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Fear of Ying Treatment Programs For Passengers: An International Review
Fear of Ying Treatment Programs For Passengers: An International Review
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a
The VALK Foundation, Leiden University, P.O. Box 110, Leiden 2300, The Netherlands
b
Department of Municipal Health, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
c
Austrian Airlines, Vienna, Austria
Received 20 October 2003; received in revised form 5 January 2004; accepted 6 January 2004
There appears to be a considerable increase in the number of people suffering from fear of flying,
probably as a consequence of recent political and
*Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 31-71-5273796; fax: þ31-71- health developments. The events of September 11,
527396. 2001, is an example of these types of political
E-mail addresses: info@valk.org, stichtingvalk@cs.com developments, which was followed by an enormous
1477-8939/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2004.01.002
28 L.J. Van Gerwen et al.
fall in the number of people flying either for between flights have asked mental health pro-
business or pleasure. Terrorist attacks are still a fessionals and others specializing in the phenom-
threat for aviation. Similar effects have been enon of flight anxiety to provide flight anxiety
observed as a consequence of health threats posted alleviation services. In the last 15 – 20 years, a
by the SARS epidemic, not only on routes to and substantial number of airlines (at least 36)6 have
from Asian countries, particularly China, Hong Kong participated in or initiated courses on prevention or
and Taiwan, but also elsewhere. Apparently, many reduction of flight anxiety.
people around the globe fear today that simply This field has been and to a certain extent still is
boarding an airplane increases the chance of being characterized by imprecise delineation and defi-
exposed to security and health risks. The media nition of the phenomenon of fear of flying, a lack of
tend to present information on air safety issues in scientific standardization of diagnostic procedures
such a way as to highlight the negative aspects of and treatment methods, and an absence of clear-
flying. There is evidence to suggest that fearful cut guidelines for a scientifically based evaluation
flyers may be affected by media coverage of airline of efficacy and effectiveness.6 This situation calls
incidents and accidents.1 It is consequently difficult again for a review of existing flight anxiety
to determine whether previous estimates of the treatment practices. We initiated this review prior
prevalence of fear of flying, usually ranging to and during the Second International Fear of
between 10 and 40% of the general population in
Flying Conference in Vienna (December 2000). For
industrialized countries, are still valid.2 – 4 There are
this purpose, professionals associated with flight
no recent studies or monitoring data available yet
anxiety facilities around the world were
to shed reliable, valid light on this question.
approached, but also to gather information on
Nevertheless, fear of flying is a phenomenon that
their facilities, including treatment characteristics
ranks high on the list of fears afflicting people today
and evaluation methods. A questionnaire was used
and with which people have to cope.
to collect this information prior or during the
Fear of flying, whether experienced to a mild,
moderate or high degree, usually affects function- conference. This source of information was used
ing in one or more areas of life, e.g. professional, for further data compilation and processing after
social and family life.5 It may also affect marital or the conference. The present article reports the
relationship satisfaction because fear of flying results of this inventory. In addition, delegates at
hampers or restricts a partner’s freedom of move- the conference discussed and reached consensus on
ment and shared activities. That is why it is not ‘golden rules’ for fearful passengers. ‘Golden rules’
surprising that demand for treatment for fear of for therapists treating fear of flying patients were
flying is on the increase. With that in mind, we also identified and agreed upon.
embarked upon an update of a previous inter-
national review of fear of flying treatment facilities
around the globe.6 In addition, there has, in recent
years, been a substantial increase in the number of Objectives
people flying for business or other reasons, with a
particularly substantial increase in the period from The objectives of the study were as follows:
approximately 1995 – 2000. As a consequence, more
people are also being confronted with possibly
unpleasant or disturbing aspects of air travel, which 1. To gather data about available fear of flying
may lead to a greater need for information or some treatment facilities in terms of number, charac-
type of professional guidance. This article report teristics, methods and possible effects of
the data collected in a second international review treatment.
of fear of flying treatment facilities and the 2. To compare the data collected with data
differences found in comparison to data collected gathered in the previous review, both in terms
previously.6 of number of treatment facilities and their
To talk about, fear of flying is no longer a taboo characteristics.
and public interest in the worries and anxiety
3. To compile information on what could be called
associated with flying has increased. Celebrities
a consensus on guidelines for fearful passen-
today publicly admit (e.g. ex-world champion
gers, i.e. ‘golden rules’ for phobic passengers,
boxing Mohamed Ali) that they suffer or have
and on essential guidelines for therapists
suffered from fear of flying. Accordingly, airlines
treating fear of flying patients, ‘golden rules’
wishing to provide travelers with a variety of
for therapists.
services to increase comfort before, during and
Fear of flying treatment programs for passengers: an international update 29
Center Clients Pre-treatment diagnostic Individual group Treatment manual Measures of Follow-up Available written
per year evaluation treatment (number available efficacy and audio material
of people in group)
Air MAG, Montreal, Ca-nada 120 Yes question-naire Yes groups of 8–20 No 1,2 Yes No
AKH, Vienna, Austria i.p. No No No i.p. i.p. i.p.
Ansett Fear of Flying Pro-gram, Australia 360 Yes question-naire Yes groups of 5 Yes 1,2,3,5 Yes Yes
Anxiety & Agoraphobia Treatment C, IL, USA 40 Yes telephone Yes groups of 4–8 Yes 1,2,5 Yes Yes
Agentur Texter-Millott, Munich, Germany 1000 Yes Yes groups of 8–14 Yes 1,2 Yes Yes
Austrian Airlines, Vienna, Austria 135 Yes Yes groups of 5–15 No 2 Yes Yes
Avia Safe AB, Väsby, Sweden 130 Yes questionnaire Yes groups of 9 No 1,2,3,5 Yes Yes
AVOLO, Sigtuna, Sweden 10 Yes telephone Only individual No 1,2 No Yes
Behavior Therapy Institute, Canada 50 Yes Only individual No 3 Yes Yes
Braathens, Oslo, Norway 180 No No group 10–12 Yes 3,4,5 Yes Yes
Britannia Airways, Luton, UK 250 Yes Yes group of 120 Yes 1,2,3 Single Yes
assessment
Centrum Integrierte psychotherapy, Germany 100 Yes Yes groups of 10 Yes ? Yes Yes
Crossair, Lausanne, Switzerland 30 No Yes group of 6–10 Yes 1 No Yes
Ronald M. Doctor, CA, USA 100 Yes Yes groups of 6–8 No 1,2,3,4 Yes Yes
Fear of Flying Clinic, San Mateo, CA 100 Questionnaire No groups of 25 No 1,3 No Yes
Fearless Flyers, Inc., Australia 78 Questionnaire No groups of 14–25 Yes 1,3 Yes Yes
Fearless Flying Program, Ireland 150 Questionnaire Yes groups of 5 No 1,3 Yes Yes
Finnair, Helsinki, Finland 60 Telephone questionnaire Yes groups of 7–8 Yes 1,2 Yes Yes
Freedom from Fear of Flying, FL, USA 80 Yes telephone Yes groups of 3–6 Yes 1 No Yes
Freedom to Fly, London, UK 100 Yes telephone Yes groups of 4 No 1,2,3,4,5 Yes No
Have no Fear, Toronto, Canada 100 Telephone interview Yes groups of 15–20 Yes 1,2,3,5 Yes Yes
IcelandAir, Psychological C, Iceland 25 Yes No Groups of 8–12 Yes 1,2,3,5 Yes No
Institute for Human Factors, WI, USA 100–150 Yes Yes groups of 12 Yes 1,2 No Yes
Luxair, Luxembourg 20–30 i.p. Yes groups of 8–12 i.p. i.p. i.p. i.p.
Med.-Psychosomatische Klinik, Germany 40–60 Yes Yes groups of 8–10 Yes 1,2,3,4 i.p. Yes
Alessandra Rea, Italy ? i.p. i.p. i.p. i.p. i.p. i.p.
VALK Foundation, Netherlands 350 Yes Yes groups of max ¼ 8 Yes 1,2,3,4,5 Yes Yes
Open Skies, MA and, NY, USA 500 Yes Yes groups of 5–8 Yes 1,2,3,4,5 Yes Yes
Galit Rosenberg, Herzlita, Israel 20 Yes Yes groups of 2–6 Yes 1,2,3,4,5 Yes Yes
Royal Free Travel Clinic, London, UK 150 Yes Yes groups of 6–8 Yes 1,3,5 Yes Yes
Measures of efficacy: (1) Therapeutic flight; (2) post-treatment flights; (3) standardized anxiety self-report measures at discharge; (4) standardized general psychopathology measures at
discharge; (5) standardized anxiety self-report measures at follow-up. i.p. ¼ in preparation.
Fear of flying treatment programs for passengers: an international update 31
It also seems that these programs offer more procedures.7,12 In addition, only a few treatment
extensive pretreatment diagnostic evaluation and facilities provide relapse training, despite the fact
the possibility of tailored individual treatment for that the anxiety management literature shows the
patients with specific phobias and other psycho- importance of helping patients in coping
logical problems. Most treatment programs are with relapse and providing strategies for relapse
short term, but there is still considerable variation prevention.11
in length of treatment (from one to three days). None of the experts participating in this study
Most of the facilities use some type of efficacy mentioned the use of medication as a basic
measure or criterion. In all cases, this is test, component of treatment, although a few of
therapeutic or post-treatment flights taken by the them had carried out controlled studies on the
patients. Nine of the 36 facilities only use these efficacy of pharmacotherapeutic medication for
flights to measure efficacy. Most of the facilities fear of flying.13 – 15 ‘Airborne’ was the first fear of
also use other measures, such as standardized flying conference, introducing studies with virtual
anxiety measures. The majority of the facilities reality exposure (VRE) as a component of treat-
use some type of follow-up measure ðN ¼ 26Þ: In ment. VRE therapy is relatively new and not yet
most cases, they are reports from patients about routinely used in clinical practice by any of the
other flights taken. Only a few agencies also provide conference participants. The use of VRE therapy
follow-up meetings or booster sessions. Most for fear of flying seems promising, and it is
facilities give their patients some type of written conceivable that some clinical practices will
and/or audio material to support their treatment or decide to include it in their standardized fear of
inform them about it. flying treatment programs in the near future. VRE
can have lasting effects in both the short and long
Components of treatment programs terms, as indicated in the first year-long follow-
up study by Rothbaum et al. and by Maltby
One of the goals of the review was also to gain et al.16 – 18
detailed insight into the essential components of In conclusion, a process of convergence or
the treatment programs. Table 2 shows some consensus seems to have taken place between
remarkable data in this area, compared to the treatment facilities on what components treatment
first review.6 Most of the facilities now use multi- programs should include. This clearly indicates that
component treatment programs, consisting of the quality of treatment programs has increased in
diagnostic assessment, individual preparation ses- recent years, both in terms of the number of
sions, behavioral group treatment and cognitive components offered and professionalism.
behavioral group treatment, and follow-up session
after treatment. The general picture is that Guidelines for fear of flying patients
facilities report offering programs with at least
five different components, with a range of two to One of the goals of the ‘Airborne’ Conference was
seven. There are some differences between the to determine whether consensus could be reached
programs in terms of admission. Some do not have on a set of rules or recommendations to help
any type of prescreening. Other programs have phobics cope with their flight anxiety. In a so-called
extensive screening and assessment procedures syntegrity-session,19 each expert/participant was
with consequences for the treatment protocol asked to provide as many guidelines or rules/
offered. Surprisingly, the use of prescreening is, recommendations for flying phobics as they could.
however, seldom related to most facilities’ Consequently, all these recommendations/rules or
decision on whether a person will receive individ- guidelines were compiled and ordered in terms of
ual or group treatment, because one would expect similarities and differences. The higher the redun-
that prescreening is motivated by the wish to dancy/score for specific rules or guideline, the
tailor individual needs and treatment character- more consensus was assumed to exist between
istics. Most of the facilities provide information experts. The 20 rules or guidelines with the highest
either on aviation or anxiety or both, relaxation redundancy were then used in a discussion/pro-
training, some type of cognitive restructuring, in cedure. In this procedure, those professionals who
vitro exposure (either to planes on the ground or were for a specific guideline and those who were
simulator training) and a therapeutic or test against were confronted with each other. In the
flight. Only a few facilities also incorporate third phase, the preliminary rules or guidelines
some type of coping or distraction training, were voted upon. This finally resulted in what was
while the anxiety management literature then called the 10 ‘golden rules’ for fear of
clearly provides evidence of the efficacy of such flying patients. These rules or guidelines can be
32
Table 2 Review of treatment components offered by the treatment facilities.
i.p. ¼ in preparation.
Fear of flying treatment programs for passengers: an international update 33
Josine M. Arondeus, VALK Foundation, Leiden, Tony Martinez, Fear of Flying Clinic, United
The Netherlands Airlines, San Mateo, USA
Americo Baptista, Universidade Lusofona, Lis- Neil McLean, Ansett, Fear of Flying Program,
bon, Portugal Melbourne, Australia
Robert Bor, Royal Free Travel Clinic, London, James Millott, Lufthansa, Agentur Texter Millott,
England Munich, Germany
Xavier Bornas, University of the Balearic Islands, Helmut Müller-Ortsein, CIP, Munich, Germany
Palma, Spain Cristina I. Nack, Fear of Flying Clinic, United
Birgit Bukasa, Austria Airlines, San Mateo, USA
Bryan Burke, Fearless Flyers, Inc., Quantas, Detlev O. Nutzinger, Psychosomatische Klinik,
Sydney, Australia Bad Bramstedt, Germany
Bengt Bylander, Avia Safe AB, AVOLO, Sigtuna, Carolee Orme, Av. serve, Have No Fear, Air
Sweden Canada, Toronto, Canada
Maeve Byrne-Crangle, Fearless Flying Program, Johanna Palmers, AKH, Vienna, Austria
Aer Lingus, Dublin, Ireland Glenda Philpott, Flyers, Inc., Quantas, Sydney
John Byrne, Fearless Flying Program, Aer Lingus, and Melbourne, Australia
Dublin, Ireland Marc-Antoine Plourde, Air MAG, Inc., Air Canada,
Slim T.W. Cummings, Freedom From Fear of Montreal, Canada
Flying, Coral Cables, FL, USA Donald Rayko, Av. serve, Have No Fear, Air
Carmen Cummings, Freedom From Fear of Fly- Canada, Toronto, Canada
ing, Coral Cables, FL, USA Alessandra Rea, Alitalia, Rome, Italy
Rene F.W. Diekstra, VALK Foundation, Leiden, Fabienne Regard, S’envoler sans s’affoler, Swis-
The Netherlands
sair, Geneva, Switzerland
Donald M. Doctor, Woodlan Hills, CA, USA
Tom Roberts, Northwest Airlines Wings, NWA,
Frank J. Don, VALK Foundation, Leiden, The
Minneapolis, USA
Netherlands
Diana Ronell, Open Skies, Boston, MA and New
Terence Dowdall, University of Cape Town,
York, NY, USA
Rondebosch, Cape Town, South Africa
Galit Rosenberg, VALK Israel, Herzlita, Israel
Oivind Ekeberg, MD, Ulleval University, Depart-
Michael Rybak, USA
ment of Acute Medicine, Oslo, Norway
Di Sansom, Quantas, Sydney, Australia
Lars Elstad, Braathens, Oslo, Norway
Bettina Schindler, Swissair, Switzerland
Elaine Iljon Foreman, Air UK, Freedom to fly,
London, England Pall Stefansson, Iceland Air, Reykjavik, Iceland
Lucas J. Van Gerwen, VALK Foundation, Leiden, Alfheidur Steinthorsdottir, Psychological Center,
The Netherlands Iceland Air, Reykjavik, Iceland
Paul Griesbach, Behaviour Therapy Institute, Silvia Texter-Millot, Lufthansa, Agentur Silvia
Toronto, Canada Texter, Munich, Germany
Imke Grootenhuis, VALK Foundation, Leiden, The Michael P. Tomaro, Institute for Human Factors,
Netherlands Milwaukee, WI, USA
Liz Harrison, Northwest Airlines Wings, NWA, Miquel Tortella-Feliu, Spain
Minneapolis, USA Marco Verschragen, VALK Foundation, Leiden,
Julie Kenfield, Northwest Airlines Wings, NWA, The Netherlands
Minneapolis, USA Alain Wagner, Luxair, Luxembourg
Paula Kinnunen, Finnair, Helsinki, Finland Peter Ward, Britannia Airways, Luton, UK
Rudolf Krefting, Lufthansa, Agentur Silvia Tex- Robert Wolfger, Austrian Airlines, Vienna, Austria
ter, Munich, Germany George Wright, Air MAG, Inc., Air Canada,
Andrea Kropf, Lufthansa, Agentur Silvia Texter, Montreal, Canada
Munich, Germany Vreni Wüthrich, Swissair, Switzerland
Gernot Langs, Psychosomatische Klinik, Bad Mall Yams, Avia Safe AB, Upplands Väsby, Sweden
Bramstedt, Germany Claudia de Zeeuw, VALK Foundation, Leiden, The
Marleen Lorenz, Anxiety and Agoraphobia Treat- Netherlands
ment Center, Northbrook IL, USA Viktor Ziegler, Austrian Airlines, Vienna, Austria
Ruth Markowitz, Northwest Airlines Wings, NWA, and Athens, Greece
Minneapolis, USA Paula Zimmermann, Fear of Flying Clinic, United
Olivier Martin, Crossair, Lausanne, Switzerland Airlines, San Mateo, USA
Fear of flying treatment programs for passengers: an international update 35