Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Current Research in Environmental Sustainability

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/crsust

Recent trends in solid waste management status, challenges,

and potential for the future Indian cities – A review
Akhilesh Kumar, Avlokita Agrawal
⁎
Department of Architecture and Planning, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, 247667, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: In recent years, the exponential population growth, high density of urban areas, diverse culture, changing food habits,
Received 11 June 2020 and lifestyles have seen an unresolved problem in terms of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) in India. Con-
Received in revised form 24 August 2020 sequently, the municipalities have been facing many other issues related to the collection, treatment, and management
Accepted 16 September 2020
of solid waste. The present study is a comprehensive review summarising the present SWM status identifying the as-
Available online xxxx
sociated challenges and deriving potential solutions for the MSWM in the Indian context. The unsorted solid waste
Keywords:
at source, social taboo, citizen's attitude, poor assessment, inadequate potential strategies unorganised informal sector
Municipal solid waste management of waste, unplanned fiscal, and poor implementation government policies. The discussion in this review article con-
Recycling cludes, there is an urgent need for adequate treatment and recycling strategies required to be adopted as per the
Waste to energy Indian solid waste composition. The appropriate implications of the potential solutions for MSW at the centralised
Composting and decentralised level need to be emphasised through various available of scientific treatment processes. Hence mu-
Biogas nicipalities, along with the involvement of informal sectors, private agencies required to focus on creating potential
Sustainable cities opportunities and achieves the long term goal of the MSWM sustainability for Indian cities.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1. Research significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Current status of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Municipal solid waste quantity and generation rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1. Comparison of global solid waste generation trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2. Increased quantities of municipal solid wastes in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Composition of MSWM in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.1. Characteristics and compositions of solid wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.2. Quality of Indian solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3. Handling of MSW and current scenario of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Challenges related to MSWM in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1. Environment and health issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2. Infrastructure and finance management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Improper implementation of government policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4. MSWM processes & their operational challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4.1. Segregation & collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4.2. Storage & transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4.3. Treatment and final disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5. Socio-economic issues on waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5.1. Literacy: Policies & its awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5.2. Unplanned fiscal & investment approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5.3. Inadequate resources & land: Availability/prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.5.4. Social acceptance & taboo towards SWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.5.5. Unorganised informal sector of waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: akumar1@ar.iitr.ac.in (A. Kumar), avlokita@ar.iitr.ac.in (A. Agrawal).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2020.100011
2666-0490/© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

4. Potentials & opportunities for Indian cities in the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.1. Case studies on sound practices of MSW in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1.1. Surat city, Gujarat: A quick overcome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.2. Alleppey, Kerala: Decentralised approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.3. Bobbili, Andhra Pradesh: Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.4. Panji, Goa: User charges linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1.5. Pune city, Maharashtra: Biogas plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2. Possible strategies and options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.1. Organic waste (Wet waste): Compost facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.2. Waste to energy plant: Dry waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.3. Scientific landfill sites: Mixed waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.4. Inorganic waste (Dry waste): Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.5. Pyrolysis technology: Hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.6. Construction & demolition waste: Building materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.7. Other advanced techniques for MSWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.8. Global technology options for SWM by income & region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Declaration of competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1. Introduction
With a population of approximately 1210 million, the urban population
in the country is more than 377 million constituting 31.16% of its total pop-
ulation (Census_of_India_2011_GOI, 2011). The municipalities with such
rapid rate of urbanisation, facing an extra burden on the socio-economic
and environmental prospects owing to migration and depletion of natural
resources (Gerdes and Gunsilius, 2010). As per the central pollution control
board (CPCB) of India, the per capita waste generation has increased at an
exponential rate (0.26 kg/day to 0.85 kg/day) (CPCB India, 2018a). Its is
estimated that approximately 80% to 90% of the municipal waste is
disposed-off in landfills without proper management practices and open
burning, leading to air, water, soil pollution (Ahluwalia and Patel, 2018)
(Joshi and Ahmed, 2016). The citizens are not much aware of waste man-
agement related issues, and their careless attitude towards their waste cre-
ates challenges for the municipalities. The potential threat about MSW at
landfill sites which emits harmful greenhouse gases eventually leading to-
wards environmental pollution subsequently contaminates the groundwa-
ter with the formation of leachates (Ngwabie et al., 2019) (Li and Zhao,
2001) (Ko et al., 2015). The sound & micro-dust is another issue during
transportation causes nuisance for the elderly and newborns (Yusof et al.,
2009).
Recently, single-use plastics have become a global threat which is con-
sidered harmful and non-biodegradable. In cities, the generation of excess
plastic waste could lead to drainage choking during the monsoon that re-
sults in urban flooding, Subsequently the micro-plastic intermixes with
water polluting the rivers and oceans (Anderson et al., 2016). Current stud-
ies have demonstrated that the presence of micro-plastic causes distur-
bances in the aqua life (primarily the food chain) and ultimately leading
to global warming. Consequently, reported as the primary reason for the ex-
tinction of various indigenous species on the planet Earth (United Nations,
1992). As per the report published in UNPD, the world produces around
300 million tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of the generated plastic
waste is recycled, ~14% collected for recycling while the rest reaches the
ocean annually (Plastic Recycling: An Underperforming Sector Ripe for a
Remake, 2019). Fig. 1 shows the accumulation of plastic wastes across
the globe gram km−2, particularly in the oceans.
Another issue related to MSWM is the generation of hazardous chemical
wastes by cities such as hospitals and industries leads to breathing problems
and premature deaths (Joshi and Ahmed, 2016) (Mohan, 2019). In recent
years, India has become the emerging recycling market; however, recycling
has not done as per the prescribed marks (Bhattacharya et al., 2018). Im-
proper management MSWs at landfills sites often attracts animals, rodents,
mosquitoes, vultures, and scavengers which could cause health issues and
even death to front line workers and waste pickers (De Bercegol et al.,
2017).
Nevertheless, a few cities in India such as Surat, Alleppy, Bobbili, Panji,
and Pune have showcased the positive intent towards SWM strategies selec-
tion which have discussed in the present study. It has also been observed
that the municipalities are focusing mainly on the collection part, but ad-
vance treatment is missing. However, this also needs further up-gradation
to eliminate the MSWM issue (Annepu, 2012). The resourceful material re-
covery has been a challenge, that could be achieved by the help of the infor-
mal sector into the main streamline of the MSWM process. However, this
idea can only be fulfilled with support and funding from the government
agencies, public awareness, participation, and to eliminate the social ta-
boos. The mentioned above under one umbrella could contribute in a step
towards to clean sustainable cities. Hence, the present study is a compre-
hensive review carried out the all possible strategies from past to future
pertaining to MSWM, also addressing the challenges and potentials oppor-
tunities for the future urban cities of India.
1.1. Research significance
Many attempts have been made in terms to resolve the SWM related is-
sues, but still, Solid waste management is not being handled holistically.
Most of the cities in India are still found collecting of mixed type of waste
(Ahluwalia and Patel, 2018), and the enforcement of appropriate
centralised/decentralised treatment system found missing (Singh, 2020).
Eventually, there are prior issues of MSWM in India that have not been ad-
dressed efficiently so far for the treatment of waste. Hence this paper also
discusses the missing interlinks and loopholes. The situation has become se-
vere for most of the municipal authorities as a proper assessment of the
SWM is not done before suggesting and implementing the strategies (Zhu
et al., 2008). Therefore, the end of resourceful solid waste leads to unscien-
tific dumpsites without proper treatment.
2. Current status of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in
India
2.1. Municipal solid waste quantity and generation rate
In India, approximately 143,449 MT of MSW is being generated daily,
out of which around 111,000 Metric tonnes collected, and about 35,602
Metric tonnes are treated (S. Kumar et al., 2017). City wise generation of
waste shows significant variation in the waste per capita/day generation
at an exponential rate strictly (0.24 to 0.85) from the year 2001 to 2018
presented by CPCB in their annual report 2018. Which is likely to increase

2
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Fig. 1. Concentrations of plastic debris in surface waters of the global ocean (Cozar et al., 2014).

shortly at a rapid rate (CPCB India, 2018a) (S. Kumar et al., 2017). The con- heterogeneous type of solid waste daily which consist about 70%80% of
solidated status of the MSWM system has represented in given Table 1 for the total waste generated per day in India (MNRE_India, 2018).
the 29 states of India. As per the MNRE report 2018, overcrowded states such as Maharashtra,
The typology of the garbage in the cities changes with their geographi- Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, National capital Region, Gujarat, Karnataka &
cal conditions, climate, social and economic status of the people. The pop- West Bengal generates a tremendous amount of waste in the country.
ulated cities are generating more municipal waste. Variation in the waste
leads to more challenges for the municipalities, which clearly show the
2.1.1. Comparison of global solid waste generation trends
same strategy cannot apply to all cites. The reason municipalities are not
The production of waste in the world expected to be 27 billion tonnes
able to cope up with the situation and seem behind except fewer cases lead-
per year by 2050. Currently, Asia generates one-third of total waste, with
ing ahead.
significant contributions from China (0–0.49) kg/capita/day and India
As per Fig. 4, bigger capital such as Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata,Chennai,
(0.50–0.9) kg/capita/day (Kaza et al., 2018) (Modak, 2011). If the situation
Hyderabad, Bangalore caters a huge share of the solid waste generation in
remains, persist, waste generation will be projected from (334–661) MT/
India. Highly dense population stays in these regions generates a
day for Indian continent comparing to China East Asia-pacific (468–714)
Mt./day in year (2016–2050). As per the current statistics, Fig. 6 on an av-
Table 1
erage per capita waste generation vary from 150 g to 300 g. Total estimated
MSWM and its status. global municipal waste rise is (7–10) billion tonnes/annum, including C&D
and industrial waste. World Bank has also indicated the current scenario
Parameter Status
along with future projection comparing with different regions of the
Population density 382/person/km world. This indicates the average per capita/day waste generation in
Door to door collection 18 state (of 29 States)
Segregation of the waste at the source 5 states (of 29 States)
2016, ranging from (0.09–0.60)kg for lower-income region, (0.16–0.79)
Unsanitary landfill site constructed (in 1285 kg for lower-middle income group and (0.1–1.2)kg for Upper-middle in-
numbers) come group respectively (“Waste Generation_world Bank Org.,”, 2015).
Compost/vermicompost facilities (in numbers) 95 This regional waste generation trends in the world with the projection
operated by ULBs
from the year 2016–2050, which further going to be doubled by the year
ULBs under construction 173
compost/vermi-compost facilities (in 2050 as per the estimation referring Fig. 6.
numbers)
Operating pipe composting facilities (in 7000
numbers) 2.1.2. Increased quantities of municipal solid wastes in India
Operating RDFs Facilities (in numbers) 12 The generated amount of MSW also depends on living standards, extent,
Operating Biogas Plants (in numbers) 645 type of commercial activity, eating habits, geographical, and climate condi-
Energy generation Plants (in numbers) 11 (6 operational)
tions. Migrants in search of opportunities worsen the situation. As per the
Solid Waste generation 143,449 Mt./day
Solid Waste collection 111,000 Mt./day (77.6%) of total
recent data from MNRE Report, India is generating exponentially about
solid waste generated 145 million tonnes of waste per year and further expected to reach approx-
Solid Waste process/treatment 35,602 Mt./day (24.8%) total solid imately 260 to 300 million tonnes per day in the year 2047. As per the
waste generated CPCB, India data, about 117,644 MT collected, and around 49,401 MT is
Note: ULBs = Urban local bodies. Source: data from CPCB 2016, (Sharma and Jain, only treated (Central Pollution Control Board, 2016) (Ahluwalia and
2018), Census 2011 India. Patel, 2018).

3
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Table 2
Generation and percentage change of solid waste with the time (CPCB India, 2018b).
Waste Generation % Change

Tonne per day (TPD)

City Population 2011 1999–2000 2004–2005 2010–2011 2015–2016 w.r.t* (1999–2000)

Mumbai (Maharashtra) 12,442,373 5355 5320 6500 11,000 205.42%

Delhi (Delhi State) 11,034,555 400 5922 6800 8700 2175%
Bangalore (Karnataka) 8,443,675 200 1669 3700 3700 1850%
Chennai (Tamil Nadu) 7,088,000 3124 3036 4500 5000 160.05%
Hyderabad (Telangana) 6,731,790 1566 2187 4200 4000 255.43%
Ahmadabad (Gujarat) 5,577,940 1683 1302 2300 2500 148.54%
Kolkata (West Bengal) 4,496,694 3692 2653 3670 4000 108.34%
Surat (Gujarat) 4,467,797 900 1000 1200 1680 186.67%
Pune (Maharashtra) 3,124,458 700 1175 1300 1600 228.57%
Jaipur (Rajasthan) 3,046,163 580 904 310 1000 172.41%
Luck now (Uttar Pradesh) 2,817,105 1010 475 1200 1200 118.81%
Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) 2,765,348 1200 1100 1600 1500 125%
Nagpur (Maharashtra) 2,405,665 443 504 650 1000 225.73%
Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) 2,035,922 300 584 334 350 116.67%
Indore (Madhya Pradesh) 1,960,631 350 557 720 850 242.86%
Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh) 1,798,218 546 574 350 700 128.21%
Patna (Bihar) 1,683,200 330 511 220 450 136.36%
Vadodara (Gujarat) 1,666,703 400 357 600 700 175%
Ludhiana (Punjab) 1,613,878 400 735 850 850 212.5%
Coimbatore (Tamilnadu) 1,601,438 350 530 700 850 242.86%
Madurai (Tamilnadu) 1,561,129 370 275 450 450 121.62%
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) 1,201,815 412 425 450 500 121.36%
*
with respect to.

As per the estimation, waste dumps require a land area of 1400 sq. Km
approximately by the year 2051. Referring to Fig. 7, generation of waste,
land requirement, and the population growth with time have reached be-
yond, also started creating a scarcity of available dumpsites. Referring to
Table 2 represents the change in the per cent of the generated waste
concerning the year (1999–2000) to the recent year (2015–16).
Generation of waste is changing with time; metro cities are generating the gar-
bage at a very high rate. In Table 2, the regional zone of Delhi and Bangalore
found a drastic change in the waste generated from the year 1999–2000 to
2015–2016, an increment of 2175% and 1850% respectively.
2.2. Composition of MSWM in India
2.2.1. Characteristics and compositions of solid wastes
The waste composition has a significant impact on waste management
practices. High-income groups utilise more packaged products, resulting
in higher volumes of paper, glass, metals, plastics, and textiles as compare
to low-income groups (Sridevi et al., 2012). MSW may also contain harmful
wastes such as paints, used medicine, pesticides, E-wastes and batteries.
Referring to Figs. 8 & 9, the composition of waste in typical Indian cities
compared to developed countries (Figs. 2, 3, 5 and Table 10).
The economy of the informal sector solely relies on the composition of
generated waste. As per the previous studies, it has observed that about
40% to 50% of the solid waste composition is organic, 30% of (inert & con-
struction/demolition waste), and remaining is recyclable waste. The aver-
age calorific value of Indian solid waste varies from (15002200) Kcal/kg,
lower as compare to developed countries due to the lesser paper and plastic
waste. The moisture content in the solid waste is higher than the developing
countries.
Table 3 states the Regional status of solid waste generation comparison
with its composition, moisture content, and calorific value comparing to its
cities, states, union territories, and regional zone bases in India.

Per capita waste generation range comparision in urban area

0.9
Waste Generation per kg perday

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 2018 (CPCB)

0.4
0.3
0.2
2001 (CPCB)
0.1
0
Cities with Cities with Cities with Cities with
population < 0.1 population 0.1 to population 1 to 2 population > 2
Million ( 8 in no's.) 0.5 Million ( 11 in Million ( 16 in Million ( 13 in
no's.) no's.) no's.)

Population in millions

Fig. 2. Per capita waste generation comparison in Indian cities (S. Kumar et al., 2017) (CPCB India, 2018a).

4
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Waste Generation Rate (kg/c/day)

0.76

0.67

0.62
0.59

0.59
0.58

0.58
0.57

0.57

0.57
0.54

0.53
0.52

0.51
0.48

0.46

0.46
0.45

0.45
0.44

0.44

0.44

0.43
0.42

0.42

0.41
0.39

0.39

0.39

0.39
0.38
0.4

0.4

0.4
0.37

0.37
0.36
0.34

0.34
0.32

0.31

0.31
0.3

0.3

0.3
0.27

0.27
0.25

0.25

0.25
0.23

0.23
0.22

0.22
0.21
0.19

0.19
0.2
0.17

KOCHI

MEERUT

GREATER MUMBAI
RANCHI

BHOPAL

PUNE

DELHI
MADURAI

AGRA

CHENNAI
JAMMU

SURAT
DAMAN

KOHIM A

VADODARA
DEHRADUN

INDOR E
PONDIC HE R R Y
IM PHAL

ASANSOL

RAJKOT

PATNA
DHANBAD

VARANASI

HYDERABAD
JAMSHEDPUR

NAGPUR
LUCKNOW

KANPUR
AHMEDABAD
GANGTOK

SHILLON G
SIM LA

AIZWAL

R AIPUR

LUDHIAN A
NASHIK

BANGLORE

KOLKATA
VIJAYWAD A
PANJIM

BHUBANESWAR

C OIM B ATOR E
AGARTALA

JABALPUR
GUWAHATI
KAVARATTI

SILVASS A

JAIPUR
C HANDIGAR H

SR INAGAR

AM R ITSAR

ALLAH ABAD

FAR IDAB AD
ITANAGAR

POR T B LAIR

GANDHIN AGAR

TIR UVANAN TAPUR AM

VISHAKH AP ATN AM
Fig. 3. Indian cities waste generation per capita (CPCB India, 2018b).

Table 4 represents the projection and comparison from the year 2012 to process. The calorific value ranging from 1500 kcal/kg and above are
2025, where India as lower-income groups generate more organic waste found suitable for waste to energy plants.
while high-income group as European countries generate higher inorganic
waste.
2.3. Handling of MSW and current scenario of India

2.2.2. Quality of Indian solid waste The adequate handling of solid waste is a critical part of any successful
Here, Referring to the Figs. 10 and 11, the carbon, nitrogen (C/N ratio) waste management system. Most of the municipalities unequipped with es-
is (26 ± 5)% & compostable fraction is above 50%, in most of the cases sential tools and machinery for handling such a vast amount of unorganised
which indicates the suitability of organic waste for the generation of com- waste (Annepu, 2012). The schematic waste management process, com-
post and biogas yield. Hence, most of the Indian cities could adopt organic monly practised in India, is represented in Fig. 13. The collection of waste
waste-based strategies for treatment. On the other hand, cities such as Imp- from door to door is the prime duty of the municipal government, where
hal, Aizol, Itanagar, Kohima, Nashik, Ludhiyana, and Pune have shown waste collection & handling mostly done manually. Sometimes municipal-
promising calorific value. That could be adopted for incineration/RDFs ities also assign the private organisation for the tasks of collecting, segrega-
based waste to energy generation plant as an option after the extraction tion/sorting, transportation, preprocessing of waste, and final disposal.
of resourceful recyclable. Fig. 12 showcases higher calorific value (HCV) However, collected recyclable waste by the vendors sold to local scrap
of the solid waste is ideal for refuse-derived fuel (RDFs) and incineration dealers, which further forwarded to the recycling unit outside the cities.

Waste Quantity (TPD)

5922
5320
3036
2653
2187
1669
1302
1175
1100
1000
904
735
654
584

574
557
530

511
509

504
490

475
448
438
428

425
400

374

357
338
326

275
234

216
215

207

208

207

200
184

171

166
131
130
76

77

77

57
45

44

43
39
32
16
15
13

13
12
3

RANCHI

MEERUT
JAMMU

CHENNAI
KOCHI

MADURAI

GREATER MUMBAI
BHOPAL

SURAT

DELHI
IM PHAL

DEHRADUN
ASANSOL

RAJKOT

PATNA
AGRA
VARANASI

LUCKNOW

PUNE

HYDERABAD
DAMAN

SIM LA

DHANBAD
PONDIC HER R Y

AIZWAL

JAMSHEDPUR

VADODARA

AHMEDABAD
KOHIM A

NASHIK
C OIM B ATOR E

KOLKATA
BHUBANESWAR

INDOR E
KAVARATTI

AGARTALA

GUWAHATI
GANGTOK

SILVASS A

JAIPUR
NAGPUR

KANPUR
SHILLON G

R AIPUR

VIJAYWAD A

LUDHIAN A

BANGLORE
C HANDIGAR H

JABALPUR
AM R ITSAR
PANJIM

ALLAH ABAD
POR T B LAIR

FAR IDAB AD
GANDHIN AGAR
ITANAGAR

SR INAGAR
TIR UVANAN T APUR AM

VISHAKH AP ATN AM

Fig. 4. Indian cities waste generation tonnes per day (CPCB India, 2018b).

5
 A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
Fig. 6. Global trend of the waste generation and projection (Daily Chart - Global Waste Generation Will Nearly Double by 2050 | Graphic Detail | The Economist, 2018).

ANDAM AN NIC OB AR 115

ANDHRA PRADESH 6525
ARUNACHAL PRADESH 181
ASSAM 1134
B IHAR 1192
C HANDIGAR H 340

STATE WISE: TOTAL WASTE GENERATION (MT/DAY)

1959

Fig. 5. State-wise: Total waste Generation (MT/Day) (MNRE_India, 2018).

C HHATTIS GAR H
DAM AN DIU 23
DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI 58
NCT OF DELHI 10500
GOA 240
GUJARAT 10145
HARYANA 4514
HIM AC HAL PR ADESH 342
JHARKHAND 2451
JAM M U & KASHM IR 1792
KARNATAKA 10000
KERALA 1576
6

NAGALAND 342
MADHYA PRADESH 6424
MAHARASHTRA 22570
M ANIPUR 176
M IZOR AM 201
M EGHALAYA 268

Total waste Generation (MT/Day)

OR ISSA 2460
PUNJAB 4100
PONDIC HE R R Y 495

Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

RAJASTHAN 6500
SIKKIM 89
TAM IL NADU 15547
TELANGAN A 7371
TR IPUR A 421
UTTARAKHAND 1400
UTTAR PRADESH 15500
WEST BENGAL 8675
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

2000 Developed countries

MSW Gen./Land Req. /Population

1800
Cloths
1600 2%
MSW Generation
1400 (MT/Day)
1200 Organic
Land Requirment
1000 waste
(Sq. Km.) Paper
800 21%
33%
600 1000 X
(Population)
400 Inert silt
constructio
200
n waste
0 Glass 17%
2001 2011 2021 2031 2041 2051 Plastic metal
Year 11% 16%

Fig. 7. MSW generation, land requirement, and population projection from 2001 to
2051 (Joshi and Ahmed, 2016). Fig. 9. Composition of Developed countries waste (Kaza and Yao, 2018).

Hence, ragpickers play an essential role in the collection and processing of (ZnO-nS) uses for removal of total H2S and COS from syngas (Da Oh et al.,
waste in most of the privately organised cities. 2018b).

3. Challenges related to MSWM in India

3.1. Environment and health issues
Human health is very much associated with environmental degradation
(Shukla et al., 2000). There is Direct health risk to the formal and informal
workers without the use of proper gloves, uniforms, and safety pieces of
equipment. A high percentage of gastrointestinal parasites worm infects
those who live near to the disposal sites (Giusti, 2009). Open dumps release
methane from the decomposition of biodegradable waste under anaerobic
conditions even found causing fires and explosions, a vast contributor to
global warming (Slagstad and Bratteb, 2013). There are problems associ-
ated with odour and migration of leachates to receiving water and soil
(Unnikrishnan et al., 2006) (Muhammad et al., 2020) (Dasgupta et al.,
2013). Discarded tyres at dumps collect water, allowing mosquitoes to
breed, increasing the risk of diseases such as malaria, dengue and West
Nile fever etc. Uncontrolled burning of waste at dumpsites releases fine par-
ticles & smog, which are a significant cause of respiratory diseases (Sridevi
et al., 2012), (Annepu, 2012) (Ghosh, 2016a). The newborn babies & adults
are profoundly affected by harmful gases like CO, CO2, PM2, Mercury, &
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), plastic pyrolysis, even arsenic in
water leads to cancer & death (Ghosh, 2016a), (Azar and Azar, 2016),
(Ahamed et al., 2020). Microplastic in the ocean is disturbing the sea's eco-
system and food chain (Ivar Do Sul and Costa, 2014). The ZnO nanosheets
Typical Indian cities
Inert silt,
construction
waste Food waste,
29% Garden
trimmings,
Biodegradab
le Waste
50%
Glass/metal
5%
Plastic
4%
Cloths
Paper
7%
5%
Fig. 8. Composition of India waste (Ahluwalia and Patel, 2018).
3.2. Infrastructure and finance management
As per the estimation of the expert committee of the Ministry of Urban
Development, India, significant capital and maintenance cost in the class
1A cities was Rs. 900 and Rs. 269 per capita/year (Mani and Singh,
2015). The municipalities & ULBs are struggling because of the lack of fi-
nancial and management system in the waste sector, without comprehen-
sive strategies. As a result, unsegregated waste is not profitable, so it has
not been practised & kept aside. To push the SWMS in the country, Govern-
ment of India has sanctioned the grants and fund under the 12th, 13th fi-
nance commission referring to projects such as JnNURM, UIDSSMT
amount of Rs.20000 crores allocated under Swatch Bharath Mission
(Mani and Singh, 2015).
3.3. Improper implementation of government policies
The management of solid waste generated in a country must be one of
the priorities while forming policies at the national level (Abas and Wee,
2014). The primary reasons, particularly in urban areas, are economic
growth, migration from cities, unplanned land use, and most importantly,
the lack of proper legislation on solid waste management. The institutional
framework for solid waste management is still in the development process.
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), the Ministry of urban development (MoUD)
under the government of India. As a national campaign, local municipal
bodies, (ULBs) have to make cities open defecation and focuses on the
SWM system with social priorities (Mani and Singh, 2015). Some of the
considerable landmarks in the history of solid waste management (SWM)
represented in Table 5, along with its effectiveness.
3.4. MSWM processes & their operational challenges
3.4.1. Segregation & collection
Segregation is rare to find, so unsorted waste is typically collected by
municipalities daily with the help of the inadequate number of staff; Collec-
tion of waste is done door to door from highly congested and narrow streets
on the manual bases (CPHEEO India, 2016). As per the report of State Pol-
lution Control Boards/ Pollution Control Committees (in between the year
2009–12), 127,486 Tonnes per day MSW was generated in the country dur-
ing the year 2011–12, out of which, 89,334 Tonnes per day (70%) of MSW
was collected (CPCB, 2013). Fig. 14 indicates the state-wise collection sta-
tus across the country.

7
 KAVARATI 2242 KAVARATI 18.04 KAVARATI 46.01
27.2
GANGTOK 1234 GANGTOK 25.61 GANGTOK 46.52
16.48
52.02
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /

ITANAGAR 3414 ITANAGAR 17.68 ITANAGAR 20.57

DAMAN 2588 DAMAN 22.34 DAMAN 29.6
22.02
SILVASS A 1281 SILVASS A 35.24 SILVASS A 71.67
13.97
PANJIM 2211 PANJIM 23.77 PANJIM 61.75
17.44
KOHIM A 2844 KOHIM A 30.87 KOHIM A 57.48
22.67
POR T B LAIR 1474 POR T B LAIR 35.88 POR T B LAIR 48.25
27.66
SHILLON G 2736 SHILLON G 28.86 SHILLON G 62.54
17.27
SIM LA 2572 SIM LA 23.76 SIM LA 43.02
36.64
AGARTALA 2427 AGARTALA 30.02 AGARTALA 58.57
13.68
GANDHIN AGAR 698 GANDHIN AGAR 36.05 GANDHIN AGAR 34.3
13.2
DHANBAD 591 DHANBAD 18.22 DHANBAD 46.93
16.16
PONDIC HER R Y 1846 PONDIC HE R R Y 36.86 PONDIC HER R Y 49.96
24.29
IM PHAL 3766 IM PHAL 22.34 IM PHAL 60
18.51
AIZWAL 3766 AIZWAL 27.45 AIZWAL 54.24
20.97
JAMMU 1782 JAMMU 26.79 JAMMU 51.51
21.08
DEHRADUN 2445 DEHRADUN 25.9 DEHRADUN 51.37
19.58
ASANSOL 1156 ASANSOL 14.08 ASANSOL 50.33
14.21
KOCHI 591 KOCHI 18.22 KOCHI 57.34
19.36
R AIPUR 1273 R AIPUR 22.35 R AIPUR 51.4
16.31
BHUBANESWAR 742 BHUBANESWAR 20.57 BHUBANESWAR 49.81
12.69
TIR UVANAN TH APU … 2378 TIR UVANAN TH APUR AM 35.19 TIR UVANAN TH APUR AM 72.96
14.36
C HANDIGAR H 1408 C HANDIGAR H 20.52 C HANDIGAR H 57.18
10.91
GUWAHATI 1519 GUWAHATI 17.71 GUWAHATI 53.69
23.28
RANCHI 1060 RANCHI 20.23 RANCHI 51.49
9.86
VIJAYWAD A 1910 VIJAYWAD A 33.9 VIJAYWAD A 59.43
17.4
Compostable(%)

61.77

8
SR INAGAR 1264 SR INAGAR 22.46 SR INAGAR 17.76
MADURAI 1813 MADURAI 32.69 MADURAI 55.32
17.25

C/N Ratio
C OIM B ATOR E 2381 C OIM B ATOR E 45.83 C OIM B ATOR E 50.06
15.52

HCV* (Kcal/Kg)
JABALPUR 2051 JABALPUR 28.22 JABALPUR 58.07
16.61
AM R ITSAR 1836 AM R ITSAR 30.69 AM R ITSAR 65.02
13.94
RAJKOT 687 RAJKOT 52.56 RAJKOT 41.5
11.2
Recyclables (%)

ALLAH ABAD 1180 ALLAH ABAD 19 ALLAH ABAD 35.49

19.22
VISAKH AP ATN AM 1602 VISAKH AP ATN AM 41.7 VISAKH AP ATN AM 45.96
24.2
FAR IDAB AD 1319 FAR IDAB AD 18.58 FAR IDAB AD 42.06
23.31

Fig. 12. HCV (Kcal/Kg) (CPCB India, 2018a).

MEERUT 1089 MEERUT 19.24 MEERUT 54.54
10.96
39.52

Fig. 11. Indian cities C/N Ratio (CPCB India, 2018a).

NASIK 2762 NASIK 37.2 NASIK 25.11
VARANASI 804 VARANASI 19.4 VARANASI 45.18
17.23
43.36
Fig. 10. Compostable and recyclables (%) (CPCB India, 2018a).

JAMSHEDPUR 1009 JAMSHEDPUR 19.69 JAMSHEDPUR 15.69

AGRA 520 AGRA 21.56 AGRA 46.38
15.79
VADODARA 1781 VADODARA 40.34 VADODARA 47.43
14.5
PATNA 819 PATNA 18.62 PATNA 51.96
12.57
LUDHIAN A 2559 LUDHIAN A 52.17 LUDHIAN A 49.8
19.32
BHOPAL 1421 BHOPAL 21.58 BHOPAL 52.44
22.33
INDOR E 1437 INDOR E 29.3 INDOR E 48.97
12.57
NAGPUR 2632 NAGPUR 26.37 NAGPUR 47.41
15.53
LUCKNOW 1557 LUCKNOW 21.41 LUCKNOW 47.41
15.53
JAIPUR 834 JAIPUR 43.29 JAIPUR 45.5
12.1
SURAT 990 SURAT 42.16 SURAT 56.87
11.21
PUNE 2531 PUNE 35.54 PUNE 62.44
16.66
KANPUR 1571 KANPUR 27.64 KANPUR 47.52
11.93
AHEMDABAD 1180 AHEMDABAD 29.64 AHEMDABAD 40.81
11.65
HYDERABAD 1969 HYDERABAD 25.9 HYDERABAD 54.2
21.6
BANGALORE 2386 BANGALORE 35.12 BANGALORE 51.84
22.43
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Waste to
Market street Street sweeping/
unauthorized
collecon by civic
waste dumpsites
body

Waste to
transfer
House hold/ Staon
Waste storage
commercial waste in collecon by Waste to land
generaon civic body dumping by civic
body

Recovery by Recovery by
Recovery by rag Rag-picking Dump
household and rag pickers
inerant/buyers picker from at Transfer pickers
from dustbin staon
dustbins

Sent to centralized decentralized recycling

Fig. 13. Schematic flow chart of typical MSW Management handling/process (Joseph, 2002).

3.4.2. Storage & transportation their solid waste with the current status of the treatment plants still inade-
Generated solid waste mostly stored into the community bins and indi- quate & demands more. The most significant challenge face by recycling
vidual bins. The residents often utilise the single bin for mixed waste, often plants is its heterogeneity. As a result, it is difficult to treat solid waste to
found unmanaged, filled with leachate, especially during the rainy session. generate bio-methanation, waste to energy, and composting seems in devel-
The solid waste collection vehicles visit on a weekly bases; where vehicles oping stages.
seem uncovered, holding inadequate capacity, also utilising traditional Unscientific disposal of waste mostly at open dumps is a common prac-
and manual collection methods in most of the cities. The scarcity of land tice, about 90% of the total are still dump on the spacious grounds and it's
for waste dumping is even a more challenging issue (Annepu, 2012). rare to find capped sanitary landfill sites. Landfill sites are in the exhausted
condition in the metro cities. Referring to Fig. 15, indicates scientific
reclaimed/capped; 40 and landfill converted into sanitary landfill; 21 are
3.4.3. Treatment and final disposal very rare to find in the Indian states, total no. of the dump's sites are 2120
Municipalities are struggling with their unmanaged waste treatment (CPCB India, 2018a). A per the CPCB report of 2015 tells about seven mega-
process. Here Table 6 represents how Indian states have managed, and cities of India accounted for nearly 48% of total methane emissions in the

120

99 99 100
100 97 98 100 98 100 100 100 99 100 100 98 100 98 100
100 93 97 90 95
92 91 92 92 93 91
90 90
86 86 87 85 85 86
82 85 83 82 83 82 83
78 80 74 80
80 74 74 74
70 69 71
68
60
60 54
51 49 50 49
46
40
40 32
21
20

0
Tamil Nadu
Andaman Nicobar

Rajasthan
Himachal Pradesh
Chhattisgarh

Karnataka

Uttar Pradesh
Haryana

Mizoram

Uttarakhand

West Bengal
Daman Diu

Jammu & Kashmir

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Orissa
Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Goa

Maharashtra

Punjab

Sikkim

Tripura
Manipur
Chandigarh

Delhi

Nagaland

Meghalaya
Gujarat

Jharkhand
Arunachal Pradesh

Pondicherry

collection efficency % 2010 collection efficency % 2015 Expon. (collection efficency % 2010)

Fig. 14. State-wise collection efficiency (%) in India (CPCB India, 2018a).

9
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

S AT E W I S E L A N D F I L L P O S I T I O N
30 600

25 500

No. of facilities
20 400

15 300

10 200

5 100

0 0
And Arun Him
Mad Tam
ama acha Cha Chh acha Karn Nag Mah Meg Pond Uttra West
Assa Guja Hary hya Miz Oris Punj Sikk il Trip
n l ndig attis Goa l atak alan aras hala icher khan Ben
m rat ana Prad oram sa ab im Nad ura
Nico Prad arh garh Prad a d htra ya ry d gal
esh u
bar esh esh
Reclaimed/capped 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 8 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 25 0 0 0
Landfill (converted into sanitary) 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 17 0 0 0
Existing Dumpsites 1 2 94 1 75 3 170 60 50 207 11 381 271 1 6 2 160 3 0 499 17 2 102

Fig. 15. Solid waste Dumpsites in India (CPCB India, 2018a).

country from its disposal sites. Also, the safe disposal of sanitary, battery, E-
waste and other hazardous waste need to incorporated separately with var-
ious treatment processes (Rarotra et al., 2020) (Lv et al., 2018).
Referring to Table 7 represents; status, facilities monitoring at waste
processing/landfill sites is still a critical environmental issue. The monitor-
ing system has a pathetic condition in terms of ambient air quality, ground-
water, leachate/compost quality, and volatile organic components (VOCs).
These issues must eradicate urgently through long term scientific ap-
proaches & considering environment impact assessment.
3.5. Socio-economic issues on waste management
3.5.1. Literacy: Policies & its awareness
The general awareness of solid waste management is quite low due to a
lack of self-motivation and attitude (Nandan et al., 2017). The citizen usu-
ally found discarding waste from their house without segregation, which
further makes it challenging to waste collector to distinguish the waste
type. It's not only about their education, but also social taboos prevailing
in society towards waste doesn't allow them to behave responsibly towards
waste (Ghosh, 2016b). Municipalities have to take responsibility to educate
people about national policies and decentralised methods of the treatment
locally (Sfez et al., 2016). The educational institutes can also help local au-
thorises to make individual aware through the various seminar, group
meeting, poster, competitions, awards, advertisement, print media, awards
& penalties, etc.
3.5.2. Unplanned fiscal & investment approaches
Despite high investment in waste in the last decades, authorities are fail-
ing all the time because of unplanned management and investment (Wilson
and Rodic, 2017). It has even noticed that municipalities are spending
lesser on the segregation, treatment process while more on the sweeping,
collection and transportation (Rana et al., 2015). The involvement of
machines, equipment in the training of staffs, scientific disposal methods,
collection/transportation, mechanical sweeping, IoT & GIS/remort

Fig. 16. Technology by income level (Kaza and Yao, 2018).

10
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Fig. 17. Technology by region (Kaza and Yao, 2018).

Table 3
Regional status of Solid Waste composition (Annepu, 2012).
Region/city MSW (MT/day) Compostable (%) Recyclable (%) Inert (%) Moisture (%) Calorific values (Kcal/Kg)

Metro cities 51,402 50.89 16.28 32.82 46 1523

Other cities 2723 51.91 19.23 28.86 49 2084
Northern India 6835 52.38 16.78 30.85 49 1623
Eastern India 380 50.41 21.44 28.15 46 2341
Southern India 2343 53.41 17.02 29.57 51 1827
Western India 380 50.41 21.44 28.15 46 2341
Overall urban India 130,000 51.3 17.48 31.21 47 1751

Table 4
Variation in MSW composition grouped by different countries income level (Hoornweg and Bhada, 2012).
Income level Organic (%) Paper (%) Plastic (%) Glass (%) Metal (%) Other (%)

2012 2025 2012 2025 2012 2025 2012 2025 2012 2025 2012 2025

Low 65 62 5 6 8 9 3 3 3 3 17 17
Lower-middle 59 55 9 10 12 13 3 4 2 3 15 15
Upper-middle 54 50 14 15 11 12 5 4 3 4 13 15
High 28 28 31 30 11 11 7 7 6 6 17 18

sensing-based strategy needed urgently (Zheng et al., 2016) (Mundhe et al., Table 5
2014). The supervision of Government/scientific agencies to formulate an Major landmarks in the history of waste management in India.
effective fiscal plan, for 100% collection, segregated of waste at the source Year Rules/acts/Policies/Schemes/Plans Effectiveness
must go to centralised or decentralised facilities immediately (Naveen et al.,
1989 The Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Partially
2010). Rules
1994–95 Strategy Paper on MSW Management by NEERI effective
3.5.3. Inadequate resources & land: Availability/prices 1998 Bio-medical Waste Handling Rules, 1998 effective
2000 MSW (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 Moderate
Municipalities are mostly struggling to handle the vast waste with the
2005 Report of The Technology Advisory Group on SWM Moderate
untrained and unorganised waste sector. The adequate machinery and 2005
tools are found missing and lack of funds and fiscal amenities (Ahluwalia 2006 Strategy and action plan-use of compost in cities Partially
and Patel, 2018). The manual handling, collection, segregation & missing 2008 National Urban Sanitation Policy Partially
linkage of transportation lead waste to settle at dumpsites, located in the 2009 E-waste handling Rules-Draft document Partially
2010 National Mission on Sustainable Habitat Partially
urban fringe area. 2011 E-waste Rules, 2011 & Plastic Waste Rules, 2011 Needed revisions
A high density of the population in the cities creates a shortage of avail- 2013 Draft Municipal Solid Waste Rules-2013 Moderate
able land for the necessary amenities, referring to Table 8, which indicates 2014 Draft Manual on Municipal SWM and Handling Partially
the projection of a vast land requirement for the disposal of waste in the up- 2014 Swachh Bharat Mission (CIM-Clean India Mission) Partially
2015* (AMRUT) Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Currently running
coming years. High solid waste generation among the urban regions will re-
Transformation
quire an additional 1400 Sq. Km., by the year 2047. A regular uncontrolled 2016# SWM (Solid Waste Management & Handling) Rules, Revised and
hike in land prices makes it more challenging to manage land availability. 2016 (revised) published Currently running

Source *Amrut 2015, # SWM 2016 (CPHEEO, 2016), (CPCB, 2017), (MoEF&CC,
3.5.4. Social acceptance & taboo towards SWM 2016c), Plastic rules 2018 (MoEF&CC, 2016a), C & D Waste (MoEF&CC, 2016b),
Social Stigma and acceptance is another problem faced related to waste Hazardous waste rules (CPCB and MEF&CC, 2016), Biomedical waste (CPCB and
in-country, as many of the social groups considered it dirty and filthy, and MEF&CC, 2018), (Pandey and Malik, 2015).

11
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Table 6
Waste-to-Energy processes in India (CPCB India, 2018a).
States Plant Location Power Generation Remarks and waste intake

(MW)

Andhra 10 Numbers (7 numbers received CFE from Board) 63 –

Pradesh Elikkta (Nonoperational) 6.6 200 Mt./day (RDF)
Vijayawada (Nonoperational) 6 225 Mt./day (incineration)
Rajahmundry (Nonoperational) 13 1075 Mt./day (incineration)
Chandigarh 01 (M/s Jaiprakash Associates Ltd. Green-tech Fuel RDF generated utilised in their hot Operational RDF production: 175 MT/day (Optimum), Approx
Processing plant, open dumping ground, Dadumajra, air generator, rest supplied to 60MT/day (present production)
sector-25 West Chandigarh) nearby industries.
Delhi Okhla (operational) 16 2000 Mt./day (RDF)
Ghazipur (operational) 12 1300 Mt./day (RDF)
Narela-Bawana (operational) 24 1300 Mt./day (RDF)
Goa 01 (Hindustan Waste treatment plant at Saligao, Bardez 0.4 In Operation
Goa)
Himachal 01 (Shimla-under construction) 2.5 In this plant, heterogeneous SW 70–100 t converted to bio-briquets in
Pradesh the drum drier and further producer gas used for power generation
through gasification.
Madhya 01 (Jabalpur MSW Pvt. Ltd., village. Kathonda 11.5 MW waste utilised 300–320 TPD.
Pradesh
Maharashtra Pune (Partially Operational) 11 MW 700 Mt./day (Gasification/pyrolysis)
Solapur (In Operational) 3 MW 400 Mt./day (Anaerobic digestion) NA
Kolahapur (Proposed) 2 MW
Orissa 01 (Bhubaneswar MC) 11.5 Yet to commissioned
Punjab 08 (Bathinda, Ludhiana, GMADA, Patiala, Ferozepur, – 1 plant at Nakodar for Ludhiana Cluster is already installed but yet
Amritsar, Jalandhar, Pathankot) not operational
Pondicherry Kurumbapet waste processing facility 120 KVA Under Construction: Based on Nisargruna Technology (by BARC)
Tamil Nadu Greater Chennai Corporation Under Operation
Pulianthope 12KWH,
Velankadu 4.8KWH Biomethanation
Otteri 7.5 KWH Biomethanation
Trichy Corporation 0.45 MW Biomethanation/ Power plant
Erode Municipal Corporation (Vendipalayam) 500 M3/day Biomethanization Plant
Parambalpur Municipality 300 units/day BioMethanation Plant
Nagapattinum Municipality 0.5 MW/day Biomethanation Plant
Namakkal Municipality SWM site 200 units/day
Tiruchengode Municipality 117 units/day
Pallipalayam Municipality 98 units/day
Karur Municipality 400 units/day Biogas Plant
Telangana Karimnagar (Operational) 12 1100 Mt./day (RDF)
Uttar 4 42 NA
Pradesh Kanpur (nonoperational) 15 1500 Mt./day (RDF)
West Bengal 01 (Barasat Municipality) NA Ongoing
Total 29 numbers include plants in operation/partial operation, These Waste to Energy plants includes RDF based, Biomethanation
under construction and proposed plant

those are dealing with waste, perceived as inferior, lower grade citizens in
the society (Development and Water, 1999). Traditionally, people working
with the waste management sector popularly known as rag pickers. They
commonly belong to the socially and economically sub-marginal commu-
nity (Chandran et al., 2016). They sweep the streets, cleans toilet & sewer
drainage. Hence, the prevailing, social-cultural taboo towards the waste
system also affects how society sees waste (Ghose et al., 2006). On the
other hand, there are few legendary people encouraging communities and
making them more responsible for their perception of waste and social
taboo (Snel, 1999) (Oates et al., 2018).
3.5.5. Unorganised informal sector of waste
The Informal sector has a significant value in the waste material re-
duce, reuse and recycling, low and middle-income countries like India.
There is a share of about 34 million people in the worldwide engaged
in the recycling job (Prieur-Richard et al., 2020). It is pathetic to see
that, nearly 1 million constitute 1% to 2% of city's population belongs
to the unmanaged informal sector, where poor women and children
also observed in recycling activities (De Bercegol et al., 2017). The in-
formal sector characterised by small-scale, labour-intensive, mostly un-
regulated and unregistered low-technology manufacturing or provision
of materials/services (Wilson et al., 2006), (Hande, 2019). Pune munic-
ipal corporation takes help from waste pickers to collect organic waste
for composting and, biogas generation also contributes to the clean
city formally (Ghosh, 2016a). Recent study Indian cities found that
waste pickers recovered approximately 23% of waste. In the city of Ban-
galore, women based waste pickers from Hasiru Dala cooperative
diverted over 1050 tons/day of waste leading to saving Rs. 84 crore an-
nually, and avoided the emission of CO2 per annum (SBM, 2016),
(Nandan et al., 2017). This unorganised sector must be integrated into
formal SWM systems (Mathur, 2012), (Annepu, 2012). Referring the
Table 9 represents the contribution of rag pickers in selected metro
cities.
Informal sector issues in India; Despite the massive contribution of the
informal sector in waste management face real challenges with their lives
daily. The informal sector is found sideline by the municipalities, govern-
ment agencies, and policymakers. ULBs collected 30% to 60% of urban
waste; remaining substantial trash is picked by rag pickers unhygienically.
Garbage collected by the informal sector is about 15% to 20% mostly recy-
clable waste and sometimes hazardous waste too (Sandhu, 2020).
4. Potentials & opportunities for Indian cities in the future
4.1. Case studies on sound practices of MSW in India
Different cities in India have adopted different strategies to deal with
solid wastes, while some are simply trying to brush their trash under the
carpet, other have achieved various levels of segregation, recycling, reduc-
tion, and reuse. Few best cases discussed where it showed potential strate-
gic opportunities & vision for future India.

12
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal / Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011

Table 7
Monitoring at waste processing/landfill sites (CPCB India, 2018a).
State Name of Facilities Ambient Air Groundwater Leachate Quality Compost quality VOCs

Andhra Pradesh Ongole, Chirala, Greater Visakhapatnam, Kadapa Yes Yes Not Monitored Not Monitored Not Monitored
Chandigarh 02 (Dumping/landfill site & RDF plant) Yes Yes Yes No No
Goa 06 (Pernem, Bicholim, Sankhali, Quepem, Cuncolim & Canacone) Yes Yes Nil Nil Nil
Gujarat 04 (SLF of Ahmadabad MC of Vadodara, Surat, Rajkot) No Yes Yes No No
Haryana 10 3 3 1 0 0
Himachal Pradesh 33 0 0 0 0 0
Karnataka 228 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Nagaland 29 Nil Nil Yes Nil Nil
Madhya Pradesh 384 (379 ULBs +5 CBs) Yes Yes No No No
Maharashtra 73 – Yes Yes Yes Yes
Meghalaya Dumping Site of Shillong Yes Yes Yes No No
Pondicherry Kurumbapet Waste Treatment Facility Yes Yes Nil Nil Nil
Tamil Nadu 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes –
Tripura Waste Processing Facility & Landfill Site No Yes in Khowai Yes in Agartala No No

collected the waste door to door and made it dustbin free to manage the
Table 8 filth. Now the city of Surat considered among the cleanest city in the coun-
Increased land requirement for untreated waste disposal (Annepu, 2012). try and inspiring.
Year Area of land required for City equivalents (area)
MSW disposal (sq. km) 4.1.2. Alleppey, Kerala: Decentralised approach
1947 to 2001 240 50% of Mumbai Alleppey (Alappuzha) is a thriving municipality who has experimented
1947 to 2011 380 90% of the Chennai with a new successfully initiated decentralised system of waste manage-
1947 to 2021 590 Hyderabad city
2009 to 2047 1400 (Mumbai + Hyderabad + Chennai)
ment. The total population of the Alleppey is 0.19 million, with an area of
46 sq. Km, the Alappuzha municipality has 40,000 households in 52
wards fixing up pipe composting for those who don't have enough waste
for a portable biogas plant. Those who have enough land for the biogas
Table 9 plant, IRTC built the portable biogas plant with a total cost of Rs. 17, 500
Informal waste collection in megacities (Sandhu, 2020). this waste plant gives 2 to 3 h biogas daily, with a price of Rs. 13,500 and
City Population (2011)* MT/day Ragpickers
capacity of (5 to 7.5) kg/day of organic waste. The ‘Suchita Mission’ has
provided a 75% subsidy to biogas plants. The household with lesser space
Delhi 11,034,555 8700 100,000
and fund was requested to dispose of their domestic waste through
Mumbai 12,442,373 11,000 85,000
Bangalore 8,443,675 3700 35,000 neighbour's cluster biogas plants. It has found the Alappuzha municipality
Kolkata 4,496,694 5000 25,000-50,000 saved the cost of Rs. 7 lakh for the transportation of waste on diesel trucks
Chennai 4,646,732 4500 10,000 in the year of 2013–14. The decentralised waste management of Alleppey
Pune 3,124,458 1600 6000
could inspire other urban local bodies. (Balasubramanian, 2018).
Source: *population data (Census_of_India_2011_GOI, 2011), https://globalrec.org/
city/ 4.1.3. Bobbili, Andhra Pradesh: Composting
Bobbili is one of the cleanest cities in the world, with a population of
0.057 million, an area of 25.6 sq. km., generated 14 MT/day waste. In
4.1.1. Surat city, Gujarat: A quick overcome 2008 the city of Bobbili was struggling to manage with their waste. There
The epidemic of plague in Surat city was a wakeup call for the country were major problems such as Street littering, garbage heaps, frequently
(Annepu, 2012). Surat town had suffered from dangerous diseases known blocked drains, especially with polyethene bags. It has struggled with
as the plague in the year 1994 (Bharti and Singh, 2017), (Wilson and high fuel consumption for the collection vehicle, treatment of waste was un-
Rodic, 2017). Heavy rain on the coast of the city caused the flood-like situ- heard. The residents at the local level were encouraged to segregate their
ation and easy access to rats and rodents in the city. The condition went waste at the source into separate wet and dry waste categories. Bobbili gen-
miserable, even considerable losses of lives and migration of citizens, and erates about 70% of organic waste & separates it into two bins. About 88%
countries like the United Kingdom refused to land their fights. A newly ded- of waste segregated by management workers, waste categorised like horti-
icated team of municipal commissioner took the challenge, transform the cultural, kitchen, plastic, and inert waste, in four bins with sufficient capac-
city within the eighteen months. The motivated cleaning staff of the city ity is carried to the SWM Park. The land of 3.4 ha for 14 MT has been assign

Table 10
Comparative study on the selected cases.
City Population Land Total Waste fraction (%) No. of Total Treatment Strategies adopted
(Lakhs) area waste informal revenue
Compostable (Recyclables) Centralised Decentralised
(Sq. (MT/Day) worker generation
(Organic) inorganic
Km) (approx.) (In Biogas Composting Waste Biogas Composting Waste
lakhs) plant to plant to
energy energy

Surat 44.6 326.5 2000 56.87 11 7000 30 ✓ ✓ ✓

Alleppey 1.9 46.2 58.0 75 16 1200 12 ✓ ✓
Bobbili 0.5 25.6 14.0 70 14 450 7.3 ✓ ✓
Panjim 0.4 36.0 29.7 61.75 17 350 6 ✓ ✓
Pune 35.0 244 2100 62.44 16 6000 40 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

13
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
for the collected waste, and 1.4 MT collected inorganic recyclable waste
goes to the local scrap market. Another 3.1 MT of organic waste mixed
with 350 kg mix and leachate used for vermi-composting in addition to
this, about 150 kg of cow dung fed into the biogas plant. Financing of
waste management, Bobbili generated annual income from the processing
of solid waste and collection fee is Rs. 7.26 lakh. The total waste manage-
ment cost is Rs. 77.66 lakhs. As a municipality, Bobbili is looking forward
to compost and sell entire organic waste. That will potentially earn a total
income from Rs. 60,500 per day to Rs. 2,58,500 per day. Also, deserves ac-
colades for 100% collection and segregation of waste that has already
achieved. (Balasubramanian, 2018).
4.1.4. Panji, Goa: User charges linkages
Panji is the capital of Goa state, has a population of 1.45 million, an area
of 36 sq. km. In the early 1990s, this city was known for its weak MSWM,
poor infrastructure, and unhygienic civic condition. Later in the year
2000, Panji established the garbage management committee and NGO
people's moment for civic action. The CCP has checked its home to home
garbage collection scheme and speared to 200 households within the
year. In early 2003 a comprehensive city revitalisation campaign was
launch to make city ‘bin free city’ because of the door to door collection
complemented. The Panji CCP divided 115 resident colonies into 12
waste management zones, each under a supervisor, who manages the col-
lection of waste and transportation in his allocated zone. A primary survey,
which was done by CSE in 2015, shows a significant portion of waste in
Panji, is dry waste about 64%, and wet waste is 36%, respectively. CCP
charges Rs 365 per year as a sanitary fee from each household for SWM,
and also this fee has been linked to the property tax, the commercial
hotel asked to pay Rs. 300 to Rs. 10,000 according to their generated
waste quantum. The Panji CCP uses organic waste converters (OWC) ma-
chine for wet waste, and dry wastes are used to send recycling stations at
Panji, PET bottles segregated from other plastic waste streams at the
recycling station. CCP has established the seventy units of compost & six
(OWC's) in the city with a capacity of 6 t of waste per day. (Agarwal
et al., 2015).
4.1.5. Pune city, Maharashtra: Biogas plant
The city of Pune believes that biogas cleans the city, experimenting with
making sure no waste should go to the landfills. The populations of 3.5 mil-
lion people with an area of 244 sq. Km. They are generating about 400 g of
solid waste per capita. The city has estimated the waste generation ex-
pected to 3600 t by 2031 and also looking for the more intensive technolo-
gies like biogas plan. The decentralised vermicompost, RDFS, recycling &
waste to energy plants using thermal gasification. As per the current re-
ports, Pune city process about 2100 t of garbage daily, most of its waste
composition is organic, which comes from 70% household population.
The first municipal based biogas plant established in the colony model
with the locality of 4000 people about 375 units of electricity had enough
power to run 250 streetlights also generate 150 t of compost. About 20
such biogas plants were running in 2014 may be expected to reach 27 or
more. (Thakare and Nandi, 2015).
The public-private partnership-based models own by Pune Municipal
Corporation, PMC. The operator of the biogas plants gets Rs.60000 per
month for the maintenance, with the annual increment of 10% - 15%.
The plant started in the year 2010 with the cost of Rs.60 lakhs. Currently,
with the increased price of Rs. 30 lakhs, PMC has spent the cost Rs.1300
to Rs.1400 per tonne for one ferrying of garbage to the facility. Cooperation
also started getting well managed segregated waste from hotels, and house-
holds can directly send to the bio-Methanation plant. PMC penalty system
also imposed on the un-segregated waste generators. An additional rebate
on the property tax anyone features an eco-friendly method to the buildings
like solar heaters, rainwater harvesting & installation of compost pits. PMC
ensures no foul play as with the regular inspections done if found not func-
tioning also revoke the rebate. (Wilson and Rodic, 2017).
14
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
4.2. Possible strategies and options
4.2.1. Organic waste (Wet waste): Compost facility
The segregated organic fraction of the municipal solid waste can di-
rectly go to composting. The process of decomposition of organic matter
under the micro-bacteria reaction creates organic fertiliser, energy and re-
leases few goes like CO2, CH4 SO2, H2S, in returns. There are two popularly
known ways of composting system, Aerobic; Pit/pot composting,
vermicomposting, windrow composting and aerator drum composting,
Aerobic composting produces foul free compost. The vermicompost
manufacturing with the help of the earthworm in the specific monitored
condition (Aalok et al., 2008) promoted by the Ministry of fertiliser and
chemical by Govt. of India. With the scientific approach rich in grade com-
post can be utilised in the gardening purpose or sold to local farmers at a
subsidised price. Vermicomposting facilities have already entered domestic
and industrial marketing in countries like USA, Canada, Italy, and Japan. It
is now time for India to think about vermicompost technology
commercially.
4.2.2. Waste to energy plant: Dry waste
Methane gas extraction is a process from the organic matter under the
microbial reaction in the absence of air called anaerobic digestion. India,
as an agro-based economy, has shown the potential to convert the agro-
waste into biogas and enriched manure (Prakash and Singh, 2013),
(Velmurugan and Ramanujam, 2011), (Paritosh et al., 2017). Bio-
methane produced from the two-stage process can be utilised in the gener-
ator for converting into electricity (Boopathiraja and Kayalvizhi, 2007). A
study done for the Agartala city represents 249.41 MT MSW Empirically
yield 52,376.10 m3 of biogas per day by the year 2021 may expect to
reach 108,559.5 m3 per day by the year 2051 (Chakraborty et al., 2019).
The BOOM (Build, Own, Operate and Maintenance) based waste to energy
plant was established by Asia Bio-energy Ltd., Chennai for Lucknow city in
the year 2003 for the capacity of 5-MW power generation utilising
500–600 t of MSW (Axelsson and Kvarnström, 2010). As per the revised
SWM rules, 2016 guidelines, waste should not be burnt openly, must be
sent to refuse-derived fuel (RDF), incinerator, Bio-Methanation, and other
scientific treatment facilities. The Sal wood sawdust can be suitable as car-
bon precursor for preparation of electrodes to be utilised in practical appli-
cations, such as in vanadium redox flow batteries (Maharjan et al., 2019).
The collaborative circular economy as a solution for rice husk standalone
gasification plant can be a potential solution. The estimation represented
in the study shows 42,700 t/y rice husk can produce 70.4 × 106 KWhel/y
of electricity and thermal energy of 171 × 106 KWhth/y thermal energy
along with the revenue of 7.2 × 106 €/y also production of char and agro-
nomic applications (Vaskalis et al., 2019) (Antoniou et al., 2019).
4.2.3. Scientific landfill sites: Mixed waste
The landfill is the process where discarded waste materials poured line-
arly with the soil cover closer, and it has found to be the most economical
method for disposing of the waste materials, especially in the developing
countries. The mixed waste is compressed and covered with soil and vege-
tation later (Daskalopoulos et al., 1998). Designing of the landfill sites con-
sists of the bottom & top liners cover critical, as through which methane gas
leaks and leachate gets perpetrate to groundwater via soil (Gupta et al.,
2015). Landfill sites release harmful gas and produce solid in the process
of decomposition of complex molecules such as methane, carbon dioxide,
CO, N2, SO2, H2S gases, alcohols and hydrocarbons along with heavy metals
(El-Fadel et al., 1997). As per the estimations, the decomposition of 1 t of
MSW produces 442 m3 of landfill gas containing 55% CH4 having a heat
value of 19,730 kJ/m3. Ideally, it requires a significant capital investment
to prevent the environment from leachate, GHGs, also needed land area,
technical equipment, workforce & other scientific feasibility standards (H.
Pan et al., 2017). One hundred fifty acres of landfill sites in Narela-
Bawana, Delhi, with the capacity to treat 2000 t of solid waste expected
to generate 24 MW of electricity with the investment cost of Rs. 46 crore.
The production of synthetic natural gas (SNG) from syngas achieved via
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
MSW gasification for the use of inconvenient transportation (Z. Pan et al.,
2019). The slag from municipal solid waste could utilise in nickel-based cat-
alysts naphthalene steam formation (Teoh et al., 2019). The Battery waste
management concept of reduces, recharge, recycle via processes ‘Hydro-
metallurgical’, ‘Pyrometallurgical’, ‘Mercury Distillation’ & particular
metals recovery (Kuchhal and Sharma, 2019).
4.2.4. Inorganic waste (Dry waste): Incineration
Incineration is a process where unprocessed waste can utilise raw feed-
stock to produce energy in the form of heat and electricity (Cherubini et al.,
2009) (A. U. Zaman, 2010). In this process feedstock is burnt at the temper-
ature of 850 °C in the presence of the oxygen produces solid residues such as
‘bottom ash’, tar, stream, and gases like carbon dioxide, etc. (Patil et al.,
2014) (A. Zaman, 2009) (Defra, 2013). Type of Incinerators found, such
as ‘fluidised-bed’, ‘rotary-kiln’, ‘fixed grate’, & ‘moving grate’ (Moustakas
and Loizidou, 2010). It has seen in Indian cities, the hospitals, and biologi-
cal treatment processes mostly utilised the incinerators (Kansal, 2002),
(Nandan et al., 2017). Significant studies have done of the municipal
solid waste incinerator residues and their byproducts such as fly ash
bricks/blocks utilising in the road and building construction (Sabbas
et al., 2003) (Sakai and Hiraoka, 2000). An incinerator plant established
in the Timarpur Delhi in the year 1987 with the capacity 300 Tonne
waste per day generates 3.75 MW of electricity. Due to low calorific values
of solid waste found idle in the condition and investment got wasted
(Asnani, 2008). The process requires high calorific values greater than
1500 Kcal/Kg and lower moisture content (Annepu, 2012) (Rajput et al.,
2009). The rural circular economy and infrastructure ‘dual Anaerobic
digestate’ with air gasification could be adopted parallel to achieve heating
value of 850 °C & λ = 0.24, the medium heating value of 2.88 MJ Nm−3
and H2/Co = 2.3, electricity generation of about 971 kWhel day−1, and res-
idue char's implication as fertiliser for soil nutrition (Antoniou et al., 2019).
The operation condition of syngas varies for tar distribution in RDF forma-
tion for heterogeneous MSW (Chan et al., 2020). the utilisation of waste
tires as electrode materials for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction
(Veksha et al., 2020a). A hot syngas purification with 90% tar and sulfur re-
moval has achieved (Chan et al., 2019) (Veksha et al., 2019a) (Da Oh et al.,
2018a). The utilisation of the incineration fly ash shows the potential
byproduct of building material and also helps in control to significant air
pollution (Phua et al., 2019), critical limit point of adding fly ash is 5% to
10% into the cement (Yin et al., 2018). Controlled ignition temperature
help to reduce ‘heavy metal volatilization’ & ‘Calcium-based sorbents’ is
suitable for fixation of most heavy metals with Pb in an account (Chen
et al., 2019).
4.2.5. Pyrolysis technology: Hazardous waste
Municipal solid waste could be processed, but the high capital invest-
ment is required. Pyrolysis is the process where any solid fuel matter has
heated in the absence of oxygen. This process converts solid fuel matter
into different byproducts like syngas mixture, liquid (bio-oil/tar), and
solid residue called char. There are two technologies fast pyrolysis for the
production of bio-based oil & slow process of heat exchange produce char-
coal (Shukla et al., 2000). The pyrolysis treatment process has few disad-
vantages, also like the byproduct stream is complex cannot be released
directly into the environment. A further treatment required because of
high CO gas concentration, other harmful gases, and high temperature.
The plastic waste problem can be solved, and fuel extracted from plastic
waste in the controlled scientific observation, as plastic has a huge fuel oil
potential with good calorific value (Taherymoosavi et al., 2017)
(Eswaramoorthi et al., 2016). The process will help the environment from
the ill-effects of plastic in the upcoming future. The decomposition of hy-
drocarbons mainly by the Ca support. Besides HCl removal, the Ca help con-
tributed to the dissolution of alkynes and dienes. After the ‘catalytic
treatment’ with NiCa, product gas had a composition similar to ‘reformate
fuels’ utilised in ‘solid oxide fuel cells’ (Veksha et al., 2018). The dose of
nickel loaded calcium carbonate (NaCa) and HCl content in the pyrolysis
process gas help to decompose 99% of unsaturated hydrocarbon (Veksha
15
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
et al., 2018). The flexible plastic packaging and PET waste have the poten-
tial to become pyrolysis oil and multi-walled carbon nanotubes for electro-
catalytic (Veksha et al., 2020b) (Jia et al., 2020). In two-stage pyrolysis and
vapour deposition of mixed plastic waste can be useful to produce
supercapacitors electrode for storge charge (Veksha et al., 2019b).
4.2.6. Construction & demolition waste: Building materials
With the economic development of urban cities, Municipalities are also
facing a higher rate of generation of C&D waste in recent time (Ram and
Kalidindi, 2017). Material excavated like concrete, ceramics, asphalt con-
crete, tiles, brick, plaster, glass, metal/ steel, plastics, wood, asphalt, and
concrete rubbles, etc. are the part of C&D (Gayakwad, 2015). A new rule
of SWM 2016 sharply restricts the waste creator to follow the SWM, C&D
rules (MoEF&CC, 2016b). Significant strategic implication of C&D waste
management by municipalities are still in the development phase. That
used to fill the barrel land or sent at dumping sites (Gayakwad, 2015). Al-
though as a solution, it has the potential to became rough material for
roads construction, drain pipes, low-cost housing materials like sand,
bricks, gravels and tiles at the controlled upcycling plant. The scarped
metal and good condition of timber could be sold to the recycling industries
for making furniture, plastic can be recycled and sold back to recycling
units.
4.2.7. Other advanced techniques for MSWM
The vacuumed based collection and transportation based techniques
(Ciudin et al., 2014). Robotic & sensors based segregation of solid waste,
The advanced sensing systems for NOx based on metal-organic frameworks
(Sarc et al., 2019) (P. Kumar et al., 2020), Plastic eating worms (Bombelli
et al., 2017), biomass to ethanol & briquets production-Agriculture and
food waste (Pandiyan et al., 2019). Plastic waste to alternative fuel & Pav-
ing tile blocks. Sal wood saw and coffee bean dust have shown the potential
electrode material for Vanadium redox flow batteries. (Maharjan et al.,
2019) (Krikstolaityte et al., 2018). 3D-printing based technologies on vari-
ous municipal waste and their applications (Rehman et al., 2020)
(Pakkanen et al., 2017). Furthermore, scientific research and development
required.
4.2.8. Global technology options for SWM by income & region
Referring to Fig. 16 presents the disposal method by higher-income
groups to lower-income groups, and Fig. 17 represents the technologies op-
tions adopted by specific regions from North America to East Asia and pa-
cific. Lower middle-income & south Asian countries required to swift
from open-dumping to treatment technologies to meet their energy
demand.
5. Discussion
Current status of the solid waste implied that the average amount of
solid waste generated per capita compared to the world is much lower
but the highly-dense population, makes it sever problem. The composition
of the Indian solid waste mostly contains the organic substance with high
moisture while other developed countries majorly generate packing waste
such as paper, cardboard, plastic etc. with low moisture contents. While
comparing in the Indian states and regions, waste generation pattern also
varies along with quantity, quality, and typology. The high moisture con-
tent and low calorific value are mostly found common in most of the cities
and states. There is a significant disparity of available resources/budget,
adoption of the strategies, and planning approaches among them and
which also differs from the available land, size of the required recycling
and processing facilities.
The significant challenge for Indian municipalities is the segregation of
the waste at the source. Social taboo towards waste and its associated group
mostly sub marginal people of the society has to be address prominently.
General awareness among the citizen is required towards waste manage-
ment system to develop. The environment and health impact related to
SWM needs to be addressed & assessed at the context. A considerable
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
amount of finance has been already spent and without proper assessment
and a holistic development plan. The government policies and their imple-
mentation not practised effectively; only a few municipalities could able to
develop an effective mechanism for a door to the door collection system.
Storage of solid waste is also problematic as collection vehicles are not
able to collect daily. The secondary bins often found spilling with leachate
and surrounded by ragpickers, struggling with other animals such as street
dogs, cows, and rodents etc. The transportation system of solid waste is still
in the development phase because of inadequate infrastructure. The treat-
ment of the trash at the decentralised level is not practised because of the
shortage of land in highly-dense urban areas. Unplanned fiscal and poor in-
frastructure towards the treatment and recycling of the solid waste is be-
coming more challenging as most of the established waste to energy and
recycling plants have stopped working or are running short of high calorific
value solid waste. The unorganised informal sector of waste needs to be in-
tegrated with the formalised system. Also, MSW is generally handled by un-
trained staff without safety equipment, which needs to be uplift
immediately.
To develop an effective potential solution for Indian MSW, the changing
typology of waste is a challenge, but it also represents the recycling and
treatment potential. India, as a developing country, needs to focus more
on a decentralised system of waste management as a significant portion
of its solid waste composition belongs to organic (wet) type, which shows
the vast potential in the compost and biogas generation using various
known technologies. The other inorganic (dry) portion could be utilised
as refuse-derived fuel (RDF), and incineration process at the centralised
and decentralised level may be established The technologies like pyrolysis
and gasification of solid waste require very high initial capital investment
along with the specific scientific monitoring infrastructure and land. For
construction & demolition wastes, e-waste and other hazardous waste, Gov-
ernment of India recently have revised/developed the rules separately, to
manage with regular assessment/monitoring. The implementation of user
charges, penalty and reward system, could be useful in some of the regions
to promote an effective SWM system. Further, the incorporation of ad-
vanced techniques such as GIS/remote sensing, internet of thing (IoT), ed-
ucation information & communication (IEC) based system, could be useful
to sensitising citizens quickly. Hence the involvement of private stake-
holders, NGOs, self-help groups, and also integrating of all respective de-
partments, which could lead MSWM to success, energy & material
demand and profit gaining asset in the future for India.
6. Conclusion
The municipalities in India still consider the waste as a problem despite
its potential. That is becoming more challenging with a high population
density if waste is un-segregated at the source. With the lack of appropriate
assessment of quantity and quality of SW and infrastructure. India, as a de-
veloping country, is facing real challenges in terms of its MSWM. The social
taboo and citizen's attitude towards solid waste management required to be
sensitised(how? are there any national, international best practices to
guide?). Many of the municipal city case studies have shown positive intend
to develop a proper mechanism for their solid waste by the utilisation of ap-
propriate treatment facilities of the composting and biogas generation at
the decentralised level. But it has also found the most of the other munici-
palities are still in the developing phase. The concept of effective solid
waste management is a long-term goal for municipalities to achieve. The
composition of Indian waste is different as compared to other developed
countries — so the adoption of the strategies could not be the same.
Recycling and processing of the waste required to be incorporated more ef-
ficiently. Therefore the resourceful solid waste segregated at the respective
sources such as wet waste for compost/biogas generation and dry waste to
energy plants, RDFs, recycling, reuse. Hence to ensures that minimal waste
reaches to dumpsites or engineered landfill sites. Other advanced treatment
16
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
processes like gasification and pyrolysis need to assess economically, and
environmentally with the scale before implementation. The adoption of
centralised and decentralised strategies for managing solid waste at various
sources could be to achieve tangible sustainability in the MSWM system.
Also, with the handful involvement of organised informal sector of waste
along with private and government agencies, is an important aspect to
tackle the MSWM challenges to convert potential opportunities for the fu-
ture cities in India.
Declaration of competing Interest
There are no conflicts of interest among the authors, and also declare
that no funding has been received for this research.
References
Aalok, A., Tripathi, A.K., Soni, P., 2008. Vermicomposting: a better option for organic solid
waste management. J. Hum. Ecol. 24 (1), 59–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09709274.2008.11906100.
Abas, M.A., Wee, S.T., 2014. The issues of policy implementation on solid waste management
in Malaysia. Int. J. Concept. Manag. Social Sci. 2 (3), 12–17.
Agarwal, R., Chaudhary, M., Singh, J., Agarwal Professor, R., Chaudhary Associate Professor,
M., Singh, J., Chaudhary, M., Singh, J., 2015. Waste management initiatives in India for
human well being. Eur. Sci. J. 7881 (June), 1857–7881. http://home.iitk.ac.in/
~anubha/H16.pdf.
Ahamed, A., Veksha, A., Yin, K., Weerachanchai, P., Giannis, A., Lisak, G., 2020. Environmen-
tal impact assessment of converting flexible packaging plastic waste to pyrolysis oil and
multi-walled carbon nanotubes. J. Hazard. Mater. 390, 121449. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121449.
Ahluwalia, I.J., Patel, U., 2018. Working Paper No. 356 Solid Waste Management in India An
Assessment of Resource Recovery and Environmental Impact Isher Judge Ahluwalia.
Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (Issue 356) https://
icrier.org/pdf/Working_Paper_356.pdf.
Anderson, J.C., Park, B.J., Palace, V.P., 2016. Microplastics in aquatic environments: Implica-
tions for Canadian ecosystems. Environ. Pollut. 218, 269–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.envpol.2016.06.074.
Annepu, R.K., 2012. Sustainable solid waste management in India. MS Dissertation, 1–189
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4451-73-4.
Antoniou, N., Monlau, F., Sambusiti, C., Ficara, E., Barakat, A., Zabaniotou, A., 2019. Contri-
bution to Circular Economy options of mixed agricultural wastes management: Coupling
anaerobic digestion with gasification for enhanced energy and material recovery.
J. Clean. Prod. 209, 505–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.055.
Asnani, P.U., 2008. India Infrastructure Report: Ch. 8 Solid Waste Management. India
Infrastruct. Rep. 3 (2005), 160–189. http://www.iitk.ac.in/3inetwork/html/reports/
IIR2006/Solid_Waste.pdf.
Axelsson, C., Kvarnström, T., 2010. Energy from Municipal Solid Waste in Chennai, India-a
Feasibility Study. https://stud.epsilon.slu.se/1760/1/axelsson_c_kvarnstrom_t_100906.
pdf.
Azar, S.K., Azar, S.S., 2016. Waste related pollutions and their potential effect on cancer inci-
dences in Lebanon. J. Environ. Prot. 07 (06), 778–783. https://doi.org/10.4236/
jep.2016.76070.
Balasubramanian, M., 2018. Municipal solid waste management in India: Status, problems
and challenges. Int. J. Environ. Waste Manag. 21 (4), 253–268. https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/326636356_Municipal_solid_waste_management_in_India_
Status_problems_and_challenges.
Bharti, V., Singh, J., 2017. A review on solid waste management methods and practices in
India. Trends Biosci. 10 (21), 4065–4067 January. https://www.researchgate.net/publi-
cation/320264470_A_Review_on_Solid_Waste_Management_Methods_and_Practices_in_
India.
Bhattacharya, R.R.N.S., Chandrasekhar, K., Deepthi, M.V., Roy, P., Khan, A., 2018. Challenges
and opportunities: plastic waste management in India. The Energy and Resources Insti-
tute. Vol. 24 Issue 2. https://www.teriin.org/sites/default/files/2018-06/plastic-
waste-management_0.pdf.
Bombelli, P., Howe, C.J., Bertocchini, F., 2017. Polyethylene bio-degradation by caterpillars
of the wax moth Galleria mellonella. Curr. Biol. 27 (8), R292–R293. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.060.
Boopathiraja, R., & Kayalvizhi, K. (2007). Bio methanation of organic domestic waste through
anaerobic digestion. Int. J. Innovat. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3297(12), 20378–20385. doi:
10.15680/IJIRSET.2016.0512019.
Census_of_India_2011_GOI, 2011. Census of India 2011 Provisional Population Totals. https://
censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/india2/1 data highlight.pdf.
Central Pollution Control Board, 2016. Consolidated Annual Review Report on Implementa-
tion of Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000. Vol. 8 Issue
2. https://cpcb.nic.in/status-of-implementation-of-solid-waste-rules/.
Chakraborty, S., Majumdar, K., Pal, M., Roy, P.K., 2019. Assessment of bio-gas from municipal
solid waste for generation of electricity– a case study of Agartala city. Int. J. Appl. Eng.
Res. 14 (06), 1265–1268. https://www.ripublication.com/ijaer19/ijaerv14n6_07.pdf.
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
Chan, W.P., Veksha, A., Lei, J., Da Oh, W., Dou, X., Giannis, A., Lisak, G., Lim, T.T., 2019. A
hot syngas purification system integrated with downdraft gasification of municipal
solid waste. Appl. Energy 237, 227–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2019.01.031.
Chan, W.P., Yusoff, S.A.M.B., Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Lim, T.T., Lisak, G., 2020. Analytical as-
sessment of tar generated during gasification of municipal solid waste: distribution of
GC–MS detectable tar compounds, undetectable tar residues and inorganic impurities.
Fuel 268, 117348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117348.
Chandran, P., Shekar, N., Abubaker, M., Yadav, A., 2016. Informal Waste Workers Contribu-
tion Bangalore. Hasirudala, Bangalore, India, pp. 1–15. http://hasirudala.in/wp-content/
uploads/2016/08/1.-Full-Paper-Chandran-Informal-Waste-Workers-Contribution-
in-Bangalore-1.pdf.
Chen, L., Liao, Y., Ma, X., 2019. Heavy metals volatilization characteristics and risk evaluation
of co-combusted municipal solid wastes and sewage sludge without and with calcium-
based sorbents. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 182, 109370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecoenv.2019.109370.
Cherubini, F., Bargigli, S., Ulgiati, S., 2009. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of waste management
strategies: Landfilling, sorting plant and incineration. Energy 34 (12), 2116–2123.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2008.08.023.
Ciudin, R., Isarie, C., Cioca, L., Petrescu, V., Nederita, V., Ranieri, E., 2014. Vacuum waste col-
lection system for an historical city Centre. UPB Sci. Bull. Series D. 76 (3), 215–222.
https://www.scientificbulletin.upb.ro/rev_docs_arhiva/rez1d2_515700.pdf.
Cozar, A., Echevarria, F., Gonzalez-Gordillo, J.I., Irigoien, X., Ubeda, B., Hernandez-Leon, S.,
Palma, A.T., Navarro, S., Garcia-de-Lomas, J., Ruiz, A., Fernandez-de-Puelles, M.L.,
Duarte, C.M., 2014. Plastic debris in the open ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111 (28),
10239–10244. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1314705111.
CPCB, 2013. Status Report on Municipal Solid Waste Management-CPCB. http://www.
indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/MSW_Report.pdf.
CPCB, 2017. Annual report 2014–15. Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change,
pp. 1–274. https://doi.org/10.1088/1751-8113/44/8/085201.
CPCB, & MEF&CC, 2016. Hazardous And Other Wastes Rules, 2016. Vol. 1981 Issue i.
https://cpcb.nic.in/displaypdf.php?id=aHdtZC9IV01fUnVsZXNfMjAxNi5wZGY.
CPCB, & MEF&CC, 2018. Bio-Medical Wasterule 2016. https://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/Projects/
Bio-Medical-Waste/Amendment_BMWM_Rules2018.pdf.
CPCB India, 2018a. MSW- Generation & Composition CPCB 2018. https://cpcb.nic.in/
uploads/MSW/Waste_generation_Composition.pdf.
CPCB India, 2018b. MSW Trend in 46 Cities in India List 2018-CPCB Report 2018. https://
cpcb.nic.in/uploads/MSW/trend_46_cities_list.pdf.
CPHEEO, 2016. CPHEEO (Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organiza-
tion): Swachh Bharat Mission- Municipal Solid Waste Management Manual. In Ministry
of Urban Development. http://moud.gov.in/pdf/57f1e55834489Book03.pdf.
CPHEEO India, 2016. Municipal solid waste management manual. Swachh Bharat Mission.
Vol. 1 Issue 1. https://doi.org/2016.
Da Oh, W., Lei, J., Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Chan, W.P., Lisak, G., Lim, T.T., 2018a. Ni-Zn-based
nanocomposite loaded on cordierite mullite ceramic for syngas desulfurization: Perfor-
mance evaluation and regeneration studies. Chem. Eng. J. 351, 230–239. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.06.091.
Da Oh, W., Lei, J., Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Lisak, G., Chang, V.W.C., Hu, X., Lim, T.T., 2018b.
Influence of surface morphology on the performance of nanostructured ZnO-loaded ce-
ramic honeycomb for syngas desulfurization. Fuel 211, 591–599. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.fuel.2017.09.088.
Daily chart - Global waste generation will nearly double by 2050|Graphic detail|The Econo-
mist (Ed.), 2018. The Economist https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2018/10/
02/global-waste-generation-will-nearly-double-by-2050.
Dasgupta, B., Yadav, V.L., Mondal, M.K., 2013. Seasonal characterization and present status of
municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Varanasi, India. Adv. Environ. Res. 2 (1),
51–60 Doi:10.12989/aer.2013.2.1.051.
Daskalopoulos, E., Badr, O., Probert, S.D., 1998. An integrated approach to municipal solid
waste management. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 24 (1), 33–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0921-3449(98)00031-7.
De Bercegol, R., Cavé, J., Nguyen Thai Huyen, A., 2017. Waste municipal service and informal
recycling sector in fast-growing asian cities: co-existence, opposition or integration? Re-
sources 6 (4), 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources6040070.
Defra, 2013. Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste. www.defra.gov.uk.
Development, I., & Water, F. O. R, 1999. Social Stigmas and the Waste Collection Scheme.
pp. 350–353.
El-Fadel, M., Findikakis, A.N., Leckie, J.O., 1997. Modeling leachate generation and transport
in solid waste landfills. Environ. Technol. (United Kingdom) 18 (7), 669–686. https://
doi.org/10.1080/09593331808616586.
Eswaramoorthi, M., Venkateshan, T., Bala, M., Gejendhiran, S., 2016. Review of plastic waste
management by pyrolysis. Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 4 (11), 514–517. https://
www.ijraset.com/fileserve.php?FID=5905.
Gayakwad, H.P.N.B.S., 2015. Construction and demolition waste management in India. Int.
Res. J. Eng. Technol. 3 (June), 712–715. https://www.irjet.net/archives/V2/i3/Irjet-
v2i392.pdf.
Gerdes, P., Gunsilius, E., 2010. The Waste Experts: Enabling Conditions for Informal Sector In-
tegration in Solid Waste Management. In Management. www.gtz.de/recycling-
partnerships.
Ghose, M.K., Dikshit, A.K., S. S. K., 2006. A proposal for solid waste management. Waste
Manag. 26 (11), 1287–1293. https://www.globalgiving.org/pfil/1716/projdoc.pdf.
Ghosh, S.K., 2016a. Sustainable SWM in developing countries focusing on faster growing
economies, India and China. Procedia Environ. Sci. 35, 176–184. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.proenv.2016.07.073.
Ghosh, S.K., 2016b. Swachhaa Bharat Mission (SBM) – a Paradigm Shift in Waste Manage-
ment and Cleanliness in India. Procedia Environ. Sci. 35, 15–27. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.proenv.2016.07.002.
17
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
Giusti, L., 2009. A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health.
Waste Management, pp. 2227–2239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.03.028.
Gupta, N., Yadav, K.K., Kumar, V., 2015. A review on current status of municipal solid waste
management in India. J. Environ. Sci. (China) 37 (August), 206–217. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jes.2015.01.034.
Hande, S., 2019. The informal waste sector: a solution to the recycling problem in developing.
Field actions science reports. J. Field Actions 19, 28–35. http://journals.openedition.org/
factsreports/5143.
Hoornweg, D., Bhada, P., 2012. What a Waste - A Global Review of Solid Waste Management.
Vol. 1 Issue 15. https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMENT/Re-
sources/336387-1334852610766/What_a_Waste2012_Final.pdf.
Ivar Do Sul, J.A., Costa, M.F., 2014. The present and future of microplastic pollution in the
marine environment. Environ. Pollut. 185, 352–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envpol.2013.10.036.
Jia, J., Veksha, A., Lim, T.T., Lisak, G., 2020. In situ grown metallic nickel from X–Ni (X=La, Mg,
Sr) oxides for converting plastics into carbon nanotubes: Influence of metal–support interac-
tion. J. Clean. Prod. 258, 120633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120633.
Joseph, K., 2002. Perspectives of Solid Waste Management in India. International Symposium
on the Technology and Management of the Treatment &amp; Reuse of the Municipal
Solid Waste, Shanghai,China. 2002, pp. 1–14. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.493.1311&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Joshi, R., Ahmed, S., 2016. Status and challenges of municipal solid waste management in
India: a review. Cogent Environ. Sci. 2 (1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/
23311843.2016.1139434.
Kansal, A., 2002. Solid waste management stratergies for India. Indian J. Environ. Protect. 22
(4), 444–448. https://www.academia.edu/29385666/Kansal_A._2002_._Solid_Waste_
management_Strategies_for_India._Indian_Journal_of_Environment_Protection_22_4_
444-448.
Kaza, S., Yao, L., 2018. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste Management to
2050. World Bank Group https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648 -1329-0.
Kaza, S., Yao, L., Bhada-Tata, P., Van Woerden, F., 2018. What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot
of solid waste management to 2050. What a Waste 2.0: A Global Snapshot of Solid Waste
Management to 2050. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1329-0.
Ko, J.H., Xu, Q., Jang, Y.C., 2015. Emissions and control of hydrogen sulfide at landfills: a re-
view. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (19), 2043–2083. https://doi.org/10.1080/
10643389.2015.1010427.
Krikstolaityte, V., Joshua, O., Veksha, A., Wai, N., Lisak, G., Lim, T., 2018. Conversion of spent
coffee beans to electrode material for vanadium redox flow batteries. Batteries 4 (4), 56.
https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries4040056.
Kuchhal, P., Sharma, U.C., 2019. Battery waste management. Environ. Sci. Eng. 5 (March),
141–155.
Kumar, S., Smith, S.R., Fowler, G., Velis, C., Kumar, S.J., Arya, S., Rena, Kumar, R., &
Cheeseman, C., 2017. Challenges and opportunities associated with waste management
in India. R. Soc. Open Sci. 4 (3). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160764.
Kumar, P., Kim, K.H., Rarotra, S., Ge, L., Lisak, G., 2020. The advanced sensing systems for
NOx based on metal-organic frameworks: applications and future opportunities. TrAC -
Trends in Analytical Chemistry. Vol. 122. Elsevier B.V, p. 115730. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.trac.2019.115730.
Li, X.Z., Zhao, Q.L., 2001. Efficiency of biological treatment affected by high strength of
ammonium-nitrogen in leachate and chemical precipitation of ammonium-nitrogen as
pretreatment. Chemosphere 44 (1), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)
00382-9.
Lv, W., Wang, Z., Cao, H., Sun, Y., Zhang, Y., Sun, Z., 2018. A critical review and analysis on
the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering.
Vol. 6. American Chemical Society, pp. 1504–1521. https://doi.org/10.1021/
acssuschemeng.7b03811 Issue 2.
Maharjan, M., Wai, N., Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Lim, T.M., Lisak, G., 2019. Sal wood sawdust
derived highly mesoporous carbon as prospective electrode material for vanadium redox
flow batteries. J. Electroanal. Chem. 834, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jelechem.2018.12.049.
Mani, S., Singh, S., 2015. Sustainable municipal solid waste management in india: a policy
agenda. International Society of Waste Management, Air and Water, pp. 206–213
https://smartnet.niua.org/sites/default/files/webform/SWM-A Policy Agenda.pdf.
Mathur, V., 2012. Scope of recycling municipal solid waste in Delhi and national capital re-
gion (Ncr). Integral Rev. 5 (2), 27–36. http://iul.ac.in/documents/12052010/IRJM_
Paper3_dec2012.pdf.
MNRE_India, 2018. Government of India Ministry of New and Renewable Energy http://
www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/GENERATION OF SOLID WASTE.pdf.
Modak, P., 2011. Municipal solid waste management. turning waste into resources. Shanghai
Manual – A Guide for Sustainable Urban Development in the 21st Century, 2010 ,
pp. 1–36. https://www.zaragoza.es/contenidos/medioambiente/onu/1203-eng.pdf.
MoEF&CC, 2016a. [Published In the Gazette of India, Part-II, Section-3, Sub-section
(ii)] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change NOTIFICATION New
Delhi, the 29 (Vol. 317, Issue ii). https://cpcb.nic.in/displaypdf.php?id=
cGxhc3RpY3dhc3RlL1BXTV9HYXpldHRlLnBkZg==.
MoEF&CC, 2016b. [Published In the Gazette of India, Part-II, Section-3, Sub-section
(ii)] Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change NOTIFICATION New
Delhi, the 29 (Vol. 317, Issue ii). https://cpcb.nic.in/displaypdf.php?id=
d2FzdGUvQyZEX3J1bGVzXzIwMTYucGRm.
MoEF&CC, 2016c. Solid Waste management rules, 2016_S.O. 1357(E) [08-04-2016]. The Ga-
zette of India (Vol. 2, Issue REGD. NO. D. L.-33004/9933004/99) http://www.moef.nic.
in/sites/default/files/SWM 2016_0.pdf.
Mohan, V., 2019, May 10. Topic: 91% premature deaths due to air pollution in low and
middle-income countries: UNEP. 1. The Economics Times https://economictimes.
indiatimes.com/news/environment/pollution/91-premature-deaths-due-to- air-pollution-
in-low-and-middle-income-countries-unep/articleshow/69264417.cms.
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
Moustakas, K., Loizidou, M., 2010. Solid waste management through the application of ther-
mal methods. Waste Management. InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/8464.
Muhammad, N., Nafees, M., Khan, M.H., Ge, L., Lisak, G., 2020. Effect of biochars on bioaccu-
mulation and human health risks of potentially toxic elements in wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) cultivated on industrially contaminated soil. Environ. Pollut. 260, 113887.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113887.
Mundhe, N., Jaybhaye, R., Dorik, B., 2014. Assessment of municipal solid waste management
of Pune city using geospatial tools. Int. J. Comput. Appl. 100 (10), 975–8887.
Nandan, A., Yadav, B.P., Baksi, S., Bose, D., 2017. Recent scenario of solid waste management
in India. WSN World Sci. News 66 (66), 56–74.
Naveen, B., Sitharam, T., Sivapullaiah, P., 2010. Evaluation of dynamic properties of munici-
pal solid waste sites by geophysical tests. J. Solid Waste Technol. Manag. 36 (4),
273–357.
Ngwabie, N.M., Wirlen, Y.L., Yinda, G.S., VanderZaag, A.C., 2019. Quantifying greenhouse
gas emissions from municipal solid waste dumpsites in Cameroon. Waste Manag. 87,
947–953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.02.048.
Oates, L., Sudmant, A., Gouldson, A., Gillard, R., 2018. Reduced Waste and Improved Liveli-
hoods for all: Lessons on Waste Management from Ahmedabad, India. https://
newclimateeconomy.report/workingpapers/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2018/09/
CUT18_Leeds_Waste_Final-1.pdf.
Pakkanen, J., Manfredi, D., Minetola, P., Iuliano, L., 2017. About the use of recycled or biode-
gradable filaments for sustainability of 3D printing. Sustainable Design and Manufactur-
ing 2017. 68. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, p. 11. https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-319-57078-5 3(April).
Pan, H., Lei, H., Liu, X., Wei, H., Liu, S., 2017. Assessment on the leakage hazard of landfill
leachate using three-dimensional excitation-emission fluorescence and parallel factor
analysis method. Waste Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.05.041.
Pan, Z., Chan, W.P., Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Dou, X., Wang, H., Lisak, G., Lim, T.T., 2019.
Thermodynamic analyses of synthetic natural gas production via municipal solid waste
gasification, high-temperature water electrolysis and methanation. Energy Convers.
Manag. 202, 112160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112160.
Pandey, S., Malik, J.K., 2015. Industrial and Urban Waste Management in India (TERI. 2015).
http://www.teriin.org/projects/green/pdf/National-Waste.pdf.
Pandiyan, K., Singh, A., Singh, S., Saxena, A.K., Nain, L., 2019. Technological interventions for
utilization of crop residues and weedy biomass for second generation bio-ethanol produc-
tion. Renew. Energy 132, 723–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.049.
Paritosh, K., Kushwaha, S.K., Yadav, M., Pareek, N., Chawade, A., Vivekanand, V., 2017. Food
Waste to Energy: an Overview of Sustainable Approaches for Food Waste Management
and Nutrient Recycling. Biomed. Res. Int. 2017, 2370927. https://doi.org/10.1155/
2017/2370927.
Patil, A.A., Kulkarni, A.A., Patil, B.B., 2014. Waste to energy by incineration. J. Comput.
Technol. 3 (JUNE 2014), 2278–3814.
Phua, Z., Giannis, A., Dong, Z.L., Lisak, G., Ng, W.J., 2019. Characteristics of incineration ash
for sustainable treatment and reutilization. Environmental Science and Pollution Re-
search. Vol. 26. Springer Verlag, pp. 16974–16997. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-
019-05217-8 Issue 17.
Plastic recycling :: an underperforming sector ripe for a remake, 2019. United Nation Environ-
ment Programme. https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/plastic-
recycling-underperforming-sector-ripe-remake.
Prakash, E.V., Singh, L.P., 2013. Biomethanation of vegetable and fruit waste in co-digestion
process. Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Adv. Eng. 3 (6), 493–495. https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/298274809_Biomethanation_of_vegetable_and_Fruit_waste_in_co-digestion_
Process.
Prieur-Richard, A.-H., Payet-Lebourges, K., Machalaba, C., 2020. Contribution of bio-
diversity to sustainable development goals. ELK Asia Pacific J. Special Issue, 1–17.
http://m.ecohealthalliance.org/writable/news/1111_5040_sdgs_biodiversity_diversitas_
contribution.pdf.
Rajput, R., Prasad, G., Chopra, A.K., 2009. Scenario of solid waste management in present
Indian context. J. Env. Sci 7 (issue 1). http://research.guilan.ac.ir/cjes.
Ram, V.G., Kalidindi, S.N., 2017. Estimation of construction and demolition waste using waste
generation rates in Chennai, India. Waste Manag. Res. 35 (6), 610–617. https://doi.org/
10.1177/0734242X17693297.
Rana, R., Ganguly, R., Gupta, A.K., 2015. An assessment of solid waste management system in
Chandigarh City, India. Electron. J. Geotech. Eng. 20, 1547–1572. https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/276275442_An_Assessment_of_Solid_Waste_Management_
System_in_Chandigarh_City_India.
Rarotra, S., Sahu, S., Kumar, P., Kim, K., Tsang, Y.F., Kumar, V., Kumar, P., Srinivasan, M.,
Veksha, A., Lisak, G., 2020. Progress and challenges on battery waste management: a crit-
ical review. ChemistrySelect 5 (20), 6182–6193. https://doi.org/10.1002/
slct.202000618.
Rehman, A.U., Lee, S.M., Kim, J.H., 2020. Use of municipal solid waste incineration ash in 3D
printable concrete. Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 142, 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
psep.2020.06.018.
Sabbas, T., Polettini, A., Pomi, R., Astrup, T., Hjelmar, O., Mostbauer, P., Cappai, G., Magel,
G., Salhofer, S., Speiser, C., Heuss-Assbichler, S., Klein, R., Lechner, P., 2003. Manage-
ment of municipal solid waste incineration residues. Waste Manag. 23 (1), 61–88.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-053X(02)00161-7.
Sakai, S., Hiraoka, M., 2000. Municipal solid waste incinerator residue recycling by thermal
processes. Waste Manag. 20 (2–3), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-053X(99)
00315-3.
Sandhu, K., 2020. Role Of Informal Solid Waste Management Sector And Possibilities Of Inte-
gration; The Case Of Amritsar City, India http://www.seas.columbia.edu/earth/wtert/
sofos/Kirandeep_Role Of Informal Solid Waste Management Sector And Possibilities Of
Integration - The Case Of Amritsar City, India.pdf.
18
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
Sarc, R., Curtis, A., Kandlbauer, L., Khodier, K., Lorber, K.E., Pomberger, R., 2019.
Digitalisation and intelligent robotics in value chain of circular economy oriented waste
management – a review. Waste Manag. 95, 476–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wasman.2019.06.035.
SBM, 2016. An Inclusive Swachh Bharat through the Integration of the Informal Recycling
Sector: A Step by Step Guide (2016) http://www.swachhbharaturban.in:8080/sbm/con-
tent/writereaddata/Towards an Inclusive Swachh Bharat-Integrating Informal sector re-
cyclers.pdf.
Sfez, S., De Meester, S., Dewulf, J., 2016. Solid waste management sector-Overview of assess-
ment tools and methods Externality of energy system View project Critical Raw Materials
for the EU View project SEE PROFILE. May Doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4049.2404.
Sharma, K.D., Jain, S., 2018. Overview of municipal solid waste generation, composition, and
management in India. J. Environ. Eng. 145 (3), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)
ee.1943-7870.0001490 04018143.
Shukla, S.R., Akolkar, A.B., Bhide, A.D., Dhussa, A.K., Varshney, A.K., Acharya, D.B., Datta, M.M.,
Dutta, M., Mazumdar, N.B., Asnani, P.U., Ramanathan, R., Ramaprasad, V.B., Uppal, S.B.B.,
Dhinadhayalan, M., 2000. Manual on Municipal Solid Waste Management. 663. The
Ministry of Urban Development, The Government of India. http://scholar.google.com/
scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Manual+on+Municipal+Solid+Waste+Man-
agement,+India#0%5Cnhttp://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=
intitle:Manual+on+Municipal+Solid+Waste+Management%230.
Singh, S., 2020. Decentralized Solid Waste Management in India: A Perspective on Technolog-
ical Options. National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, pp. 290–304 Retrieved July
31, 2020, from. https://smartnet.niua.org/sites/default/files/webform/Decentralized%
20SWM%20in%20India.pdf.
Slagstad, H., Bratteb, H., 2013. Influence of assumptions about household waste composition
in waste management LCAs. Waste Manag. 33 (1), 212–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wasman.2012.09.020.
Snel, M., 1999. Integration of the formal and informal sector waste disposal in Hyderabad,
India. Waterlines 17 (3), 27–30. https://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Snel-
1999-Integration.pdf.
Sridevi, V., Musalaiah, M., Ch, M.V.V., Lakshmi, A., Kesavarao, L., 2012. A review on inte-
grated solid waste management. Int. J. Eng. Sci. Adv. Technol. Issn 2 (5), 1491–1499.
Taherymoosavi, S., Verheyen, V., Munroe, P., Joseph, S., Reynolds, A., 2017. Characterization
of organic compounds in biochars derived from municipal solid waste. Waste Manag. 67,
131–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.05.052.
Teoh, F., Veksha, A., Chia, V.W.K., Udayanga, W.D.C., Binte Mohamed, D.K., Giannis, A., Lim,
T.T., Lisak, G., 2019. Nickel-based catalysts for steam reforming of naphthalene utilizing
gasification slag from municipal solid waste as a support. Fuel 254, 115561. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.05.144.
Thakare, S., Nandi, S., 2015. Study on potential of gasification technology for municipal solid
waste (MSW) in Pune City. Energy Procedia 90 (December 2015), 509–517. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.11.218.
United Nations, 1992. Agenda 21. Report ofthe UnitedNations Conference on Environment
and Development, Rio de Janeiro 1992 1st. 1. United Nations publication, New York,
pp. 1–486 92-l-100498-5; In preparation.
Unnikrishnan, H., Gowrav, B., Jathanha, S., 2006. Sustainable Decentralized Model for Solid
Waste Management in Urban India. pp. 1–10.
Vaskalis, Skoulou, Stavropoulos, Zabaniotou, 2019. Towards circular economy solutions for
the management of rice processing residues to bioenergy via gasification. Sustainability
11 (22), 6433. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11226433.
Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Da Oh, W., Chang, V.W.C., Lisak, G., 2018. Upgrading of non-
condensable pyrolysis gas from mixed plastics through catalytic decomposition and de-
chlorination. Fuel Process. Technol. 170, 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
fuproc.2017.10.019.
Veksha, A., Giannis, A., Yuan, G., Tng, J., Chan, W.P., Chang, V.W.C., Lisak, G., Lim, T.T.,
2019a. Distribution and modeling of tar compounds produced during downdraft gasifica-
tion of municipal solid waste. Renew. Energy 136, 1294–1303. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.renene.2018.09.104.
Veksha, A., Moo, J.G.S., Krikstolaityte, V., Da Oh, W., Udayanga, W.D.C., Giannis, A., Lisak,
G., 2019b. Synthesis of CaCr2O4/carbon nanoplatelets from non-condensable pyrolysis
gas of plastics for oxygen reduction reaction and charge storage. J. Electroanal. Chem.
849, 113368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2019.113368.
Veksha, A., Latiff, N.M., Chen, W., Ng, J.E., Lisak, G., 2020a. Heteroatom doped carbon nano-
sheets from waste tires as electrode materials for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reac-
tion: effect of synthesis techniques on properties and activity. Carbon 167, 104–113.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2020.05.075.
Veksha, A., Yin, K., Moo, J.G.S., Da Oh, W., Ahamed, A., Chen, W.Q., Weerachanchai, P.,
Giannis, A., Lisak, G., 2020b. Processing of flexible plastic packaging waste into pyrolysis
oil and multi-walled carbon nanotubes for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction. J. Hazard.
Mater. 387, 121256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121256.
Velmurugan, B., Ramanujam, R.A., 2011. Anaerobic digestion of vegetable wastes for biogas
production in a fed-batch reactor. Int. J. Emerg. Sci 1 (3), 478–486. http://citeseerx.ist.
psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.473.4906&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Waste generation_world bank Org, 2015. In Urban Development Series – Knowledge Papers
Waste. , pp. 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264227385-graph32-en.
Wilson, D.C., Rodic, L., 2017. Global waste management outlook. Global Waste Management
Outlook. https://doi.org/10.18356/765baec0-en.
Wilson, D.C., Velis, C., Cheeseman, C., 2006. Role of informal sector recycling in waste man-
agement in developing countries. Habitat Int. 30 (4), 797–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.habitatint.2005.09.005.
Yin, K., Ahamed, A., Lisak, G., 2018. Environmental perspectives of recycling various combus-
tion ashes in cement production – a review. Waste Management. Vol. 78. Elsevier Ltd,
pp. 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.06.012.
A. Kumar, A. Agrawal /
Yusof, N., Haraguchi, A., Hassan, M.A., Othman, M.R., Wakisaka, M., Shirai, Y., 2009. Measur-
ing organic carbon, nutrients and heavy metals in rivers receiving leachate from con-
trolled and uncontrolled municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills. Waste Manag. 29 (10),
2666–2680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2009.05.022.
Zaman, A., 2009. Life cycle environmental assessment of municipal solid waste to energy
technologies. Global J. Environ. Res. 3 (3), 155–163.
Zaman, A.U., 2010. Comparative study of municipal solid waste treatment technologies. Int.
J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 7 (2), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03326132.
19
Current Research in Environmental Sustainability 2 (2020) 100011
Zheng, S., Liu, W., Zhi, Q., 2016. Cleaner Waste Management: a Review based on the Aspects
of Technology, Market and Policy. Energy Procedia 104, 492–497. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.egypro.2016.12.083.
Zhu, D., Asani, P.U., Zurbrugg, C., Anapolsky, S., Mani, S., 2008. Improving Municipal Solid
Waste Management in India, A Sourcebook for Policy Makers and Practitioners by The
World Bank Washington, D.C. In The World Bank https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-
8213-7361-3.