210 | 10 Other Forms of Biological Writing

Research Proposals
Research proposals have many traits in common with research papers (see
Chapter 4): both introduce a scientific question or hypothesis, both put a
specific study in the broader context of existing research, and both are orga-
nized in ways that reflect the logic of the scientific method. Of course, a
research proposal is missing a Results section, along with the author’s analysis
and interpretation of those results. Instead, it seeks to propose and justify the
author’s research plans — perhaps for a senior project, a summer internship, a
graduate thesis, or, in the case of professional biologists, new or continuing
work in a specialized field.
There is no one standard format for a research proposal. Professional
scientists seeking funding from the National Science Foundation or other
agencies must adhere to the precise guidelines laid down by those organiza-
tions; similarly, student authors should follow the guidelines applicable in
their own situations. All research proposals involve similar basic challenges
and constraints. If you are presented with the opportunity to do research, the
following guidelines should help you in preparing your own proposal.

Create a specific and informative title.

A focused title suggests a well-thought-out project. Titles such as “A Study
of Stream Ecology” or “Nutrient Uptake in Seaweeds” convey little sense
of direction or purpose; compare them with more specific versions: “The
Effect of Open and Closed Canopy on the Diversity of Macroinvertebrates
in Morrisville Creek”; “Ammonia Uptake by Ulva curvata Growing on Three
Different Substrates.” You may need to modify your title as you proceed
with the research, but a good working title is essential to a well-received
proposal.

Start with an overview of the general scientific issue.

Before proposing your own study, you need to introduce the broader topic
to which your work relates. Most research proposals begin with an Introduc-
tion (or Background to the Study) section, which presents a theoretical con-
text for the proposed investigation by summarizing and integrating the work
of others in the field. Doing a good job on this part involves a thorough
literature search and careful, selective use of primary sources, which are cited
in your text and then listed later in a Literature Cited section.Your introduc-
tory discussion should also reflect a sensitivity to the scientific background of
your readers. Typically, you’ll be submitting your proposal to other scientists;
however, if it will be judged by nonscientific readers (for example, a multi-
disciplinary committee), then keep specialized vocabulary to a minimum and
use a less technical style.
 Research Proposals | 211

State the aims of your study, and provide a clear rationale.

After providing background material and highlighting major findings, you
can then turn to important gaps in our knowledge. What conflicts exist in
the literature? What questions remain? Relate such issues to your own pro-
posed study and its specific aims. What questions will you investigate? How
will your work enlarge, clarify, or complement existing knowledge of the
subject? Discussion of your own objectives can come at the end of the Intro-
duction or Background section or in a subsequent section.
Remember that you are trying to convince people to believe in your
project strongly enough so that they will give you money to carry it out.
Your proposal should present a compelling argument for the potential value
of your work.

Summarize your methods.

Next explain specifically how the research will be conducted, what kinds of
data you will collect, and how those data will be analyzed.The level of detail,
and thus the amount of space devoted to the Methods section, will depend
on the type of proposal you are submitting and the audience for whom it is
intended. Remember that even the most promising research question will
fall flat if you can’t devise a practical and scientifically valid way to investigate
it. Think through your methods completely, and become thoroughly familiar
with the procedures used in studies similar to yours. If you want to convince
your readers to commit their time and/or money to your project, then it
must sound feasible.

Provide a budget, if necessary.

Here, too, follow whatever specific guidelines apply to your situation. If an
estimate of projected expenses is requested, prepare this with painstaking
care. You will need to identify potential suppliers, compare prices, and com-
pile a detailed list. Don’t be vague: “Collecting supplies — $100”; instead,
give a breakdown of exactly what you’ll need and how much each item
will cost: “1 dip net, $38.50; 2 replacement bags @ $8.98 each; 1 D-frame
aquatic net, $39.95. . . .” This task may take much time and effort; however,
it will ensure that you consider your methodology very carefully. Moreover,
your proposal will more likely be accepted if you show that you can do what
you propose within the budget allotted to you.

Follow application instructions carefully, and submit your

proposal on time.
This advice may seem obvious, yet many applicants run the risk of having
their proposals rejected out of hand because they fail to include all required
212 | 10 Other Forms of Biological Writing

materials. Pay meticulous attention to such requirements as page length, for-

mat, margins, spacing, and the number of copies to be submitted. Check
to see if your résumé and/or letters of recommendation are also required.
You may also need to prepare a brief cover letter to accompany your pro-
posal. Finally, be prepared to meet the application deadline; failure to do
so suggests immediately that you are incapable of adequate planning and a
professional approach.

Sample Research Proposal

Following is a sample research proposal for an undergraduate summer research
fellowship.
 Sample Research Proposal | 213

Field Measurements of
Photosynthesis and Transpiration
Rates in Dwarf Snapdragon
(Chaenorrhinum minus Lange):
An Investigation of Water Stress Compose a specific
and informative title.
Adaptations Include your name and
other relevant informa-
tion on a title page.
Tara Gupta

Application for Summer Research

Fellowship,
Colgate University
March 12, 201-
214 | 10 Other Forms of Biological Writing

Water Stress Adaptations 2

INTRODUCTION
Dwarf snapdragon (Chaenorrhinum minus) is a weedy
Introduce the scien-
tific issue and give pioneer plant found growing in central New York during
background informa-
tion. Cite relevant spring and summer. Interestingly, the distribution of
studies by others; CSE
citation-sequence this species has been limited almost exclusively to the
(number) system is
cinder ballast of railroad tracks 1, a harsh environment
illustrated here. Adjust
vocabulary to take into characterized by intense sunlight and poor soil water
account the biological
background of your retention. Given such environmental conditions, one
readers.
would expect C. minus to exhibit anatomical features
similar to those of xeromorphic plants (species adapted
to arid habitats).
However, this is not the case. T. Gupta and R.
Arnold (unpublished 2004; unreferenced) have found
that the leaves and stems of C. minus are not covered
by a thick, waxy cuticle but rather by a thin cuticle that
is less effective in inhibiting water loss through diffusion.
The root system is not long and thick, capable of reach-
ing deeper, moister soils; instead, it is thin and diffuse,
permeating only the topmost (and driest) soil horizon.
Moreover, in contrast to many xeromorphic plants, the
stomata (pores regulating gas exchange) are at the leaf
surface, not found in sunken cavities in the epidermis
that retard water loss from transpiration.
Despite a lack of these morphological adapta-
tions to water stress, C. minus continues to grow and
reproduce when morning dew has been its only source
of water for up to five weeks (2005 letter from R. Arnold
to me; unreferenced). Such growth involves fixation of
carbon by photosynthesis and requires that the stomata
 Sample Research Proposal | 215

Water Stress Adaptations 3

be open to admit sufficient carbon dioxide. Given the

dry, sunny environment, the time required for adequate
carbon fixation must also mean a significant loss of
water through transpiration as open stomata exchange
carbon dioxide with water. How does C. minus balance
the need for carbon with the need to conserve water?
AIMS OF THE PROPOSED STUDY
State aims and scope
The above observations have led me to explore the of proposed study.

extent to which C. minus is able to photosynthesize

under conditions of low water availability. It is my
hypothesis that C. minus adapts to these conditions
by photosynthesizing in the early morning and late
afternoon, when leaf and air temperatures are lower and
transpirational water loss is reduced. I predict that its
photosynthetic rate may be very low during the middle
of the day, perhaps even zero on hot, sunny after-
noons. Similar diurnal changes in photosynthetic rate in
response to midday water deficits have been described
in crop plants 2,3. There is only one comparable study 4
on noncrop species in their natural habitats.
Thus, the research proposed here should help
explain the apparent paradox of an organism that thrives
in water-stressed conditions despite a lack of morpho-
logical adaptations. This summer’s work will also serve
as a basis for controlled experiments in a plant growth
chamber on the individual effects of temperature, light
intensity, soil water availability, and other environmental
factors on photosynthesis and transpiration rates. These
experiments are planned for the coming fall semester.
216 | 10 Other Forms of Biological Writing

Water Stress Adaptations 4

Briefly describe your METHODS

methodology. Simultaneous measurements of photosynthesis and
transpiration rates will indicate the balance C. minus has
achieved in acquiring the energy it needs while retaining
the water available to it. These measurements will be
taken daily at field sites in the Hamilton, NY, area, using
an LI-6220 portable photosynthesis system (LICOR, Inc.,
Lincoln, NE). Basic methodology and use of correction
factors will be similar to that described in related
studies 5-7. Data will be collected at regular intervals
throughout the daylight hours and will be related to
measurements of ambient air temperature, leaf tempera-
ture, relative humidity, light intensity, wind velocity, and
cloud cover.

If a budget is required, BUDGET

be as specific as 1 kg soda lime $53.90
possible.
(for absorption of CO2 in photosynthesis
analyzer)
1 kg anhydrous magnesium perchlorate $274.40
(used as desiccant for photosynthesis
analyzer)
Shipping of chemicals (estimate) $12.00
Estimated 500 miles travel to field sites $202.50
in own car @ 40.5¢/mile
CO2 cylinder, 80 days rental (for calibration $100.00
of photosynthesis analyzer)
Total request $642.80
 Sample Research Proposal | 217

Water Stress Adaptations 5

REFERENCES
1. Widrlechner MP. Historical and phenological Include all published
works cited. Numbers
observations of the spread of Chaenorrhinum minus correspond to the
across North America. Can J Bot. 1983;61(1): order in which sources
were first mentioned
179-187. in the text. Author’s
last name is followed
2. Manhas JG, Sukumaran NP. Diurnal changes in net by initials, then paper
title, journal, publica-
photosynthetic rate in potato in two environments. tion date, volume,
issue, and page
Potato Res. 1988;3(2):375-378.
numbers.
3. Yordanov I, Tsonev T, Velikova V, Georgieva K,
Ivanov P, Tsenov N, Petrova T. Changes in CO2
assimilation, transpiration and stomatal resistance
in different wheat cultivars experiencing drought
under field conditions. Bulg J Plant Physiol.
2001;27(3-4): 20-33.
4. Chaves MM, Pereira JS, Maroco J, Rodrigues
ML, Ricardo CPP, Osório ML, Carvalho I, Faria T,
Pinheiro C. How plants cope with water stress in
the field: photosynthesis and growth. Ann Bot.
2002;89:907-916.
5. Jarvis A, Davies W. The coupled response of sto-
matal conductance to photosynthesis and transpi-
ration. J Exp Bot. 1998;49:399-406.
6. Galmés J, Medrano H, Flexas J. Photosynthetic
limitations in response to water stress and recovery
in Mediterranean plants with different growth forms.
New Phytol. 2007;175:81-93.
7. Idso SB, Allen SG, Kimball BA, Chouhury BJ.
Problems with porometry: measuring net photo-
synthesis by leaf chamber techniques. Agron J.
1989;81(3):475-479.