = 5 I.OS%

Rs.5, 65, 000 + Rs.5, 41,100
It means that if the manufacturer fabricates more than 123 units, then he will be iri profit.
Pay back period: The pay back period is given by
Capital investment
Pay back period = . .
Annual profit+ Deprec1at1on
(Fixed cost + Working capital)

(Annual profit + Depreciation)
= (5,65,000 + 1,27,500) = 1.1 6 years

(5,41, 100 + 56,500)
Return on investment: The return on investment is given by
= Annual profit x = 5,41,100 x = _ %

Return on investment 100 100 78 14
Capital Investment 6, 92,500
Employment generation: The working man-days generated due to the project is given by
Working man-days/year = 8 hours/day x 12 months/year x 25 days/month
= 2400 man-days.
CHAPTER 12
Reliability in Farm Machinery
12.1 DEFINITION OF RELIABILITY

The meaning of reliability is 'soundness and consistence of quality'. Reliability can be defined as
follows:
"Reliability is the probability ofa device performing its purpose adequately for the period intended
under the given operating conditions".
The definition brings into focus four important factors, namely,
1. The reliability of a device is expressed as a probability,
2. The device is required to give adequate performance,
3. The duration of adequate performance is specified; and
4. The environmental or operating conditions are prescribed.
Thus, reliability R of the product can therefore be defined as the probability that the product continues
to meet the specification, over a given period, subject to given operating conditions. The unreliability
F of the product can be defined as tlie probability that the product fails to meet the specification, over
a given time period, subject to given operating conditions. Failure may occur due to various factors
like wear, mechanical fracture and chemical corrosion.
Both reliability and unreliability vary with time. As reliability R (t) decreases with time, the unreliability
F (t) increases with time. Since at any time t, the product has either survived or failed, the sum of
reliability and unreliability must be l, i.e.,
I R (t) + F (t) = I
In simpler terms reliability depends upon:
• Good design,
• Capable manufacturing (including procurement), and
• Continuing elimination of problems.
12.2. AREAS OF RELIABILITY

Certain areas ofreliability have been given in Table 12. I, and are classified into the categories of design.
purchase, manufacture, storage and transportation, management, usage and user inspection.
RELIABILITY IN FARM MACHINERY 337
An effort has been made to clearly demark these areas for better understanding and application so as to
achieve a reliable product.
Table 12.1: Areas of reliability
Category Arens
Design Establishment of performance and specification. reproducibility, replaceability. economy.

anticipated level of user, reliability planning, system 's design, factors contributing to
reliability, operating environmental and usage conditions, human engineering and safety
factors, drafting, tolerances, foo l proofing, fail safe considerations, redundancy, life tests
and life prediction, accelerated tests, deterioration tests, test production.
Purchase Quality and reliability requirements, incentives, reliable procurement planning.
Manufacture Process planning, investigation of process effectiveness, worker education and training,
maintenances of manufacturing standards. material testing, intermediate inspection.
warranty inspection, aging and debugging.
Storage and transportation Packing, storage environment and conditions, transportation and handing, reliability check.
Management Training of servicing personnel, service network, preventive maintenance. replacement
policies, and instruction manuals.
Usage Use and procedures, operator training, environment control, method of detecting failure(s}
and disposition, preventive maintenance, periodic inspection and maintenance, maintenance
contract, procurement and storage of spares, replacement of standards.
User inspection Plant inspection, acceptance sampling plans, process check, and reliability demonstration.
12.3. IMPORTANCE OF RELIABILITY

Every product has two components. On the manufacturer who makes the product and other the
customer who is the end user. Let us see that why reliability is important to both manufacturer and
customer.
Importance to Customer
Customers want reliability for two main reasons. First the customers want his machine fit for any time
use. Customer does not want to waste time for parts unavailability, waiting for the repairmen, diagnostic
time and time to repair especially in planting and harvesting seasons.
The second reason for the customer requiring reliability is related to cost of repair. The failure of
any component after warranty period can be a significant cost burden to the customers. The long-
term durability of a machine can be improved by providing thicker gears, more durable materials, more
precise machinery which gives customer satisfaction.
Importance to Manufacturer
According to a survey, total revenue loss resulting from unreliability problem amount to 6 to 15 percent
of sales revenue. The losses are due to:
• Replacements during warranty period.
• Loss due to current customer's dissatisfaction.
• Unwilling new customers.
• Engineering/manufacturing time to rectify the defects.
Thus, the product reliability is important to customers and manufacturers. Customers need high
machine availability and low cost ofrepairs. Customer satisfaction with a product',s the manufacturer's
main incentive for providing good reliability and poor reliability is a significant cost which should be
avoided. Competition and changing customer expectations are continually increasing the level ofreliability
that must be provided.
12.4. TERMINOLOGY RELATED WITH RELIABILITY

1. Failure: Failure is the termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function. This
can be defined as "a drop offin pe,formance below some tolerable lever.
2. Redundancy: The existence of more than one means for accomplishing a given function. Each
means of accomplishing the function need not necessarily be identical. There are two types of redun-
dancy which are given below :
(i) Redundancy, active: It is that redundancy wherein all redundant items are operating simulta-
neously rather than being switched on when needed.
(ii) Redundancy, standby: It is that redundancy wherein the alternative means of performing the
function is inoperative until needed and is switched on upon failure of the primary means of performing
the function.
For Non-repairable Items

1. Mean time to failure (MTTF): If T1 is the time to failure or survival time or up time or
operational. time for the first sample, T2 is the up time for the second sample, and TN the up time for
the N-th sample, the mean time to failure is given by
MTTF = Operational time = Total up time

Number of sample Number of failure
MTTF ;;; ( 7i + T2 + ... + Tn ) = _!_ ;I, T;

N N i=I
2. Mean failure rate ( 11.): This is the reciprocal of Mean time to failure (MTTF), which is the ratio
ofnumber of failures to the total up time. Failure rate of a product during life time is given in Fig. 12.1.
MTTF = Number of samples= Nut~~er of failures

Total up time Total up time
Instantaneous I
failure rate Early failure 1
i,,(t) I
I Useful life
I
I
I
I
lime (t)
Fig. 12.1: Failure rate of a product during life time.
For Repairable Items

1. Mean down time (MDT): Down time is the time elapsed for repairing the machine. The down time
(D) associated with the N-th failure, is the total time that elapses between occurrence of the failure and
the repaired item being put back into normal operation. The mean down time is given by
MDT= Total down time (D1 + D2 + .. ..+ DN)

Number of failure (N)
I r=N
MDT=-LD,
N r=I
2. Test interval
Test interval = Total up time + Total down time
= (T1 + T2+ .....+TN) + (D 1+ D 2+ ....+ DN)
i=N i=N
Test interval = L T; + L D;
i=I i=l
3. Mean time between failure (MTBF): This is synonymous to the Mean time to failure (MTTF) of
non-repairable items. For repairable items, we generally calculate Mean time between failure (MTBF).
MTBF is the mean value of the length of time between consecutive failures computed as the ratio of the
cumulative up time or survival time to the number of failures. The relationship between customer
satisfaction and MTBF is given in Fig.12.2.
MTBF = Total up time (7j + T2 + .... + T,v)

Number of failures (N)
Mean time between failure

Hour goal
Fig. 12.2: Customer satisfaction level related to MTBF
4. Availability: The availability of the product is the fraction of the total test interval that is performing
within specification
a 1 1ty (A) = - - - -Totaluptime(7i+T

Avai"lb"I" ------~-~
+-
2- ....-+TN)
------
Test interval (total up time + total down time)
A= N x MTBF = __MT_'B_F__
(N x MTBF) + (N x MDT) MTBF + MDT
It is possible to define three types of availability depending on the time elements into consideration.
These are:
(i) Inherent availability.
(ii) Achieved availability.
(iii) Operational availability.
Inherent availability: This is the probability that a system or equipment shall operate
satisfactorily when used under stated conditions in an ideal support environment, without
consideration for any scheduled or preventive maintenance at any given time. It excludes ready time,
preventive maintenance downtime, supply downtime and administrative downtime. Ideal support
environment means-the 1'eady availability of tools, patts, manpower, manuals etc:
Achieved availability: This is the probability that a system or equipment shall operate
satisfactorily when used under stated conditions in an ideal support environment, with consideration
for any scheduled or preventive maintenance or corrective maintenance at any given time.
Operational availability: It is the probability that a system or equipment shall operate
satisfactorily when used under stated conditions in an actual supply environment, at any given time,
with consideration for any scheduled or preventive maintenance or corrective maintenance, supply
downtime and administrative downtime. Supply downtime is that portion of non-active maintenance
time during which maintenance is delayed solely because a required item is not readily available.
j
,I
In general, the availability of a system is a complex function of reliability, maintainability and

supply effectiveness. This can be expressed as:
As= f (Rs, Ms, 8 s)
where, As = system availability
Rs = system reliability
Ms = system maintainability
Ss = supply effectivenes
5. Unavailability: The unavailability of the product is the fraction of the total test interval that is not
performing within specification. The components of down time is given in the Fig.12.3.
. b. . (U ) Total down time (D1 + D2 + .... + DN)

Unava1 1a 111ty 'A =- - - - -- ---~-~---~--
Test interval (total up time + total down time)
UA =--M_D_T_ _
MTBF+MDT
Thus,
Availability (A)+ unavailability ( UA) = I
Down time
s~~~;i;~Sa~i---- rime 10 repair
Total (hrs/year) - Transport time
fl,J♦
W♦JJ.♦UJ
♦Lll
♦.JJ.
♦IJJ
♦♦
W♦J..lj
♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦
: : : : : :-: : : - Scheduled maintenance

- Scheduling delay
....,...,..,..,...,..,.,,....,...,-,l
1
11 11111111111111111 - Parts a,,,,
Fig. 12.3: Down time ingredients ofa machine
6. Maintainability:Maintainability is the probability that a unit or system will be restored to specified

conditions within a given period when maintenance action is taken in accordance with prescribed
procedures and resources. It is a characteristic of the design and installation of the unit or system.
It can be defined as the ability of an item under stated conditions of use to be retained or restored to
a state in which it can perform its required functions when maintenance is performed under stated
conditions and using prescribed procedures and resources.
7. Corrective maintenance: The actions performed as a result of fai lure to restore a machine to
a specified condition.
8. Preventive maintenance: The actions performed in an attempt to retain an item in a specific
condition by providing systematic inspection, detection and prevention of incipient failure _
9. Availability index: It is the ratio of operational time to the operational time plus lost time.
. b'I' . d (AI) Operational time

= ------''---------
A vai 1a 1 1ty m ex
Operational time+ Lost time
Al=------AA_U_ _ _ __
AA U + SMI' + TTR +PD+ SD+ TT
where AA U = average annual usage
SMI' = scheduled maintenance time/year
TTR = time to repair/year
PD= parts delay/year at dealership
SD = scheduling delay/year at dealership
TT = transport time/year to dealer.
10. Reliability index (RI) of tractor: This index measures the percentage of assurance of proper
working of a tractor and is detennined as follows:
Rl='A1 x P2 = 0.04nC x P2 = 160nP2

Pi A2 0.25 x 1o-3 x BC A2 BA2
where, A 1 = breakdown charges available= 0.04 nC
where n = number of years of breakdown occurrence since purchase
C = New cost of tractor
P 1 = Penalty for breakdown = }j = 0.25 x I o-3 x BC

B = number of breakdown hours
P2 = Money blocked in storing the requisite spare parts
A2 = breakdown charges (actual incurred)
i The optimum reliability index is determined by equating the denominator to the numerator in the
II above equation and by assuming that P/A 2=1 Thus, the above equation becomes B = 160 n = 1600
hours assuming that n = 10 years life span.
I This indicates that in order to maintain an optimum reliability index, the total number ofbreakdown
I hours in the life-time of a tractor must not exceed to 1600 hours.
I 11. Constant-Hazard rate: Failure may occur at any time during the life of the device. If X units
are in operation, in time t, the number of units x still operating is given by the following equation,
X
X = e'lt.,
where, tm is the mean time to failure (MTTF).
The hazard rate or constant failure rate is given in Fig.12.4.
If the mean time to failure and standard' deviation are known, the percentage of failure for normal
distribution can be obtained*. The standard deviation (cr) in time units is given by
a=
. I:ci,,, .:.,)2
X
where, £111 = mean tim,e to failure (MTTF)
t = time
X = number of units in operation.
Design engineers are particularly interested in predicting the reliability so that necessary change can
be made before the machine is constructed.
R = (cost)°(weight}6(Volumef
The constants a, b and c can be determined from similar machines _or devices which are already
tested and have well known reliabilities.
1.0
Probability
Fig. 12.4: Hazard rate or constant failure rate

12.5. DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCT RELIABILITY
To design and develop reliability into a new product, it is necessary to know the reliability levels of the
product at any point in its development. The information used in assessing reliability levels comes from
a variety of software and hardware sources. The primary informational sources are:
• Computer design analysis/simulation
• Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)
• Multifunctional design reviews
• Bayesian estimates
• Components laboratory tests
• Field tests.
The flow chart of the development of product reliability is as follows:
Product definition
Reliability goals
Design.analysis
Laboratory tests
Field testing
( Pilot testing )
t. Product definition: For effective use of man power and capital, a thorough definition of new
product specification and manufacturing methods should be made. Engineering, marketing,
manufacturing, product planning, service and reliability must define specifically the features that will
be needed in the market place by the time of production.
For properly defining a product, recently, a system called Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is
used for designing products or services based on the customer demands and involving all members of
the producer and supplier organization.
2. Reliability goals: A reliability goal is a target level of reliability that will provide customer
acceptance. A meaningful goal when achieved should cause a positive purchasing influence in the
market place. While setting the goals, the factors which should be considered are customer expectations,
the reliability level of major competitors, expected product usage, previous model experience and
complexity.
3. Design analysis: Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) and multifunctional design revi~ws
are used to identify po_tential problems while the design is still in its conceptual stage. Another software
source of information is computer simulation. Mathematical models and physical relationships can be
used to improve designs both in a functional and reliability sense before the actual hardware stage.
(.a) Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA): FMEA is a design analysis tool. This analyzes and
identifies potential failure modes, determines relative severity and occurrence, and provides a
means of follow-up for the design and development process to eliminate significant failure modes.
Thus, it increases the basic reliability of a design.
FMEA considers design, manufacturing. assembly and service problems.
An FMEA can be best performed by a team of 3-5 members having background of current and
previous designs, customer use, manufacturing processes, marketing and service. In the first
meeting, members are given information about individual parts like drawings, material to be used,
etc. Then the individual members list the potential failure modes as per the commonly accepted
rating scale (l to 5) like severity of the problem, frequency of problem, cost of failures, detect-
ability etc. · In the second meeting, the individual lists are consolidated and each item is discussed
with the team for common understanding. The interpretation of rating scale is as follows:
Rating Occurrence Severity
<0.1 % Insignificant effect

2 0. 1%-0.5% Repair is easy, inexpensive or with periodic service
3 0.5%-5% Performance impaired
4 5%-20% Downtime or expensive failure
5 >20% Downtime, expensive or potentially hazardous.
Average severity, occurrence and detectability ratings are generated for each failure mode, agreed
upon by the team, and multiplied together to create the risk priority number. Items receiving high
risk priority should be considered for appropriate corrective action. In addition to listing the high
priority items, a report should record team recommendations for action to reduce probability or
severity of failure. These can be design changes suggestions or recommendations of further
analysis or tests to confirm the findings. A sample of FMEA is as follows:
Part Fail1we Effects of Causes of Occurrence Seriousness Dectectability Risk Recommended
name mode failure failure priority corrective
No. action and status
Wheel Break Wheel Fatigue 2 5 4 40 Increase
I
fillet
hub falls off (2x5x4) radius
Thrust Break Knee or Too brittle 2 I 5 10 --·-
washer --fall out knuckle wear I (2 x1xsi
(b) Multifunctional design reviews: Multifunctional design reviews are carried out on engineering,
manufacturing, reliability and product support groups to collectively analyze a group of parts,
express their respective concerns and thereby reduce the number of revisions required to achieve
an acceptable, cost effective design.
4. Testing
(a) Laboratory and stress tests: Laboratory testing reduces the amount of field testing required.
Uti Iization of laboratory testing is emphasized for the following reasons:
• The ability to identify failure modes/reliability concerns on such machine items as transmission,
engine, hydraulic pumps, cooling, fuel tanks, fans, electronic monitors, radiators and structural
members.
• Repetitive comparative in-house testing may be more economical than complete machine build
and testing.
The main advantage of laboratory testing is greater control of test parameters and the ability to
prove reliability oflow failure items under accelerated conditions.
(b) Complete machine tests: Reliability testing of the first full machine build should consist of parts
which have some degree of proven reliability form the previous experience. Testing must be
carefully managed to secure sufficient test time under simulated customer loading.
A pilot production build is carried out some months prior to production to -try out new machines,
tools, fixtures, gauges and assembly procedures and identify deficiencies for correction prior to
production start-up. Pilot production build also verifies the reliability levels previously projected.
(c) Correlation factors: Correlation factors are used to convert field test hours or laboratory cycles
into customer hours. The two basic components of correlation factor are:
(i) Severity factor: Testing production machines at the test site by operating them as experimen-
tal units. Special emphasis is placed on new designs through frequent inspections and re-
builds can artificially increase the test severity.
(ii) Reporting intensity factor: The test data are analyzed for warrantable failures and an MTBF
is completed. A comparison of the test site MTBF to the warranty MTBF yields the correla-
tion factor. The number oftest site failures will often be 2-5 times that noted in the customer
hands.
5. Reliability growth curves: The reliability growth curve is a guideline for reliability growth
needed during a new product development program in order to achieve the reliability goals in customer
service. A vehicle reliability growth curve is given iri Fig.12.5. Growth curve methodology sets the
following guidelines:
• Reliability levels needed at tooling commitment, pilot production and initial production to ensure
adequate correction of product deficiencies.
• Test program required to adequately identify failure modes and reliability deficiencies prior to
tooling commitment, pilot production and initial production.
Mature product
Pilot production ~
Programme
commitment
1
Tooling
commitment
Fig. 12.S: A vehicle reliability growth curve
12.6. SYSTEM RELIABILITY

If the reliability factor or the probability of failure of the system is to be determined, the system is
broken down to sub-systems and elements whose individual reliability factors can be estimated or
determined. Depending on the manner iii which these sub-systems are present, the combinatorial rules
of probability ar~ applied to obtain the system reliability. The basic steps are as follows:
(a) First, the elements and sub-systems which constitute the given system and whose individual
reliability factors can be estimated are identified. These will be called as the units comprising the
system.
(b) Next, the logical manner or configuration in which these units are connected to form the system
is represented by a clock diagram or a circuit diagram.
(c) The condition for the successful operation of the system is then determined, that is, it may be
decided as to how the units should function . For example, should all the units be operative, or will
it be sufficient for any one unit to function?
(d) Finally, the combinatorial rules of probability theory (i.e) addition rule, multiplication rule, and
their combinations are applied to arrive at the system reliability factor.
The system configuration can be of following types:
(i) Series configuration,
(ii) Parallel configuration, and
(iii) Mixed configuration
Series configuration: Components attached in series will have an overall factor of safety equivalent
to the weakest link. Therefore, the system factor of safety equals the smallest factor of safety of all the
components. The overall reliability of a system of components in series is given by
Rs= R 1 X R 2 X ... ..... X R11
where
Rs - Reliability of a system in series
R1, R2 •.. . •. Reliability of each component
Example of series configuration
R 1 = 0·8
Reliabilitysystem = R 1 x R2 x R3 x R4
= 0.9 X 0.8 X 0.85 X 0.75
= 0.459.
Parallel configuratiQn: For a system with components in parallel, the probability of the system
failure, FP, is the product of the individual components probabilities of failure, where FP=I-RP. That
is, a system with 30% probability of fai lure has a reliability of70%. RP is the reliability of the system
in parallel;
RP= I - (F1 x F2 x .. .. .)
R.,;=1 - (I-R 1)(1 -R2)(1-R3). . . (Since reliability+ failure = I)
The only disadvantage of parallel systems is the added cost for redundancy. An example of parallel
systems is the dual, parallel hydraulic systems on aeroplanes that improve the system's overall reliability.
These systems approach almost fail-safe designs that prevent accidents in case of a single component
failure. This system is more costly, but necessary because of the human lives is involved.
Example of parallel configuration
R, = 0.9
R-1 = 0 .75
Reliability system =l - {(1 - R 1) (1 - R2) (1 - R 3) (1 - R 4)

= I - {(I - 0.9) (1 - 0.8) (I - 0.85) (1 - 0.75)}
= I - {0.1 x 0.2 x 0.15 x 0.25}
= 0.9925.
Mixed configuration: In mixed configuration, elements are connected in series as well as in parallel.
The elements could be dependent dissimilar units or independent identical units.
Example of mixed configuration :
Rc=0.9
Rn=0.1
R,: =0.9
Rv=0.8
Reliability of elements A and Bis given by (RAB)

RAB= I - { ( I - R11 ) (I - R8 )} [Since element A and B is in parallel]
RAB= 1-{(1-0.7) (1-0.7)}
RAB= 1-0.09
RAB= 0.91.
Reliability of elements A, Band C is given by (RABC)
RABC = RAB x Re [Since element AB and C is in series]
RABC = 0.91 x 0.9
RABC = 0.819 say 0.82.
Reliability of elements A, B, C and Dis given by (RABCD)
RABCD = I- {(l -RA 8 c)(I -RD)} [Since element ABC and D is in parallel]
RABCD = 1 - {(1-0.82) (1-0.8)}

RABCD = I - (0.18) (0.2)
R ABCD = 0.964.
ReliabilityS'yslem = R ABCD x RE [Since element ABCD and Eis in series]
= 0.964 X 0.9
Reliability System = 0.868:
100 oil filters of a tractor were placed on test for 1000 hr and during these p eriod 10 .filters jc,i/ecl.
Calculate the failure rate to provide a confidence of 95%.
Solution:
We know that
Failu_re rate= 'J... = x\1-y), (2n + d2NT
where, n = number of components failed
· N = number of components placed on test
T = total test time
X 2 = chi-square function with (2n + 2) degrees of freedom
y = confidence level
Here, n = 10, N = 100, T = 1000 hrs
Referring to standard statistical chi-square tables, we get
2 2
X (1 - y)' (2n+2) = x (0.95, 22) = 33 .924
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get
'A. = 33.924/(2 x 100 x 1000)
= 0.0001696/hr or 0.1696 per I 000 hrs. Ans.
Tlvo fluted rollers ofa single row seed-cum-fertilizer drill are connected in p arallel having.failure rates
J..,1 = 0. 001/hr and J..,2
= 0.0.005/hr respectively. Calculate the reliability ofmetering system for JO hrs.
It is assumed that thefailure rates ofmetering rollers are different though they pe1form similurfimction.
Solution:
Now,
RA = ? and Rs=?
'J... 1 = 0.00 I /hr and A2 :c 0.0.005/hr
For parallel system R (t) = e<-1..rt) + e<-J.., t) - e w.. ,+J..2).t}
' .sys -
R = e (-0.00J x lO) + e(-0.005 x l O) __ e{-(0.001+0.005). 10)
sys(IOJ
= e·0.01 + e·0.05 _ e- 0.06
= 0.99951 or 0.99.95% Ans.
In the above problem, iffailure rates ofboth the rollers is same i.e 1 1 = ;i,,2 = 0.0. 001/hr (Both rollers
are identical) then, what is the reliability of the metering system for IO hrs.?
Solution:
Rsys (10) == 2e(·A.t) - e(·2A.t}
Rsys (10) == 2e(·0.00l xl0) _ e (-2x0.00!xl0}
= 0.99990 or 99.99% Ans
Sixteen planting fingers of a self propelled paddy transplanter were tested for their transplanting
performance in terms oflength oftime interval between failures and it is reported in Table 1. Establish
the failure pattern of transplanting fingers and estimate the parameters.
Table 1: Failure times
Finger number I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time between 19 12 16 1 15 5 10 l 46 7 33 25 4 9 l 10
failures (hours)
Solution : For the sake of simplicity in processing the data of Table 1, the data was arranged in order
statistics i.e. time interval between failures were arranged in the order of magnitude as given in Table 2.
Table 2: Order statistics
Finger number I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time between l l 1 4 5 7 9 10 10 12 15 16 19 25 33 46
failures (hours)
The data of Table 2 was divided into equal intervals (0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40 and 40-50). The
frequency distribution for the above data is given in Table 3.
Table 3: Frequency distribution
Time interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Number of failures 9 4
Calculation of mean and variance:

The mean life of fingers can be calculatea from following equation:
f
1 /
m=- LI;
f i=I
= (I +I+ .......... + 33 + 46)/16 = 214/16 =13.38 hr~.

It can be concluded that on an average the fingers would be operating 13.38 hours without failure.
? 1 /
s- = - - L ( t , - ml
(I - /) i=I
= 1/15(2329.35)
= 155.29 hrs. Ans.
During accelerated test programme of105 precision seedplates ofpnewnatic planter over a period qf
7 hours, frequency of vacuum failures is reported in Table 1. Calculate the survival curve for air
vacuum in seed plates.
Table I: Frequency of failures
Hours No. offailures
0-1 2
1-2 16
2-3 22
3-4 41
4-5 11
5-6 9
6-7 4
. Total 105
Solution: The following method is used for obtaining the survival curve for the given data.
During the first period 0-1 hr, 2 out of 105 items failed, the failure rate is 2/1 OS = 0.0190. For the
second period 1-2 hr, 16 out of the remaining items i.e. 103 failed. The failure rate was 16/103 =
0.1553. The survival rate for 0-1 hr. was 1.0-0. I90 = 0.9810 and so on. The probability of survival is
obtained in each time period. Thus, for time period 1-2 hrs, probability of survival is 0.9810 x 0.8447
= 0.8286.
Similarly, the number of failures and probability of survival of vacuums in plates for different
periods is calculated and reported in the following table.
Time No. offailures Failure rate Survival rate Probability ofsurvival of vaccw,~
0-1 2 0.0190 0.9810 0.9810
1-2 16 0.1553 0.8447 0.8286
2-3 22 0.2529 0.7471 0.6311
3-4 41 0.6037 0.3679 0.2759
4-5 11 0.4583 0.54 17 0.2000
5-6 9 0.6?23 0.3077 0.1667
6-7 4 1.00 0.00 0.00
. 352 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
A small centrifugal type pump is being manufactured and is sold by a firm with guaranteed life of1000
hrs. The pump has two antifriction roller bearings selected so that their mean time to failure is 2400 hrs
with a standard deviation of500 hrs. The two shaft seals have an average failure time of1500 hrs with
a standard deviation of 200 hrs. The pump also has a check valve having constant hazard failure
characteristics with mean time to failure of8000 hrs. In addition to these factor there are miscellaneous
unpredictable constant-hazard type failures, due to possibility of corrosion, dirt and wear having a
mean time of18000 hrs. If the 1000 hr life is guaranteed, calculate the percentage ofpumps sold will
probably be returnedfor repair.
Solution: First of all we detennine reliabilities corresponding to 1000 hrs for each type of failure. For
the bearings, the nonnal curve is centered on t111 = 2400 hrs as shown in figure given below:
0 1000 hr 2400 hr
Normal curve for bearings

Since standard deviation (cr*) = 500 hrs, we can use the quantity Z = 1400/500 =2.80.
Now for this value of 'Z' the area under the normal curve A= 0.0026
(From the statistical table)
Therefore, reliability of bearings =' (1-0.0026)2
or Rb = 0.9948
Similarly for two seals,
Im = 1500 hrs and a*= 250 hrs.
Therefore, Z = (1500-1000)/250 = 500/250 = 2.0
and Rs = 0.9549
Reliability for check valves:
t111 = 8000 hrs
From following equation we can find reliability of valves
Rv = 1/etltm
~ = l/el000/8000 ::i: 0.8825
RV = 0.8825
Similarly for miscellaneous failure

t 111 = 18000 hrs
R
m
= 1/et/tm = l/el000/18000 = 0.9460
Reliability of pump (RP)
RP = Rb X Rs X Rv x R111
= 0.9948 X 0.9549 X 0.8825 X 0 .9460
= 0.7930. Ans.
Therefore, 793 pumps out of l 000 units would be working. Consequently, 207 pumps manufactured
would fail to satisfy the guaranteed life and will come to the manufacturer for repair/replacement.
12.7. QUALITY OF A FARM MACHINES

The quality ofa product or a machine is known as its ability to ensure complete satisfaction of customer.
Since the customer satisfaction is based on more than one feature of a product, machine or service, the
revised definition of quality is, "the totality of all the features and characteristics of a product or
a service that satisfy the implied or stated needs of the customer". The quality of a farm machine
is thus, generally measured in terms of a number of characteristics or performance characteristics of
farm machine, that satisfies the needs/requirements of the customer.
Quality Rating of Farm Machinery

Once the local manufacturer/dealer/supplier starts sale of agricultural implement/equipment its quality
rating is decided based on following important parameters:
(i) Quality, (ii) Price, (iii) Delivery, and (iv) Service.
In some cases the delivery and service is considered as single parameter.
1. Quality rating: The quality rating of each lot of a farm machine/element is expressed by
following equation:
Qm = {(Qa + xd.Qd + xre Qre)/Q} x 100
where, Q 111 = quality rating of farm machine
Qa = quantity accepted
Qd = quantity accepted with deviation
Qre = quantity accepted with repair or retification
Q = total quantity supplied
Xe/' Xre = demand factors and their value is less than I
2. Price rating: The price rating is determined by using following equation :
PR = PLIP
where, PR = price rating of machine
PL = lowest price quoted by any dealer for the machine
P = price quoted by the dealer being rated
Above rating is mostly applicable for complete machine and is not applicable for individual components
or sub assemblies which are complex in terms of installation, use and repair.
3. Delivery rating: lt depends on the quality supplied within the prescribed delivery period and
actual delivery time for the full supply. Delivery rating is estimated by using followffig equation:
DR= [(DjD) x T/ {(Tp·· DjD) + Tf (1-DjD)}] x 100
where, DR = delivery rating
D a = actual quantity supplied within stipulated delivery period
D = quantity promised to be supplied within stipulated delivery time
TP = promised delivery time for full supply
T = actual delivery time for supply of machines
1
A lot of 1000 seed metering fluted rollers of seed-cum-fertilizer drill out of which 820 were accepted
straightway, 80 of them with deviation and 60 ofthem after repai1: Find out the quality rating offluted
rollers if Xd = 0.85 and Xre = 0.35.
Sol11tio11:
Given: Number of fluted rollers in lot (Q) = 1000
Quantity accepted (Q0 ) = 820
Quantity accepted with deviation (Qd) = 80
Quantity accepted after repair (Qre) = 60
We know that
Qm = {(Qa + xd.Qd + xre Qre)/Q} x 100
Putting values in above equation, we get
Q,n = {(820 + 0.85 X 80) + (0.35 X 60)/ 1000} X 100
= 90.9%. Ans.
APPENDIX-I
Farm Machinery
Design Projects
The following farm machinery design projects have been included for practice in applying the de,c;ign
principles on the equipment/machines to be used under actual field conditions in a comprehensive way.
The students can use their intelligence and ingenuity and analyze these projects by applying the knowledge
gained in previous chapters for identifying the solutions and proportioning of components of different
machines as per the field conditions and requirements. The use ofcodes, preparation of detailed drawings,
selections of materials, safety requirements, life of machine and its economics and other related ideas
are applied for finding solutions to theses problems.
1. Design of shares for M.B ploughs and blades for diggers .
. 2. Design of different types of discs for ploughs and harrows.
3. Design of blades for TD rotavator.
4. Design of blades for self propelled power weeder.
5. Design of spikes, shovels and sweeps for cultivators.
6. Design of planting attachment with no-till or minimum tillage mulch farming of wheat crop
after harvesting paddy crop.
7. Design of pre-emergence weedicide applicator for no-till drill machine.
8. Design and developIJ}ent of rolling type injection planting mechanism for crop planting
through mulch.
9. Design of fertilizer application system for no-till or minimum-tillage sowing machines un-
der stubble mulch systems.
10. Investigations of rice seeding/transplanting techniques of paddy crop under puddle and un-
puddle conditions.
11. Design and development of simple technique for raising root washed nursery for paddy
transplanters.
12. Design of transplanting mechanism for mat type nursery of paddy.
13. Design of transplanting mechanism for root washed nursery of paddy.
14. Design of metering mechanism for pre-germinated paddy seed.
15. Design and development of manually operated paddy seeders.
16. Design and development of light weight manually operated crop planter.
17. Design of a hand dibbler.

18. Design and development of manually operated multipurpose tool frame for following at-
tachments:
(i) Seed drill/planter (ii) Crust breaker
(iii) Wheel hand hoe {iv) Fettilizer spreader
(v) Cotton stalk puller (vi) Transportation on farm
(vii) Manual reaper ·, ' ,
19. Design of TD sugarcane cutter planter.
20. Design ofBD planter for Bt Cotton crop.
It
I
21. Design of combined furrow openers for use on ridger-seeder /bed planter.
22. Design of ridger bottoms for lower draft and quality ridges.
l
f.
ij
23. Design of seed metering system for TD automatic potato planter.
24. Design and development of manually operated cotton picker.
11 25. Investigations into development of simple technology/tool for maize harvesting.
I 26. Design of self propelled type stripper harvester for paddy crop.
27. Design of potato digger elevator.
,1 28. Design of groundnut digger.
~ 29. Design of cotton stalks up-rooter.

30. Design of belt drives for a farm machine.
I
I
31. Design of chain drive for a fann machine.
·1 32. Design of gear drive for a given farm machine.
I; 33. Design of power transmission system for Farm Yard Manure Spreader.
34. Design of power transmission system for self propelled power weeder.
35. Design of power transmission system for high capacity multicrop thresher.
36. Design of power transmission system of a combine harvester.
37. Design of power transmission system for straw combine.
38. Design of power transmission system for forage chopper.
39. Preparation of feasibility rep011 for farm machinery manufacturing unit.
40. Reliability analysis and quality rating for a given farm machine with the help of suitable
examples
APPENDIX-II
LIST OF TABLES
Table Nos. Description
1. Capacity, draft and power requirements of various agricultural machines 358
2. Operation/Implement wise draft and power requirement 359
3. Power requirements for different harvesting machines 360
4. Power required for threshing of different crops 360
5. Share of energy for harvesting and threshing operations 360
6. Approximate power requirements of combine operation 360
7. Rate of human chemical energy expenditure in various agricultural tasks 361
8. Area commanded by different power sources for timely operations 362
9. Sowing and harvesting periods, seed rates and properties of seeds of different crops 362
IO. Plant population / acre for different row spacing 363
11. Theoretical field capacities of different agricultural machines at different speeds .· 363
12. Operational parameters of machines for wheat cultivation • 363
13. Different types of threshing cylinders and their suitability 364
14. Design data for peg tooth type threshers 364
15. Design data for threshers 364
16. Improved implements identified for different crops and operations 365
17. Calculated average life of belts recommended for farm implements 367
18. Service factors for farm implements drives 368
19. Life of agricultural machines and cost ofrepair and maintenance 369
20. Mechanical properties of different materials (MKS units) 370
21. Mechanical properties of different materials (SI Units) 371
22. Tensile and compressive strengths of different materials 372
23. Allowable stresses in gear teeth 372
24. Space requirements for storage of farm machines 373
25. Rotavator blades and related details 373
26. Characteristics of agricultural residues 374
27. Commonly available sizes ofspray nozzles 374
28. Classification of spraying based on volume application rate. 374
29. Weight density and coefficient of friction of different V-belts 375
30. Dimensions of standard V-belts 375
31. Power transmission chains for agricultural machinery 375
32. Maximum chain speed of ro Iler chains 375
33. Number of teeth in pinion at different velocity ratios 376
34. Factor of safety for bush roller and silent chains 376
35. Minimum number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interiference 376
36. Form factor of gears 377
37. Discharge rates of different types of nozzles of agricultural sprayers 378
38. Relasionship between coefficient (k) and theoretical flow coefficient (Sif) of a swirl nozzle 378
39. Relationship between outflow coefficient (S ) and swirl coefficient (Sc) of a swirl nozzle 378
Table 1: Capacity, draft and power requirements of various agricultural machines

(A) Manually operated tools and implements
No. lmp/emems Size, 111111 Capacity, /ialhr Draji, kg Powe1: HP
I. Khurpi 80 0.003 3-4 One person

2. Kasola 150 0.05 10-12 ..
3. Grubber hoe 160 0.006 5-6 ..
4. Wheel hand hoe 150 0.0l-0.04 6-7 ..
5. Paddy weeder 140 0.0l2 6-7 ..
6. Hand drill One row 0.03 15-20 ..
7. Fertilizer broadcaster - 1.0 - ,.
8. Manual paddy transplanter Six row 0.02 15-20 intermittent Two person~
9. Knap-sack sprayer 12-15 litres 15-20 wt. One person
10. Serrated sicle 200-225 0.008 4-5 kgf ,.
11. Maize sheller 62.5 16-20 kg/hr 3-4 kgf
"
12. Groundnut decorticator - 40-50 kg/hr 6-8 kg load ,.
(B) Bullock drawn implements

13. Desi plough 100-120 0.03 45-60 One pair
14. MB plough 150 0.10 50-75 .,
15 Disc harrow 600-700 0.125 60-70 ,.

16 3-tyne cultivator 450 0.10 ro ..
17. Bakhar blade 500 0,10 ffi ,,
18. Seeding attachment One row 0.04 30
"
19 3-row seed-cum-fertilizer drill Three rows 0.10 40-60 ,,
20. Local cart 6-8 q load - 55
"
21. Improved cart - 1-3 tonne 70 ,,
23. Persian wheel - - 80
"
(C) Tractor operated machinery
24. MB plough 2-3 bottom, 300mm each 025 630-845 g/cm2 off.s 25-35 HP
25. Disc plough 2-3 discs 990-11 IO mm 025 350-630 g/cm2 off.s 23-25
26. Disc hatrow 10-16 discs 1150-1900 0.50 120-150 kg/m 20-45
27. Paddy han-ow 10-12 discs 0.5 60-190kg/m 20-45
28, Cultivator 7-15tynes 1370-3050 0.8-1.0 110-270 kg/m 20-45
29. Rotavator 1500-2500 0.20-0.30 35-55
30, Ridger 2-3 bottoms 600-1000 kg for 35-45
straight ridging
31. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 7- 13tynes 0.4-0.8 45-120kg/m 20-45
32. Potato planter 2-4rows 0.15-0.25 I20-180 kg/m 35-45
33. Sugarcane cutter planter 2 row 600-900 mm 0.6 120-180 kg/m 35-45 ·
34. Reaper harvester (VCR) 4220mm 0.4 90- 150kg/m 25-35
35. Groundnut digger 1340mm 0,25 -do- 35-45
36. Potato digger 460-530mm 0.15 -do- 35-45
-- ------ ---
APPENDIX-II 359
(D) Power operated machinery

Size. 111111 Capacif): halhr Draft, kg Powe1: hp
37. Power thresher - 2-15q/h 5-20

38. Combine harvester (TD) 2.1-4.7m 6.8• 12.7 hp/m cutter bar
39. Combine self propelled 2.1-4.7m 6.8-10 .2 hp/ m cutter bar
40. Grain binder I 00-220 kg/m
41. Sugarcane crusher 3 roller 550-227 kg/hr 8-25
42. Chaff cutter - I ton/h 0.79-1 .67 hp/ton 15
43. Irrigation pumps 100-150 8-251/s - 3-10
44. Submersible pumps 150-300 2-801/s - 5-60
Unit draft of different soils: Source: ISAE Directory
Light soil : 2. 1-4.1 N/cm 2
Medium soil : 3.4-6.2 N/cm 2
Heavy soils : 5.88-14.71 N/cm2
Very heavy soils : 8.82-14.71 N/cm2
Table 2: Operation/Implement-wise draft and power requirement

S.No. Implements Draft and power requirement
I. Tillage implements
I. Disc harrow 60-190 kg/m
2. Disc tiller 220-520 kg/m
3. Duch foot cultivator 130-240 kg/111
4. Extreme up to plough 1260.4 kg
5. Heavy duty tandem harrow 120-150 kg/m
6. Heavy plough 630-845 kg
7. Light plough 140-350 kg
8. Medium plough 350-630 kg
9, Roller 45-90 kg/m
10. Spike tooth harrow 45-90 kg/m
11. Spring tooth harrow I I 0-270 kg/m
12. Tandem harrow 25 0-340 kg/m
13 . TD ridger 600-1000 kg
II. Pia nting machines
I. Grain drill 45-120 kg/m
2. Row crop planter 120- 180 kg/m
Ill. Cultivation machines
I. 3 Tyne cultivator/Trifali 40-50 kg/m
2. Bakhar blades 90-150 kg/m
3. Cultivator 30-140 kg/m
4. Rotary hoes 45-120 kg/111
IV. Harvesting machines
I. Crop picker 2-5 (PTO h.p)/row
2. Grain binder I 00-220 kg/m
3. PTO operated combine 6.8-13.7 h.p/m of cutter bar
4. Reaper 90-150 kg/m
5. Self propelled combine 6.8-10.2 h.p/m of cutter bar
6. Silage cutter 0 , 79-1.67 h.p/hr/to n
Table 3: Power requirements for different harvesting machines

S..Vn. Co111pone111s ofpower required in the Harvesting/ Digging machine
machine Grain combines Potato digger Forage harves/er
I. Force for rolling the machine .F,(/1.') 1.2-2 X 103 3.6-6 x I o3 2.5-5 • I 0 3
2. No load power, IF,, (kW) 8-9.5 8-10 5.5-7.0
3. Specific power for normal operation, w... 5.1-5.8 2.8-4.5 2.5-3.5
(kW-sec/kg of material)
(Source: Klenin et.al.)

Table 4: Power required for threshing of different crops
S.No. Crop Power requirement
kWh/t of crop kWhit of grain
1 Wheat 4-1.5 9-15
2 Gram 3.5-4.5 7-8.5
3 Sorghum 2.5-3.5 3.5-5.5
4 Paddy 2-3 3.5-5
5 Maize 2-3 3-4
6 Soybean 3-5.5 10-14
Table 5: Share of energy for harvesting and threshing operations

Crop Total operational Energy in harvesting and Share of energy in ha111esti11g
EnergJ;, MJ/ha threshing, MJ/ha and threshing, %
Paddy 19800 1560 7.9
Wheat 9000 3200 35.5
Cotton 6400 560 8.7
Maize 4700 580 12.3
Sugarcane 21000 3100 14.8
Potato 12400 980 7.9
Table 6: Approximate power requirements of combine operation

Operation Power, % of engine or maximum PTO rating
Self propelled Tractor PTO operated

Normal Maximum Normal Maximum
! Cutting
Cutter bar 7.0 20.0 6.5 20.0
Red 1.5 5.0 1.0 5.0
Feeding
Lower draper or Auger 4.5 10.0 4.0 10.0
Upper draper or Feeder house 5.5 10.0 5.0 10.0
APPENDIX-II 361
Front beater 3.0 10.0 2.5 10.0

Threshing
Cylinder 18.0 16.5
Separating
Straw walker 2.5 2.0
Rear beater 1.5 1.0
_Cleaning
Cleaning shoe 4.0 3.5
Cleaning fans 4.0 3.5
Expelling and delivery
Tank unloader 3.0 12.0 3.0 12.0
Clean grain elevator 2.0 1.5
Tailing elevator 2.0 1.5
Straw spreader 0.5 1.5
Straw chopper 8.0 20.0
Traction power requirement for traction drives are extremely variable
Table 7: Rate of human chemical energy expenditure in various agricultural tasks

S.No. Sex Activity Energy expenditure
- --Kcal Joulesl sbu
1. M Deep ploughing 9.5 663
2. M Mowing wheat 7.7 537
3. M Mowing barley 7.0 488
4. M Hand carrying 20 kg load 3.5 244
5. M Bundling wheat 7.3 509
6. M Tr~e felling 8.2 572
7. M Mowing with Scythe 6.8 474
8. F Preparing bundles of cut maize 5.0 349
9. M Loading bundled crop on cart 4.8 335
10. F Throwing sheaves with threshing machine 5.5 384
11. M Clearing shrubs and grasses 7.1 495
12. M Tractor ploughing 42 293
13. F Hoeing 5.8 405
14. F Pounding rice 5.0 349
15. M Cycling 6.6 460
Source: B.G Yadav ( 1985). Ergonomic Technology of Man-Machine Environment: Its role in crop production
for nation development. AET. Vol. 9(5):28-32
Table 8: Area commanded by different power sources for timely-operations

S.No. Power source Population/1000 ha Area commanded by the source (ha)
I Tractors (i6 15
2 Power tiller 200 5
3 Draught animal 1000 2 per pair of animal
Source: Srivastava (2000)
Table 9: Sowing and harvesting periods, seed rates and properties of seeds
of different crops
Crops Sowing period Row spacing Seed rate Seed properties Harvesting period
(cm) (kg/ha) Density Angle of
repose
(kg/111 3) (degrees)
Paddy May-July 20x 15,or 25-30.0 768 36 November-

15 X 15 December
Jowar (kharif) March-July 25-30.0 50-60.0 560 25 Sept.-J anuary
B~jra June-July 45.0Normal 3.75-5.0 480 23 Sept-November
30:60 paired
Maize {kharif) June-August 75.0 17.5-20.0 592 27 August-November
Wheat October- 18-20.0 100-112.5 768 27 March-April
December
Barley October- 20-22.0 87.5-112.5 592 28 March-April
December
Gram October- 40.0 45-50.0 711 39 March-April
November
Arhar May-August 30-40.0 12.5-15.0 592 29 November-Apri I
Groundnut June-September 30 X 15 75-100.0 650 36 September-
January
Rapeseed/ September- 30.0 5.0 320 31 February-
Mustard October April
Cotton April-June 67.5 15-20.0 405 37 September-
Bl-cotton April-May 100-120.0 2.5-5.0 December
Potato October- 60-75.0 30-.35 q/ha 704 - February-April
November
Sugarcane September- 60-75.0 87.5-100 q/ha - - October-March
October
Soybean June-July 45.0 75.0 719 32
Guar June-July 45.0 12.5-15.0 560 27 September-
October
Source: Package of practices ofRabi and Kharifcrops Agricultural Engineering Directory-1998 {Orange Book)
APPENDIX-II 363
Table 10: Plant population/acre for different row spacing

No. Distance Number of Plant to plant distance in rows (cm)
between plants/ 30 cm
rows (cm) row length JOO 50 25
I. 30 I 13081 26162 52324
2. 15 2 26162 52324 104648
3. 10 3 39243 78486 156972
4. 7.5 4 52324 104648 209295
5. 5.0 6 78486 156972 313944
6. 3.0 10 130081 260162 520324
7. 2.5 12 156972 313944 627888
Table 11 :Theoretical field capacities of different agricultural machines at

different speeds
Width Field capacity (ha/hr)
(cm) Machinefonvard speed. km/hr.
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0
20 0 .04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12
25 0.05 0.063 0.075 0.0875 0.10 0. 113 0. 1215 0. 15
30 0.06 0.075 0.09 0.105 0.12 0.135 0. 15 0.18
35 0.07 0.088 0.105 0.123 0.14 0.158 0. 175 0.21
40 0.08 0. 10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.24
45 0.09 0 .113 0.135 0.158 0.18 0.203 0.225 0.27
60 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.36
90 0 .18 0.225 0.27 0.315 0.36 0.405 0.45 0.54
100 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.60
105 0.21 0 .263 0.315 0.368 0.42 0.473 0.525 0.63
120 0.24 0.30 0 .36 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.60 0.72
150 0.30 0.375 0.45 0.525 0.60 0.675 0.75 0.90
180 ·0.36 0.45 0.54 0.63 0.72 0 .81 0.90 1.08
210 0.42 0.53 0.63 0.735 0.84 0.945 1.05 1.26
240 0.48 0 .60 0.72 0 .84 0.96 1.08 1.20 1.44
Table 12: Operational parameters of machines for wheat cultivation
Parameters Harrow Cultivator Planker Drill Zero-till Bed Rota1y
drill p lanter lill drill
Operating speed. km/hr 7.74 7.97 8.84 4.90 4.87 2.92 2.85
Working depth. cm 12.73 13.83 0.00 5.34 7.29 15.00 10.96
Theoretical width. m 1.50 2.20 3.53 1.85 1.91 1.40 1.80
Working width, m 2.2 1 2.17 3.50 1.88 1.88 1.40 1.76
Fuel consumption. I/hr 7.31 7.66 4.89 3.41 3.81 1.94 6.11
I/ha 7.58 7.03 2.60 5.21 6.48 5.55 17.05
Elfoctive field capacity
ha/hr 0.97 1.09 1.91 0.66 0.60 0.35 0.36
hrs/ha 1.05 0.98 0.53 1.53 1.73 2.97 2.84
Field efficiency, % 83.41 63.08 81.16 77.16 65.79 84.97 70.64
Labour requirement. hrs/ha 1.55 1.43 1.0} 2.03 2.23 3.47 3.3A
.
Sozrrce : DWR Bzrlletin, 2 000
Table 13: Different types of threshing cylinders and their suitability

S.No. Type threshing Suitabilityfor Straw qualily Power requirements
cylinder crops (kW/q ofcrop)
I. Hammermill Wheat Very fine 12-15
2. Syndicator Wheat Very fine 6-8
3. Spike tooth Wheat/multicrop Fine 6-9
4. Rasp bar Multi crop Long 5-6
5. Wire loop Paddy Full length 5-6
6. Axial flow Paddy Long 3-4
Table 14: Design data for peg tooth type threshers

S. No. Design parameters/ category ofcrops Crops
I. Cereals Wheat Paddy Sorghum Maize
I. Cylinder speed (m/s) 21 16 11 9
2. Concave clearance (mm) 15-10 25-15 20-15 25
3. Concave gap (mm) 7 9 9 25
4. Sieve hole size (mm) 5 8 8 12
n. Pulses Gram Lentil Green gram Pigeon pea
I. Cylinder speed (m/s) II 9 9 7
2. Concave clearance (mm) 20-15 15-IO 15-10 20-15
4. Sieve hole size (mm) 8 5 5 5
Ill. Oilseeds Sunflower Rapeseed/ Groundnut Soybeans
Mustard
I. Cylinder speed (m/s) II 9 9 7
2. Concave clearance (mm) 25-20 15-10 25-20 20-15
4. Sieve hole size (mm) 8 5 18x45 9
Table 15: Design data for threshers

S. No. Design parameters Range
I. Threshing area per kg. feed rate, crn2 8.6-lO
2. Concave opening area per kg feed rate, cm 2 34
3. Sieve opening area per kg feed rate, cm2 0.59-l.0
4. Air required per kg of straw, kg 5.4-7.4
5. Velocity of air required, mis 16.6-28.8
6. Blower diameter, mm 470-720
7. Blade width, mm 135-175
8. Number of blowers 1-3 as per cleaning
requirements
APPENDIX-II 365
Table 16: Improved implements identified for different crops and operations
S.No. Crop Operation Name of Implement Power Si=e
I. Paddy Puddling Rotavator Tractor I-I.Sm

Trans planting Transplanter Manual 6 rows
Transplanting Self propelled 6-8 rows
Harvesting Vertical conveyer reaper Self propelled 1.5-2.0 Ill
Threshing Axial flow thresher Engine/tractor 6-8 q/hr

Straw management Straw chopper Tractor 1.5 m
2. Wheat Tillage M.B Plough Tractor 2/3 bottoms

Rotavator Tractor 1.5-2 .0 111
Sowing No-till drill Tractor 9/11 lines

Bed planter Trac tor 2 beds, 6 rows
Till planter Tractor 9 rows
Multicrop ridger seeder Tractor 2 bottoms &
-cum-seed fertilizer drill 9 rows
Weeding Wheel hand hoe Manual I Blade/ 3 lines
Fertilizer application Fertilizer broadcaster Manual
Harvesting Vertical conveyer Self Propelled 1.5 Ill
reaper (VCR)
VCR (TD) T ractor 1.5-2.0 111
Threshing Multicrop Thresher Engine/Tractor 8-10 q/hr

Straw harvesting Straw combine/reaper Tractor 2m
3. Cotton Seed treatment Hand operated acid delinter Manual 2.5 kg/batch
Medium size acid delinter Manual 20 kg/batch
Commercial grade acid Manual 50 kg/bnlch
delinter
Planting Bed planter Tractor 2 bottom
Ridger seeder Trac tor 2 bottom
Pneumatic planter Tractor 4 rows
Dibbler Manual
Weeding Wheel hand hoe Manual 150 111111 blade
Self propelled weeder Engine I row
High clearance cultivator Tractor 4-5 rows
Spraying High clearance sprayer Self propelled Wide swath
Stalk disposal Stalk puller Trac~or 2-3 rows
Stubble shaver Tractor 1.5 m
4. Potatoes Planting Automatic potato planter Tractor 2 rows

Digging Potato digger Tractor 2 rows
-·.... -- - .
5 Sunnower Planting Dibbler Manual

Threshing Sunflower thresher Engine/tractor 6-10 q/hr
6. Rapeseed and Sowing Mustard drill Tractor 9-11 lynes
Mustard Ridger-Seeder Tractor 2 bottoms 4 seeding ty11es
Weeding Wheel hand hoe Manual 150 mm

Fertilizer Application Fertilizer broadcaster Manual
Harvesting VCR (TD) Tractor 1.5 -2.0 m
Threshing Multicrop thresher Engine/Tractor 6-9 q/hr
7. Gram Sowing Ridger-Seeder Tractor 2 bottom

Bed planter Tractor 2 bouom
No-till drill Tractor 9 tines
Threshing M ulticrop thresher Tractor 6-10 q/hr
8. Sugarcane Planting Cutter planter Tractor 2 rows

Multipurpose planter Tractor 3 rows
lnterculture High clearance cultivator Tractor Adjustable
tines
Self propelled weeder Engine I row Shp di~scl engine

Stubble cutting Stubble shaver Tractor 2-3 rows
9. Bajra Sowing Ridger-seeder Tractor 2 bottoms 4 seeding 1yncs
lnterculture Wheel hand hoe Manual 150 mm blade

Threshing Multicrop thresher Tractor 7-8 q/hr
10. Vegetables Planting Ridger Tractor 3 bottom

Transplanter Tractor 2 rows
Digging Onion digger Tractor 1.5 m
Source: Data Bank, Dept of FPM, CCSHAU

APPENDIX-II 367
Table 17: Calculated average life of belts recommended for farm implements
S.No. Machine or operating unit life range (hours)
1. Ammonia applicator 500-1000
2. Auger, delivery 400-1000
3. Bean thresher, stationary 800-1600
4. Beet harvester 500-1000
5. Cleaning shoe 1000-2000
6. Corn head 800-1600
7. Corn husker 800-1600
8. Com picker 800..1600
9. Corn sheller cylinder 800-1600
10. Corn shreder 600-1200
I I. Cotton harvester (stripper type) 800-2000
12. Cotton picker 800-2000
13. Cutting sickle bar 1000-2000
14. Cylinder beater 1000-2000
15. Cylinder combine 1000-2000
16. Elevator, delivery 1000-2000
17. Draper Canvass 1000-2000
18. Elevator, portable and stationary 400-1200
19. Ensilage blower 500-1000
20. Ensilage cutter 500-1000
21. Ensilage, field harvester 500-1000
22. Expelling combine 1000-2000
23. Fan 800-2000
24. Feeder roll 800-2000
25. Feeding combine 1000-2000
26. Flail harvester 600-1000
27. Forage harvester 1000-2000
28. Front cylinder beater 1000-2000
29. Grain blower 600-1600
30. Hammer mill rotor and mixer 800-1600
31. Hay bale loader, field 400-800
32. Hay balers pick up and stationary 800-1600
33. Hay chopper, field 600-1200
34. Hay conditioner 800-2000
35. Hay hoist and conveyor 400-1000
36. Hay mower 600-1200
')~
368 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS-
Table 18: Service factors for farm implements drives
Machine or operating unit Service Machine or operating unit Service

factor factor
Ammonia applicator 1.0 Fan, cleaning 1.0
Auger, delivery 1.3 Fan over 10 HP 1.3
Benn. thresher 1.3 Feeder roll 1.3
Beet harvester 1.3 Feeding combine 1.3
Cane harvester 1.3 Flail harvester 1.5
Chopping combine 1.5 Front cylinder beater 1.3
Corn head 1.5 Grain blower 1.3
Corn husker 1.3 Hammer mill rotor 1.5
Corn picker 1.3 Hay loader, field 1.2
Cleaning shoe 1.0 Hay baler. pick up or stationary 1.5
Corn sheller cylinder 1.5 Hay chopper. field 1.5
Corn shredder 1.5 Hay conditioner 1.5
Cotton harvester (stripper type) 1.3 Hay hoist and conveyer 1.2
Cotton picker 1.3 Hay mower 1.5
Cutting reel 1.2 Hay rake, side delivery 1.2
Cutting sickle bar 1.5 Hay wafer and cuber 1.5
Cutting sickle bar and counter weight 1.3 Header, combine 1.5
Cylinder combine 1.5 Husk blower 1.3
Draper canvass 1.3 Hydraulic System oil pump 1.3
Elevator, delivery I.I Hydraulic pump and motor 1.2
Elevator, Portable and stationary 1.2 Loader tractor front end 1.3
Ensilage blower 1.5 Main drive combine 1.3
Ensilage cutter LS Manure loader 1.5
Ensilage field harvester 1.5 Manure spreader 1.5
Expelling combine 1.2 Nut and fruit shaker harvester 1.5
Pitman combine 1.3 Orchard sprayer and duster 1.3
Potato harvester 1.3 Pea thresher 1.3
Potato loader 1.2 Pea viner, Stationary and self propelled 1.3
Propulsion combine 1.3 Peanut combine 1.3
Peanut digger 1.3 Pickup attachment combine 1.2
Rear cylinder beater 1.0 Reel pick up 1.3
Reel bat 1.0 Rotary cutter 1.5
Separation combine 1.0 Silo unloader 2.0
Sieve combine 1.0 Stock shredder 1.5
Straw chopper, combine 1.5 Straw walker 1.0
Threshing combine 1.2 Traction, self propelled machine 1.3
Unloader combine 1.5 Vegetable harvester 1.2
Wagon loader 1.3 Windrower and swather 1.2
APPENDIX-II 369
Table 19: Life of agricultural machines and cost of repair and maintenance
Operation' Year Wear 011/ Hrs/year wear Repair and maintenance cost,
-
machine until life hours out life to equal per cent ofnew cost*
eq11ipment obsolete obsolescence life Average/ Total during
J00hrs wear out life
Tillage implements
Cultivator 12 2500 208 6.0 150
Disc harrow 15 2500 167 6.5 163
One way disc 15 2500 167 5.0 125
Pio\,. disc 15 2500 167 4.5 113
Piow. mould board 15 2500 167 7.0 175
Spike tooth harrow 20 2500 125 4.0 100
Spring tooth harrow 20 2000 100 6.0 120
Planting implements
Grain drill 20 1200 60 8.0 96
Row-crop planter 15 1200 80 7.0 84
Harvesting machines
Combine 1.5-2. I m. 10 2000 200 4.5 90
trailed type
CombineSdf IO 2000 200 2.7 54
propelled
Field chopper, aux 10 2000 200 2.4 48
(Chaff cutter)
Field chopper. PTO 10 2000 200 2.9 58
Mower 12 2000 167 12.0 240
Tractors nnd
miscellaneous
Tractor. track type 15 12000 800 0 .65* 78
Tractor wheel type 15 12000 800 1.0** 120
Trailer. (rubber tired) 15 5000 333 1.8 90
• Add a total one per cent ofnew cost for each time machine mounted and dismounted (nonnally once a year)
** Approximately one fouith of total repair and maintenance cost is for tires.
So11rce: Agricultural Engineers Dia,y-1974
Table 20: Mechanical properties of different materials (MKS Units)

--
S.No. Materials and composition Ultimate Yield Ultimate Youngs Modulus of Brine/I
tensile point shear mod11/11s of rigidity 'G' Hardness
strength (kglcm 2) strength elasticity(E) (kglcni2) (HB)
(kglcm 2) (kglcm 2) (kglcm 2)
I. Cast iron 700-2000 - 1100 1-1.5 x I 0 6 0.6-0.8X I 0 6 150-225

2. Wrought iron 2200:4500 - 2700 1.8-2 xto 6 0.75-0.95x I 06 75-100
3. Steel
(i) Mild steel (0.28% C) 4000-6000 3500 2. lx!0 6 o:s x 106 150
(i1) Medium carbon steel (0.55% C) 7500 3700* 2.(5xJ06 0.8x I 0 6 200
0.1% PS
(iii) High carbon steel 19970 10890 2.J8xJ0 6 0.8 X J06 550
4. Alloy steels
(i) Manganese steel (1.5% M, 0.29% C) 6500 3800 3300* 2160xt 0 3 187
(ii) Nickel steel (3.5% Ni, 0.43% C) 10350 9175 8600* 212ox10 3 293
(ii,). Nickel-Chromium steel (3 .5% Ni,
0.31% C, 0.7% Cr) 9780 8850 8100* 2130xto 3 277
(iv) N ickel-Chromium-Molybdenum-V steel 12000 11180 10590* 2150xl0 3 340
(v) Carbon-Chrome ball bearing steel 14150 13400 11700* 211ox10 3 402
(vi) Silicon-Manganese steel (hardened) 14680 12770 10900* 2030x I 0 3 418
(vii) Stainless steel 8150 6250 5500* 2190xl0 3 241
(viii) Very high speed steel 8400 4600 3380* 2360x(0 3 241
5. Non-ferrous alloys
I. Tin-based alloys
(i) 91.0 Sn, 5.5 Sb, 4.5 Cu 925 315 17
(ii) 83.3Sn, 8.3 Sb, 2.0 Cu 1269 475 27
(iii) 65.0 Sn, 15.0Sb, 2.0 Cu 1080 360 22 .5
II. Lead-based alloys

(i) 85 Pb, 15 Sb 920 220 15
(ii) 85 Pb, IO Sb, 5 Sn I 125 245 19
(iii) 75 Pb, 15 Sb, 10 Sn 1136 250 22 .5
~
Ill. Copper-based alloys

(i) Manganese-Brass(60Cu, I Mn.39 Zn) 5645 140
(ii) Bronze (85 Cu. 15 Sn) 2160 100
(ii,) Phosphor-Bronze (89 Cu, IO Sn) 2900 100
(iv) Gun-metal (88 Cu, IO Sn. 2 Pb) 2740 6"5
(v) Lead-Bronze (80 Cu, 10 Sn. IOPb) 2420 65
• Rt:presents 0.1% Proof Stress

APPENDIX-II 371
Table 21: Mechanical properties of different materials (SI Units)

S.No. Ma1eria/s and composirion Ultimate l'ield Ultimate Young Modulus of Brine//
tensile poi/I/ shear modulus of rigidity 'G. lfard11l!.l's
strength (MNlcm 2J sirength elaslicity(E) (MN!cm 2)
(MN/c111 2) or MPa (MN/cm 2) {MN!cm 2J
or MPa or MPa or MPa or MPa (liB)
I. Cast iron 68.5-196.2 108 9.8-l4.7xI0 4 5.89- 150-225

7.85X [0 4
2. Wrought iron 215.8-441.5 . 265 17.7-l9.5x 10 4 7.36- 75- 100
9.32 ><10 4
3. Steel
(i) Mild steel (0.28% Cl 392.4-588.6 . 343.4 20 .6><10 4 7.85>< 10 4 150
(ii) Medium carbon steel (0.55% C) 363 21 . 1 x I o4 7.85x 10 4 200
O.l¾PS
(iii) High carbon steel 883 I 068.3 21.4>< 104 7.85>< 104 550
4. Alloy steels
ti) Manganese steel ( 1.5% M , 0.29% C) 637 . 7 372.8 324 * 21.J9xJ0 4 187
{ii) Nickel steel (3.5% Ni, 0.43% C) I 015.3 900 843.7* 20. 8xl04 293
(iii) Nickel-Chromium steel (3.5% Ni.
0.3'1 % C, 0.7% Cr) 959.5 868.2 794 . 6* 20 .89x I 0 4 277
(iv) Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum-V 1177.2 I 096.8 1038 .9* 21.09 >< 10 4 340
steel
(v) Carbon-Chrome ball bearing steel 1388.1 I 314.5 1147 . 8* 20 .7xl04 402
(vi) Sil icon-Manganese steel (hardened) 1440 1252.8 1069. 3* 19. 91 x I o4 418
( vii) Stainless steel 799,5 613.1 539.6* 21.48><10 4 241
( viii) Very high speed steel 824 45 l.3 331.6* 23.J5x]04 241
5. Non-ferrous alloys
I. Tin-based alloys
(i) 91.0 Sn. 5.5 Sb. 4.5 Cu 90 7 30.9 17
. (ii) 833 Sn. 8.3 Sb. 2.0 Cu 123.6 46 .6 27
(iii) 65 .0 Sn. 15.0 Sb, 2.0 Cu 105.9 35.3 22.S
II. Lead-based alloys

(i) 85 Pb, 15 Sb 90.3 21.6 15
{ii) 85 Pb, JO Sb, 5 Sn 110.4 24.0 I9
(iii) 75 Pb. 15 Sb, 10 Sn 111.4 24.5 22.5
II I. Copper-based alloys
(i) Manganese-Brass(60Cu, IMn,39 Zn) 55.38 140
(ii) Bronze ( 85 Cu, 15 Sn) 211.9 100
(iii) Phosphor-Bronze (89 Cu. 10 Sn) 284.5 100
(iv) Gun-metal (88 Cu, 10 Sn, 2 Pb) 268.8 65
(v) Lend-Bronze (80 Cu, 10 Sn, 10 Pb) 237.4 65
* Represent 0.1 % Proof Stress
Table 22: Tensile and compressive strengths of different materials

S.No. Material Tensilr: strength Compressive- strength
MKS unit SI unit MKS unit SI unit
(Kgl mnz2) (Nl mnz2) (Kgl mm 2) (N/mni2)
I. Cast iron 7-20 6!t7-196.2 40-95 392.4-932.0

2. Grey cast iron 10-30 98. 1-294.3 40-180 392.4-1765.8
3. High grade cast iron 30-90 294.3-882.9
4. Wrought iron 22-45 215.8-441.5 27 265.0
5. Mild steel 30-80 294.3-784.8 43 422.0
6. Medium carbon steel 75 735.75
7. High carbon steel 90 882.9
8. Aluminum 5-20 49.0-192.2
9. Aluminum alloy 10-60 98.1-588.6
IO. Copper 15-30 147.2-294.3
11. Zinc 5.5-9.5 49.0-93.2
12. Brass 30-60 294.3-588.6
13. Bronze 30-70 294 .3-686.7
14. Nylon 6-20 58.9-199.2
15. Son PVC 1-2 9.81-19.6
16. Phenol resin 4-5 39.2-49.0
17. Glass fibre 70-1000 686.7-9810
18. Wood 5-20 49.0-199.2 2.5-8 24.5-78.5
19. Laminated wood 9-26 88.3-255.0 7-19 68.7-186.4
20. Steel wire 40-120 392.4-1177.2
21. Flat belts 2-5 19.6-49.0
(Source: KOGA Yas11masa, /988)
Table 23: Allowable stresses in gear teeth

S.No. Gear velocity (mis) Allowable stress (SJ Endurance strength (Si)
in gear teeth
Material Se (MN/m.:)
I. < I0m/s Se {3/(3 + j'I)} Cast iron 55
2. 10-20 mis Se{6/(6+ 1'1} Bronze 83
3. >20 m/s Se {5.6/(5.6 ✓V)} Mild steel 103
where Se is endurance Carbon steel 70-350
strength and V is gear Forged steel 160
velo?ity Cast steel 100
Steel (general) I/3 rd ultimate
strength of material
APPENDIX-II 373
Table 24: Space requirements for storage of farm machines
No. Machinery Svace remdrement(m)

Width Height length
I. Tractor
15-25 hp range. 1.50 1.5 2.75
25-35 hp range 2.25 1.5 3.6
40-50 hp range 2.25 1.5 3.6
2. Combines (TD)
l.5-1.8 m 2.75-3.6 2.55 5-6
3.6 111 4.0 3.6 6.7
5.0 m 6.0 4.25 7.5
3. Cultivator 4.5 . 2.4
4. Grain drill 3.3 1.75 1.9

5. Spike tooth harrow 1.2 . 1.9
6. Spring tooth harrow 1.0 - 1.9
'
7. Tractor drawn harrow 3.0 - 2.6
8. Potato digger 1.5 - 2.4
Source: Agricultural Engineer's Diary (1974)
Table 25: Rotavator blades and related details

S.No. Blade make Composition Hardness
I. Howard Silico-manganese steel Rc.39.81
C 0.59%, Mn 0.86%, Si 1.82%, P 0.025%, S
0.0 18%, Ni 0.25%, Cr 0.19%, Mo 0.17%, Cu 0.25%
2. OSAW (Local) En-42 Spring steel (Silico-manganese) Rc.19.81
C 0. 7-0.8%, Mn 0.55-0.75%. Si 0.1-0.4%, S
0.05%, P 0.05%
Source: AET V: 25(5-6)
Table 26: Characteristics of agricultural residues

Residue Crop Density LHV Proximate Ana(vsis Carbon · Residue lo Product
1_1pe (Kg/111 3) (MJ/kg) Ratio (RPR)
VM FC Ash Jain PAU
Straw Wheat 60.00 17.15 73.60 17.93 8.47 43.81 1.75 1.00
Paddy 30 (Loose)
150 15.03 69.70 I I. I 0 19.20 36.83 1.76 1.00
(Baling)
Stalk Cotton 160.00 17.40 81.40 15.30 3.30 51.01 2.75 3 .00
Maize 50.00 16.67 79.57 17.07 3.36 41.08 2.00 2.00
.Arhar 180.00 18.58 89.90 15.12 1.98 53.10 2 .80 5.00
Mustard/
rapeseed - 17.00 - - - - - 2.50
Bagasse Sugarcane 70.00 20.00 79.20 15.86 4.94 48.25 0.295 0. 15
Cobs Maize 100.00 17.39 83.01 15. I 6 1.83 46.18 0.273 0.50
Hu~k Paddy 105.00 15.54 71.00 12.52 16.48 37.85 0.273 0.30
Shells Groundnut 100.00 20.01 83.90 11.67 4.43 41.05 0.477 0.33
Source: Singh et al (2003) AET
Table 27: Commonly available sizes of spray nozzles

S.No. Name of nozzle Code and Recommended Spray angle Discharge,
stamping pressure(kPa) ( + JO) 111/imin (+5%)
I. Adjustable hollow
cone nozzle A 75480 300 750 450
2. Triple action nozzle A 70570 300 10° 570
3. Cone mist spray nozzle A 60450 300 60° 450
4. Dura mist spray nozzle A 80900 300 so0 900
5. Adjustable nozzle for A 60250 300 60° 250
Akela
6. Flat fan nozzle A 60675 70 60° 675
7. Flood jet nozzles A 25172 70 25° 172
A 40470 70 40° 470
A 951230 70 95° 1230
A 1102040 70 110° 2040
A 105270 70 105° 270
Source: Agricultural Engineering Directory-1998 (Orange Book)

Table 28: Classification of spraying based on volume application rate
Type of spraying Application rate (litres/ha)
Field crops Trees and bushes
High volume (HV) > 600 >1000
Medium volume (MV) 200-600 500-1000
Low volume (LV) 50-200 200-500
Very low volume(VLV) 5-50 50-200
Ultra low volume (ULV) <5 < 50
Source: Agricultural Engineering Directo,y-/998 (Orange Book)

APPENDIX-JI 375
Table. 29 Weight density and coefficient of friction of different V-belts

used in agricultural machinery
Sr. No. Material of belt Weight density Coeffient offriction{µ)

(N/ 111 3) Pulley material
Cast iron Wood
I. Leather 10000 025 0.30
2. Convass 12200 020 023
3. Rubber 11400 OJO 0.32
Table:30 Dimensions of standard V-belts

Particulars Catego1J>of belts
A B C D E
Power ranges, kW 0.70-3.50 2.0-15.0 7.5-75.0 20.0-150.0 30.0-350.0
Minimum pulley pitch diameter (DP), mm 75 125 200 355 500
Top width ofbelt (w), mm 13 17 22 32 38
Belt thickness(t),mm 8 11 14 19 23
Weight per metre length, N 1.06 1.89 3.43 5.96 -
Table:31 Power transmission chains for agricultural machinery
S,: No. Type of chain Pitch, mm

1. Bush roller chain 15.9-41.3
2. Silent chain 12.7-15.875
3. Hooked lirl'k-belt chain 42
Table:32 Maximum chain speed of roller chains

S,: No. Chain pitch, 111111 Chain speed, mis Maximum pinion speed, rpm
I. 9.525 13.7 3500
1
2. 12.7 13.4 2500
3. 15.875 12.0 2300
4. 19.05 10.9 1900
5. 25.4 9.7 1500
6. 31.75 8.l l000
7. 38.I 7.3 800
8. 44.75 6.5 {j()()
9. 50.8 6.0 400

IO. 63.8 4.7 300
11. 762 4.0 200
Table:33 Number of teeth in pinion at different velocity rat~~s

Velocity ratio Number ofteeth at different velocity ratios
Busl, roller cftai11 Sile11t chai11
1 31 40
2 '1:7 35
3 25 31
4 23 '1:7
5 21 23
6 17 19
Table:34 Factor of safety for bush roller and silent chains

Speed of Factor ofsafety
pi11io11,rpm Bush roller chai11 Silelll chain
Chain pitch, 111111 Cftain pitch, mm
12-15 20-25 30-35 12.7-15.87 19.05-25.4
50 7.0 7.0 7.0 20.0 ·20.0
200 7.8 82 8.05 222 23.4

' 400 8.05 9.4 102 24.4 26.7
(i()() 9.4 · 10.3 132 28.7 30.0
800 10.2 11.7 14.8 29.0 33.4
1000 11.0 12.9 16.3 31.0 36.8
1200 11.7 14.0 19.5 33.4 40.0
l(i()() 132 16.3 - 37.8 46.5
2000 14.8 - - 42.0 53.5
Table:35 Minimum number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interference

Type of gear teeth 14.5° 20°
Composite Full deptft i11vol11te Full depth involute Stub involute
Minimum number ofteeth 12 32 18 14
on the pinion
APPENDIX-II 377
Table: 36 Form factor ifj-) of gears

Number ofteeth 14.5° 200
Composite &
full depth involute Full depth involute Stub involute
12 0.067 O.Q78 0.099

13 0.071 0.083 0.103
14 0.Q75 0.088 0.108
15 0.D78 0.092 0.111
16 0.081 0.094 0.115
17 0.084 0.096 0.117
18 0.086 0.098 0.120
19 0.088 0.100 0.123
20 0.090 0.102 0.125
21 0.092 0.104 0.127
22 0.093 0.105 0.129
24 0.095 0.107 0.132
26 0.098 0.110 0.135
28 0.100 0.122 0.137
30 0.101 0.114 0.139
34 0.104 0.118 0.142
38 0.106 0.122 0.145
43 0.108 0.126 0.147
50 0.110 0.130 0.151
0J 0.113 0.134 0.154
75 0.115 0.138 0.158
100 0.117 0.142 0.161
150 0.119 0.146 0.165
300 0.122 0.150 0217
·Table: 37 Discharge rates of different types of nozzles of agricultural sprayers

Type of11ozz/e Pressure, kPa
980.66 1961.33 2941.99 '3922.66 14903.32 15883.99 16864.65 17845.32
Discharge, ml/min
Hollow cone 250 320 360 440 450 480 540 600
Tripple action
z) Mist action 300 400 500 560 640 660 700 780
ii) Spray actior ll(i() 1500 1800 2160 2240 2600 2700 2800
iiz) Jet action 2000 3000 3600 3800 4400 5000 6000 6500
Flat fan (j()Q 800 1000 1120 1200 1300 1420 1560
Boom nozzles 250 320 400 450 550 (j()Q 650 690
Table: 38 Relationship between Coefficient (K) and theoretical flow coefficient

(Stf) of a swirl nozzle
Coefficient (K) Theoretical flow coefficient (Stf)
0.1 8.0
02 32
0.3 1.8
0.4 1.0
0.5 0.8
Table: 39 Relationship between out flow coefficient (Sf) and swirl coefficient (Sc)
of a swirl nozzle
Outflow coefficient (Sf) Swirl coefficie11t (Sc)
02 12.0
0.4 3.8
0.6 1.0
0.8 LO
0.9 0.0
Index
A Barrel, 219
Achieved availability, 340 Basic size, 318
Active layer, 149 Beam of MB plough, 88
Aeroblast sprayer, 19 Bearing type, 127
Aerosols, 213 Bed planter, 15
Agitation, 217 Belt (V-belt)
Agitator type, 131 forces, 31
Agricultural residues, 374 speed, 33
Air output, 225 Bending
Allowable stress, 372 moment, 168, 186
Angle of strength, 66
friction, 86 stress, 104
repose, 136, 146, 362 Bevel gear, 67
share, 84 Drive, 118
Annealing, 28 Dynamic load, 79
Apex angle, 193 Face width, 79
Areas of reliability, 336 Materials for, 79
Assembly, 317 Maximum tooth load, 79
Availability index, 341 Pitch diameter, 79
Availability, 340 Radial force, 67
Average Wear load, 80
chain velocity, 56 Bilateral system, 320
life of belts, 367 Binder reaper, 21
seed rate, 184 Blade
Axial force, 67 angle, 193
Axle, 58 diameter, 127
B parameters, 113
Back cleaning angle, 104 pitch, 113
Baler straw, 23 spacing, 127
Blower sprayers. 20 Pintle chain, 56

Boom, 210 Pitch diameter of sprocket, 62
Boom height, 214 Power transmitted, 57
Break even point, 334 Selection of chain & sprocket, 58
Breast length, 184 Service factor, 57
Brush cutter, 21 Shear stress, 60
Bt cotton planter, 17 Speed ratio of chain, 56
Bulk density, 136, 145 Sugarcane planter in, 58
Bullock drawn (BD) Chassis for power transmission, 375
Digger groundnut, 296 Chrome steel, 27
Disc harrow, 9 Circular opening, 131
Puddler, 13 Circular pitch, 64
Sund former, 12 Classification pump, 21 0
Byte length, 113 Cleaning efficiency, 290
C Cleaning mechanism, 286
Campbell, 33 Clearance .fit , 321
Capacity of Coarse spray, 213
agricultural machines, 358 Coefficient of
combine, 281 friction (v-belt}, 375
Carburizing, 27 resistance, 84
Case hardening, 27 separation, 287
Case study, 325 skidding, 287
Cast iron, 27 Combine straw, 23
Casting, 317 Combination drive
Central angle, 150 rotavator in, 73
Centrifugal pump, 219 Combine harvester, 23, 276
Chaff cutter, 9 Angle of cascade, 286
Chaffing, 288 Capacity of combine, 281
Chain, 55 Chaffing, 288
Average chain velocity, 56 Cleaning efficiency, 290
Axle, 58 Cleaning mechanism, 286
Design, 56 Coefficient of separation, 287
Detachable chain, 56 Concave. 282
Engineering steel chain, 56 Crank speed, 286
Inverted tooth or silent chain, 56 Crank throw, 286
Kinematics, 56 Crop conveyor, 282
Length, 57 Crop flow kliagram, 279
Load, 57 Cutter bar, 277

INDEX 381
Cylinder speed, 285 Straw grain ratio, 281

Cylinder stripper bar, 282 Straw layer thickness, 288
Cylinder, 283, 306 Straw walker, 286
Cylinder-concave clearance, 284 Table auger, 277
Feed rate, 284 Threshing efficiency, 286
Feeder chain, 277 Threshing mechanism, 282
Ground speed, 281 Width of sieve, 288
Harvesting, 276 Width of straw walker, 288
Reel speed index, 281 Winkler formula, 285
Header length, 281 Combined furrow opener, 141, 162
Header, 277 Complete machine tests, 345
Large combine, _281 Components, 182
Length of drum, 285 Compression sprayer, 28
Length of straw walker, 287 Compressive strength, 372
Main assemblies, 277 Concave, 282
Medium combine, 281 Concavity, 127
Number of rasp-bars, 284 Construction sprayer, 210
Peg tooth, 283 Constant-Hazard rate, 342
Peripheral velocity, '283 Container, 210
Permissible grain loss, 287 Corrective maintenance, 341
Pick up reel tooth clearance, 281 Correlation factors, 346
Pick up, 277 Cost of repair & maintenance, 369
Power requirement, 286, 290 Cotton (Bl} planter, 17
Power transmission diagram, 280 Counter shaft, 39
Rasp-bar, 283 Coupling, 115
Rear beater, 282 Cover angle of lifters, 243
Reel, 277 Crank
Screening, 288 pin, 54
Separating grates, 282 speed, 286
Sickle speed, 281 throw, 286
Sieve area, 289 Crop
Sieving, 288 conveyor, 50, 282
Small combine, 281 divider, 243
Solved example self propelled combine, flow diagram, 279
290 lifter, 243
Specific load of sieve, 289 spacing, 200, 362
Stone trap, 277 Crusher clod spiked, 13
Straw factor, 281 Crust breaker, 18, 196
Frame, 198 iteration, 3

Horse power, 197 method, 3
Pegs, 198 parameter, 5
Cultivator principles, 1
High clearance cotton, 18 procedure, 2
Rigid tyne, 11 process, 1
Spring loaded, 11 production, 3
With pulverizing roller, 12 projects, 355, 356
Curvature of Design of
disc, 103 Chain drive, 55
tyne, 184 Gear drive, 63
Cutter bar bevel gear, 67
length, 241 combination drive, 73
type, 241 helical gears, 66
Cutter brush, 21 planetary gear, 67
Cutter module, 64 spur gear. 65
Cutting Harvesting machines, 238
angle, 84 combine harvester, 276
blade, 113, 115, 191 digger groundnut, 296
force, 240 manually operated VCR, 246
forces of rotary harvester, 75 self propelled VCR, 258
speed, 182 tractor mounted VCR, 268
width of sweep, 200 lntercultural tools, 190
Cylinder, 283
crust breaker, 196
concave clearance, 306 high clearance cotton cultivator, 198
diameter, 306
wheel hand hoe, 190
speed, 306
Plant protection equipments, 209
threshing, 306
dusters, 225
D sprayers, 209
Definition of reliability, 336
Power transmission components of, 31
Delivery rating, 354
vertical conveyor reaper, 33
Density of seed, 362
rotary harvester (Disc type), 75
Design analysis, 3, 344
rotavator , 71, 73
Design data for
seed-cum fertilizer drill, 138
peg tooth thresher, 364
Sowing machines, 131
threshers, 364
Planters, 157
Design
manually operated, 157
analysis, 344
sugarcane cutter planter, 181
Features, 8
INDEX 383
Seed cum fertilizer drill, 131 Mass per unit width, 127
manually operated, 134 Mounted disc harrow, 128
tractor drawn, 142 Offset disc harrow, 11, 127, 128
ridger seeder, 163 Trailed disc harrow, 127
Tillage implements, 82 Width of implement, 126
disc harrow, 125 Disc plough, 10, 101
disc plough, 101 Back cleaning angle, 104
mould board plough, 82 Bending stress, 104
rotavator, 11 O Curvature of disc, 103
Zig-zag harrow, 205 Diameter of disc, 103
Designation of tolerance, 319 Disc angle, 103
Detachable chain, 56 Disc spacing, 104
Detailed design, 2 Drawbar horse power, 103
Development of product reliability, 343 Eccentricity of disc, 104
Deviation, 318 Factor of safety, 104
Diagram of tolerance, 319 Main frame, 104
Diameter of disc, 103, 127 Number of bottoms, 104
Diaphragm pump, 219 Sharpness angle of disc, 104
Digger groundnut, 296 Solved example. 105
Digger potato, 20 Taper angle of disc, 104
Diametral pitch, 64 Thickness of disc, 104
Dimensions (v-belt), 375 Tilt angle, 103
Discharge pump, 219 Tubular section, 104
Discharge rate (nozzles), 378 Width of cut, 104
Disc angle, 103 Disc spacing, 104, 127
Disc harrow, 125 Double action offset type, 128
Bearing type, 127 Draft load, 185
Blade diameter, 127 Draft of agricultural machines, 358
Blade spacing, 127 Draft, 7, 127
Bullock drawn, 9 Drawbar horse power, 103, 126, 199
Concavity, 127 Drawbar pull, 85, 126, 199
Diameter of disc, 127 Drift, 209
Disc spacing, 127 Droplet density, 214
Double action offset type, 128 Droplet size, 209
Draft, 127 Ductile cast iron, 27
Drawbar horse power, 126 Duster, 225
Drawbar pull, 126 air output, 225
Lifting capacity, 128 Hand rotary, 212
orifice diameter, 225 Self propelled

power mist blower, 212 Combine harv~~ter, 22
Dynamic load, 80 Forage harvester, 21
E High clearance sprayer, 19
Easy running, 321 Paddy transplanter, 14
Eccentricity of disc, 104 Reaper binder, 21
Effective soil failure zone, 200 Vertical conveyor reaper, 20
Employment generation, 335 Tractor drawn
Engineering design, 1 Aeroblast sprayer, 19
Engineering steel chain, 56 Automatic potato planter, 15
Equivalent torque, 38 Bed planter, 15
Examples on fit, 322 Bl cotton planter, 17
Expenditure on utilities, 333 Bund former, 12
F Combine harvester, 23
Face width, 79 Cultivator with pulverizing roller, 12
Factor of safety, 38, 104, 107, 109, 376 Disc plough, 10
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA), 344 Forage harvester, 24
Failure, 338 Front mounted vertical conveyor

reaper, 20, 238, 268
Farm machinery
Happy seeder, 24
Design
Hay rake, 23
features, 8
High capacity multicrop thresher, 18
parameter, 5
High clearance cotton cultivator, 18
principles, 1
Laser land leveler, 12
projects, 355, 356
Mould board plough, 9
Engineering, 2
Multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill,
Improved, 9-24
15, 142, 152
Bullock drawn
Offset disc harrow, 11
Disc harrow, 9
Plough harrow (power harrow), 1O
Puddler, 13
Potato planter, 15
Manually operated
Potato digger elevator, 22
Brush cutter, 21
Power weeder, 19
Crust breaker, 18
Reversible mould board plough, 9
Paddy seeder, 14
Ridger seeder, 15
Paddy transplanter, 14
Ridger, 15
Three tyne wheel hand hoe, 18
Rigid tyne cultivator, 11
Vertical conveyor reaper, 19
Rotavator, 13
Power tiller operated VCR windrower, 20
Rotavator puddler, 13
INDEX 385
Spiked clod crusher, 11 Forming, 317

Straw baler, 23 Forward speed of machine, 183, 251
Straw combine, 23 Frame design, 7, 97
Subsoiler, 10 Frictional force, 240
Sugarcane harvester, 24 Frictional safety hitch, 123
Sugarcane planter, 17, 181 Frog design, 89
Vegetable transplanter, 17 Front mounted vertical conveyor reaper, 20
Zero-till seed cum fertilizer drill, 15
Feed rate, 284, 308 Full sweep tyne, 201
Feeder chain, 277 Furrow opener, 140, 156, 161 , 184
Fertilizer G
box, 137, 159 Gear drive, 63
metering, 138, 160 Bevel gear, 67
Field capacity, 212 Axial force, 67
Fine spray, 213 Dynamic load, 79
Finishing, 317 Face width, 79
Fit, 320 Materials for, 79
Clearance , 321 Maximum tooth load, 79
Easy running, 321 Pitch diameter, 79
Examples, 322 Radial force, 67
Hole basis system, 321 Wear load, 80
Interference, 321 Circular pitch, 64
Loose running, 321 Combination drive, 73
Normal running, 321 Cutter module, 64
Shaft basis system, 321 Diametral pitch, 64
Standard, 321 Gear module, 64
Transition, 321 Gear ratio, 65
Fixed cost, 335 Helical gears, 66
Flat blade, 192 Tangential force, 66
Flat fan, 222 Separating force, 66
Flood jet, 222 Thrust force, 66
Flow of seeds, 133 Pitch diameter, 64
Fluid power, 221 Planetary gear, 67
Fluted roller, 133 Gear ratio, 68
Fog generators, 210 Spur gear, 65
Forage harvester, 24 Bending strength, 66
Forces, 66, 240 Terminology, 64
Form factor of gears, 377 Tooth size module, 64
Gear module, 64 Harvesting, 276

Gear ratio of planetary gear, 68 Hay rake, 23
Gear ratio, 65 Header length, 281
Goal in design, 2 Header, 277
' I
Goals of reliability, 344 Heat treatment processes,
II I
Grade of tolerance, 320
Gripping of stalk, 242
Annealing, 28
Carburizing, 27
i
Ground Case hardening, 27
lI speed, 281 Normalizing, 28
j wheel, 154 Tempering, 27
I
i
wheel shaft, 35
Groundnut digger shaker
Helical gears, 66
Tangential force, 66
I Bullock drawn, 299 Separating force, 66
I Drawbar horse power, 296 Thrust force, 66

Drawbar pull, 297 High capacity multicrop thresher, 22
I Length of digging blade, 297 High carbon steel, 27
Ii H
Shank, 298 High clearance cotton cultivator, 18, 1.98
Apex angle, 203
Harvester Crop spacing, 200
I combine, 23, 276 Cutting width of sweep, 200

forage, 24 Drawbar horse power, 198
sugarcane, 24 Drawbar pull, 198
H.P., 33 Effective soil failure zone, 200
11
Half sweep tyne, 201 Full sweep tyne, 201
I Hallow cone, 222

Hand rotary duster, 212
Half sweep tyne, 201
Protection, zone, 200
Handle, 139, 161, 195 Shank, 203
Handle speed, 220 Width of implement, 198
Happy seeder, 24 High clearance sprayer,
Harrow plough (power harrow), 10 Hole basis system of fit, 321
Harrow zig-zag, 205 Hole, 319
drawbar horse power, 205 Hose, 210
drawbar pull, 205 Horizontal suction, 91
no. of sections, 206 Horse power, 135, 143, 152, 158
total load, 208 Human factors, 6
traversal spacing of tynes, 206 Human energy for agricultural tasks, 361
width of implement, 206 Hydraulic sprayers, 210
Harvesting period, 362 Hydro-pneumatic sprayers, 210
INDEX 387 ,
Forage harvester, 24
Implement draft, 82 Front mounted vertical conveyor
Importance of reliability , 337 reaper, 20, 238, 268
Improved farm machinery, 365 Happy seeder, 24
Design Hay ·rake, 23
features, 8 High capacity multicrop thresher, 18
parameter, 5 High clearance cotton cultivator, 18

principles, 1 Laser land leveler, 12
projects, 355, 356 _Mould board plough, 9

Engineering, 2 Multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill,
15, 142, 152
Improved, 9-24
Bullock drawn
Plough harrow (power harrow), 10
Disc harrow, 9
Potato planter, 15
Puddler, 13
Manually operated
Power weeder, 19
Brush cutter, 21
Crust breaker, 18
Ridger seeder, 15
Paddy seeder. 14
Ridger, 15
Rotavator, 13
Spiked clod crusher, 11
Self propelled
Straw baler, 23
Combine harvester, 22
Straw combine, 23
Forage harvester, 21
Subsoiler, 10
High clearance sprayer, 19
Sugarcane harvester, 24
Sugarcane planter, 17, 181
Reaper binder, 21
Vegetable transplanter, 17
Zero-till seed cum fertilizer drill, 15
Tractor drawn
Inertia force, 240
Aeroblast sprayer, 19
Inherent availability, 340
Automatic potato planter, 15
Input power, 221
Bed planter, 15
Inspection, 317
Bt cotton planter, 17
lntercultural tools, 190
Bund former, 12
Crust breaker, 196
Combine harvester, 23
High clearance cotton cultivator, 198
Cultivator with pulverizing roller, 12
Wheel hand hoe, 190
Disc plough, 10
388 FARM MACHINERY DESl~N: P~INCIPLES~AND PROBLEMS
Interference fit, 321 Crust breaker, 18

Inverted tooth or silent chain, 56 Paddy seeder, 14
K Paddy transplanter, 14
Knap sack sprayer, 27, 220 Three tyne wheel hand hoe, 18
L
Manufacturing limits, 317
Laboratory and stress tests, 345
Manufacturing processes, 317
Landside of MB plough
Assembly, 317
Length, 87
Casting, 317
Thickness, 88
Finishing, 317
Width, 88
Forming, 317
Land and building requirement, 331
Fit, 320
Land leveler laser, 12
~ass per unit width, 127
Lance, 210
Material bill, 332
Large combine, 281
Break even point, 334
Length of
Case study, 325
drum, 285, 309, 313
Employment generation, 334
lugged belt, 245, 275
Expenditure on utilities, 333
straw walker, 286
Fixed cost, 334
tyne, 184
Land and building requirement, 331
Lifting capacity, 128
Manpower requirement, 333
Limits of size, 318
Multipurpose ridger seeder cum fertilizer
Load angle, 84 drill, 325
. Loose running, 321 Pay back period, 334
Lower deviation, 318 Profit, 334
Lug clearance, 245 Production cost, 334
Lug height, 245 Project cost, 334
M Project on ridger seeder, 325
Machine fabrication aids, 317 Project profile, 331
Machining, 317 Raw material requirement, 333
Main assemblies, 277 Return on investment, 334
Main frame assembly, 104, 251 Small scale sector, 331
Main shaft, 44 Source of funding, 333
Maintainability, 341 Working capital, 333
Malleable cast iron, 30 Material of construction, 25-30
Manganese steel, 27 Materials for, 27
Manpower requirement, 333 Bullock drawn disc harrow, 30
Manually operated Compression sprayer, 27
INDEX 389
Disc plough, 27 Combine harvester, 22

Knap sack sprayer, 27 Forage harvester, 21
Mould board plough, 27 High clearance sprayer, 19
Mounted type disc harrow, 30 Paddy transplanter, 14
Multipurpose blade terracer, 27 Reaper binder, 21
Power thresher, 27 Vertical conveyor reaper, 20
Rotavator, 30 Tractor drawn
Seed cum fertilizer drill, 27 Aeroblast sprayer, 19
Single row seed cum fertilizer drill, 30 Automatic potato planter, 15
Spring tyne cultivator, 27 Bed planter, 15
Maximum bending moment, 42 Bt cotton planter, 17
Maximum chain speed, 375 Bund former, 12
Maximum tooth load, 79 Combine harvester, 23
Mean Cultivator with pulverizing roller, 12
variance, 350 Disc plough, 10
Down Time (MD1), 339 Forage harvester, 24
Failure Rate (A), 338 Front mounted vertical conveyor
Time Between Failure (MTBF), 339 reaper, 20, 238, 268 ·
lime To Failure (MTTF), 338 Happy seeder, 24
Mechanical properties, 370, 371 Hay rake, 23
Medium combine, 281 High capacity multicrop thresher, 18
Medium spray, 213 High clearance cotton cultivator, 18
Mild steel, 27 Laser land leveler, 12
Mist, 213 Mould board plough, 9
Mixed configuration, 348 Multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill,
15, 142, 152
Modern farm machinery, 9-24
Bullock drawn
Plough harrow (power harrow), 10
Disc harrow, 9
Potato planter, 15
Puddler, 13
Manually operated
Power weeder, 19
Bnish cutter, 21
Crust breaker, 18
Ridger seeder, 15
Paddy seeder, 14
Ridger, 15
Rotavator, 13
Spiked clod crusher, 11
Self propelled
Straw baler, 23 Multicrop thresher high capacity, 22

Straw combine, 23 Multifunctional Design Reviews, 345
Subsoiler, 10 Multipurpose ridger seeder cum fertilizer drill,
Sugarcane harvester, 24 325
Sugarcane planter, 17, 181 N
Vegetable transplanter, 17 NMD, 213
Zero-till seed cum fertilizer drill, 15 Non-positive displacement, 218
Mould board plough, 9, 82 Non-repairable items, 338
Angle of friction, 86 Normal running, 321
Angle of share, 84 Normalizing, 28
Beam, 88 Nozzles, 210, 222, 374
Coefficient of resistance, 84 Nozzle discharge rate, 212
Cutting angle, 84 Number of
Design procedure, 84 bottoms, 83
Drawbar pull, 85 droplets/cm2 , 213
Forces, 85 lug, 245
Frog, 89 rasp-bars, 308
Horizontal suction, 91 sections, 206
Implement draft, 82
0
Landside
Offset disc harrow, 11, 127, 128
Length, 87
Operational
Thickness, 88
availability, 340
Width, 88
parameters, 363
Load angle, 84
Operation wise
Plough draft, 84
draft requirement, 359
Reversible, 9
power requirement, 359
Share angle, 84
Optimum droplet size, 209
Share, 86
Orifice diameter, 225
Shin, 91
Overall efficiency, 221
Soil shear angle, 86
Overlapping of spray, 214
Solved example, 89
Overload protection devices, 120
Tractive effort, 84
p
Unit draft, 83
Paddy
Vertical component, 85
Vertical suction, 91 seeder, 14
transplanter, 14
Width of implement, 85
Parallel configuration, 347
Mounted type disc harrow, 128
Pay back period, 335
\ Multicrop seed cum fertilizer drill, 15
INDEX 391
Peak load, 112 Draft load, 185

Peg tooth power thresher, 283, 311, 364 Forward speed, 183
Pegs, 198 Furrow openers, 184
Performance characteristics, 221 Shank, 184
Peripheral Sugarcane sett, 182
force, 112 Tyne, 184
speed, 308 Plough mould board, 9
velocity, 112, 283, 307 Plough draft, 84
Permissible grain loss, 287 Plough harrow {power harrow), 10
Pick up reel tooth clearance, 281 Plunger, 19
Pick up, 277 Positive displacement, 217
Pin safety hitch, 124 Potato digger elevator, 22
Pintle chain, 56 Potato planter, 15
Piston, 219 Power
Pitman, 53 required for, 245, 290, 295
Plain wheel, 154 agricultural machines, 358
Planetary gear, 67 combine operation, 360
Planters, 157 harvesting machines, 360
Bed, 15 threshing of crops, 360
Cotton {Bt), 17 transmission
Manually operated, 157 components, 31
Combined furrow opener, 162 diagram, 280
Fertilizer box, 159 unit, 113, 255
Fertilizer metering , 160 transmitted by
Furrow opener, 161 chain, 57
Handle, 161 v-belt, 33
Horse power, 158 Power harrow {plough harrow), 10
Seed box, 158 Power mist blower, 212
Seed metering, 159 Power operated sprayer, 210
Size, 158 Power tiller operated VCR windrower, 20
standard {tyne), 161 Power weeder, 19
Tyne, 161 Predicting failure, 3
Potato, 15 Preventive maintenance, 341
Sugarcane cutter planter, 181 Price rating, 353
Average seed rate, 181 Problems on reliability, 349
Bending moment, 184 Product definition, 344
Components, 182 Profit, 334
Cutting speed, 182
Project Corrective maintenance, 341

cost, 334 Correlation fac!ors, 346
ridger seeder on, 325 Definition, 336
profile, 331 Delivery rating, 354
Properties of critical components, 26 Design analysis, 344
Protection zone, 200 Development of product, 343
Prototype & testing, 3 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA),
PTO power of tractor, 112 344
Pullverizing roller, 12 Failure, 338
Puddler Goals, 344

bullock drawn, 13 Growth curves, 346
rotavator, 13 Importance of, 337
Pump sprayer, 210, 217 Index (RI) of tractor, 342

Push, 34 Inherent availability, 340
Laboratory and stress tests, 345
Q
Maintainability, 341
Quality of farm machines, 353
Mean & Variance, 350
Quality .rating, 353
Mean Down Time (MDT), 339
R Mean Failure Rate (A), 338
Radial force, 67 Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF), 339
Rake angle, 242 Mean lime To Failure (MTTF), 338
Rake hay, 23 Mixed configuration, 348
Rasp bar power thresher, 283, 292, 308 Multifunctional Design Reviews, 345
Raw material requirement, 333 Non-repairable items, 338
Reaper binder, 21 Operational availability, 340
Rear beater, 282 Parallel configuration, 347
Recommended peripheral velocity, 307 Preventive maintenance, 341
Rectangular opening, 132 Price rating, 353
Redundancy, 338 Problems on, 349
Reel speed index, 281 Product definition, 344
Reel, 277 Quality of farm machines, 353
Reliability, 336 Quality rating, 353
Achieved availability, 340 Redundancy, 338
Areas of, 336 Repairable items, 339
Availability index, 341 Series configuration, 347
Availability, 340 System, 346
Complete machine tests, 345 Terminology, 338
Constant -Hazard rate, 342
i
INDEX . 393 ,
Test Interval, 339 s

)f ,1, ·.
Testing, 345 Safety, 6
Unavailability, 341 Safety devices for,
Repairable items, 339 drive lines, 120
Return on investment: · 335 trailing implements, 123
Reversible mould board pldugl{ g· Safety hitches types,
Ridge furrow system, 163 frictional, 123
Ridger seeder (Tractor drawn), 15, 325 pin safety, 124
.-\;
Bending moment, 168 spring safety, 124

Bottom, 166 Scientific method, 3
Draft, 164 Screening, 288 .
Draft load on tyne, 167 Screens, 222
Drawbar horse power, 165 Seed box, 135, 153
Fertilizer box, 171 Seeder happy, 24
Ridge furrow system, 163 Seeder ridger, 15
Seed box, 170 Seed cum fertilizer drill, 15, 131
Size, 164 Manually operated, 134 · ··
Specifications, 170 bulk density, 136,' 145
Tooi bar frame, , 165 combined furro,..,; open'er, 141
Rigid tooth zig-zag harrow, 205 fertilizer box,: 137
Rigid tyne cultivator, 11 fertilizer metering;' 138
0
Roller chain speed, 119 furrow opener, 140

Roller vane, 219 handle, 139
Rolling resistance, 245 horse power, 135
Rotary cultivators, 112 power transmission, 138 ' ..
Rotavator, 13, 110, 373 seed box, 135
blades, 373 ; seed m~tering, 137
blade parameter, 113 size, 135
byte length, 113 · Solved examples, 134
components, 111 standard (tyne), 140
cutting blades, 113 tyne, 140
no. of blades, 113 width, 135
power transmission, 113 Tractor drawn, 142,152
puddler, 13 active layer, 149
shaft, 112 agitator type, 131
tynes, 112 angle of repose, 136, 146
Row spacing, 362 bending moment, 140
central angle, 150
l 394 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN: PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
I flow of seeds, 133 Shank, 203
fluted roller, 133, 148 Shape of knife section, 241
furrow openers, 140, 156 Share, 86
ground wheel, 148, 154 angle, 84
plain wheel, 154 . energy in harvesting & threshing of, 360
Seed Sharpness ang.l~ of disc, ,1 04
hopper, 153 Sharpness of knife, 242
metering, 137 Shear
metering devices, 131 force, 40
rate, 148 stress, 60
Shovel type, 184 Shearing, 317
Solved example, 152 Shin, 91
Specifications, 151 Shoe loss, 281
Speed of operation, 142 Shovel type, 184
Stationary orifice, 1~1 Sickle speed, 281
Thickness. of box,
t:; · .
147
. ·.
Sieve area, 289
Toolbar, 155 Sieving, 288
Trapezoidal section, 145 Silica manganese steel, 30 . : , .i:,::.
Wheel with Single row seed cum fertilizer drill, 17

lugs, 154 Size of
pegs, .1~1 blade, 192
Seed metering devices, 131 knife section, 241
Selection of prime mover, 267
chain and sprocket, 5~, · Small combine, 281
cutting unit, 241 , Small scale sector, 331
guards, 241 Soft center steel, 27
Self propelled VCR (see Vertical conveyor Soil shear angle, 86
·. : r~aper), 238, 258 Solid cone, 222
1,.
Separating force, 66 Solved example disc plough, 10
Separating grates, 282 Solved example
Series configuration, 347 Dusters and sprayers, 226,. ,
Service factor of manually operated VCR, 246
chain, 57 MB plough, 89
1·
implement drives, 368 self propelled combine, 290

Shaft basis system, 321 Source of funding, 333
Shaft, 319 Sowing
Shaft power, 221 machines, 131
Shaker digger groun_dnut, 296 period, 362
,,,., ,,.,,.,~-if:."'¾~
· ' '.:,,
INDEX , 395
Space for farm machines, 373 No, of droplets/cm2 , 213
Specific load of sieve, 289 nozzle discharge rate, 212
Speed of operation, 142 nozzles, 222
Speed ratio of chain, 56 flat fan, 222
Spike tooth, 311 flood jet, 222
Spiked clod crusher, , 13 hollow cone, 222
Spinning disc, 222 solid cone, 222
Spray droplet size, 213 spinning disc, 222
Spray nozzles, 374 triple action, 222
Spray pattern, 214 optimum droplet size, 209
Sprayer, 209 orifice radius,
aeroblast, 19 inner, 224
aero.sols, 213 outer, 224
agitation, 217 swirl chamber, 224
. .
boom height, 214 · overlapping of spray, 214

classification, 210 power operated, 210
coarse spray, 213 Blower sprayers, 210
construction Fog generators, 210
boom, 210 . ( hydraulic spr~yers. 210 ·
container, 210 Hydro-pneumatic sprayers, 210
hose, 210 pump, 217
lance, 210 barrel, 219
nozzle, 210 , centrifugal, 219
pump, 210 diaphragm, 219
strainers, 210 discharge, 219'
drift, 209 · fluid power, 221
droplet density, 214 gear, 219
droplet size, 209 , input power, 221
field capacity, 212 .• non-positive displac~ment, 218
fine spray, 213 overall efficiency, 221
functions, 209 performance characteristics, 221
handle speed, 220 piston, 219
High clearance,1 9 " , ,,,,:· plunger: · ~ 9
Knapsack, 220 positive d'isplacement, 217
manually operated, 210 roller vane, 219
medium spray, 213 n, ·.. shaft p~~er, · 221
mist, 213 torque, 220
NMD, 213 barrel, 219 .
398 FARM MACHINERY DESl,~N: PRI_NCIPLES AND PROBLEMS
Straw baler, 23 crop

Straw combine, 23 conveyer, 244
Subsoiler, 10 divider, 243
Sug,arcane harvester, 24 lifter, 243
Sugarcane planter, 17, 181 cutter bar, 241
Vegetable transplanter, 17 length, 241
Zero-till seed cum fertilizer drill, 15 · type. 241
Trailed disc harrow, 127 cutting force, 240
Transition · fit, 321 · forces, ·240
Transplanter forward speed of machine, 251
Paddy, 14 Front mounted, 20
vegetable, 17 fictional force, 240 ·
Trapezoidal blade, 192 gripping of stalk, 242 ·
Traversal spacing of tynes, 206 inertia force, 240
Triple action nozzle, 222 length of lugged belt, 245
Tubular section, 104 lug
, Types of safety hitches, 123 clearance, 245 ',,
Type of target, 209 height, 245
Tyne, 184, 193 main frame assembly, 251,
u Manually operated, 19
Unavailability, 341 number of lug, 245
Uniformity of spray, 214 pitch of lug, 244
Unilateral system, 320 power required, 245
Unit draft, 359 power transmission ·'unit, 255 ·

rake angle, 242 ' ''''.',,'/.' '
Upper deviation, 318
rolling resistance, 245
V
selection of
Valves, 210 ,
cutting unit, 241
Variance & Mean, 350
guards, 241 ··;
V-belts, 31
self propelled VCR; 258 ',
V-blade, 192
shape of knife : section, 241 · ·
Vegetable •transplanter, 17
sharpness of knife, 242 ·
Velocity of knife section, 242
size of
Vertical component, 85
knife section, 241
prime 'mover, 267 ,,.''
coefficient of skidding, 246
solved example manually' operated VCR,
cover angle of lifters, 243 , · 246
...... ·--~•. · .·. ·:.
INDEX
star wheel velocity, 243 Tyne, 193

tractor front mounted, 268 V-blade, 192
velocity of knife section, 242 Wheel with
wheel base, 251 lugs, 154
Vertical suction, 91 pegs, 154
VMD, 213 Width of,
Volume application rate, 212 cut, 104
w implement, 85, 126, 199, 205

sieve, 288
Wear load, 80
straw walker, 288
Weeder power, 19
Winkler formula, 285
Weight density (v-belt), 375
Working capital, 333
Wheel base, 251
Wheel hand hoe, 190 Wrought iron, 27
Apex angle of blade, 193 z

Blade angle, 193 Zero line, 236
Components, 190 Zero-. till seed cum fertilizer drill, 15
Cutting blade, 191 Zig-zag harrow, 205
Flat blade, 192 drawbar horse power, 205
Handle, 195 drawbar pull, 205
horse power, 191 no. of sections, 206
Size of blade, 192 total load, 208
Trapezoidal blade, 192 traversal spacing of tynes, 206
Three tyne, 191 width of implement, 206

Farm Machinery Design Principles and Problems D N Sharma Complete PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Farm Machinery Design Principles and Problems D N Sharma Complete PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

•.. -~:,,,~WJ!W,%"w r . . ,.

Farm Machinery Design

.. ·.,...., ... ,..

Second Revised and Enlarged Edition

Pusa Agri Books Service

JAIN BROTHERS (New Delhi)

Distributor for South India :

©Copyright Reserved with Authors, 2008

First Edition :2008

~rice : Rs. 29?-.00

ISBN : 971-81 -8360-142-9

Suggestions for the improvement of the book will be highly appreciated.

Preface to the First Edition

September, 2008 D.N Sharma

1. Farm Machinery Design Principles ................................. 1-21

2. Material of Construction for Agricultural Machinery,

3. Design of Power Transmission Components and

4. Design of Tillage Implements ....................................... 82-130

6. Design of lntercultural Tools and Implements ......... 190-208

7. Design of Plant Protection Equipments ........ :.......... 209-237

7 .1.Field Capacity of Sprayers· ............................................................................... 412

7.6 UniformityofSpray Application ......................................... :.............................. 214

8. Design of Crop Harvesting Machines ....................... 238-304

9. Design of Threshing Machines .................................. 305-316

11. Material Bill and Construction Cost in Farm

12. Reliability in Farm Machinery ..................................... 336-354

1.1. ENGINEERING DESIGN

Establish objectives and criteria

Understand the problem

Modify solution Gather information

Test the solution Synthesize solution

Develop details Select the best solution

Fig. l.1: Engineering design process

The difference between scientific method and design method is as follow~:

1.2. FARM MACHINERY DESIGN

Farm machinery design involves:

• Maximum force required to prick the fruits.

14. Human factors in design.

The design offarm machine differs from other machines

5. Arrangement of work space.

Design Features/Considerations of Farm Machines

1.4 MODERN FARM MACHINERY

Bullock drawn disc harrow

Mould board plough

Reversible Mould Board Plough

Tractor mounted subsoiler

Plough harrow (Power harrow)

Tractor mounted offset disc harrow

Spring loaded cultivator

Rigid tyne cultivator

Cultivator with pulverizing roller

Laser land leveller

II Tractor bund former

Tractor drawn sp_iked clod crusher

Bullock drawn puddler

Tractor mounted rotary puddler

Tractor operated rotavator

Manual paddy seeder

Manual paddy transplanter

Self-propelled paddy transplanter

Tractor drawn ridger

Zero till seed cum fertilizer drill

Tractor mounted ridger seeder