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Energy and macronutrient intake in adolescent sprint

athletes: A follow-up study
a a a a
Dirk Aerenhouts , Peter Deriemaeker , Marcel Hebbelinck & Peter Clarys
a
Human Biometry and Biomechanics , Vrije Universiteit Brussel , Brussels, Belgium
Published online: 17 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: Dirk Aerenhouts , Peter Deriemaeker , Marcel Hebbelinck & Peter Clarys (2011) Energy and
macronutrient intake in adolescent sprint athletes: A follow-up study, Journal of Sports Sciences, 29:1, 73-82, DOI:
10.1080/02640414.2010.521946

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 Journal of Sports Sciences, January 1st 2011; 29(1): 73–82

Energy and macronutrient intake in adolescent sprint athletes:

A follow-up study

DIRK AERENHOUTS, PETER DERIEMAEKER, MARCEL HEBBELINCK, &

PETER CLARYS

Human Biometry and Biomechanics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

(Accepted 5 September 2010)

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Abstract
Macronutrient intake, height, weight, and body composition of 60 adolescent sprint athletes were estimated every 6 months
over 3 years. Seven-day food records were analysed based on the Belgian and Dutch food databanks. The age of participants
at the start of the 3-year study was 14.8 + 1.6 years for female athletes and 14.7 + 1.9 years for male athletes. Girls and boys
gained height (3.4 + 4.6 cm and 5.9 + 6.6 cm respectively) and weight (5.6 + 3.5 kg and 8.7 + 5.5 kg respectively),
whereas percent body fat remained unchanged in both girls and boys (around 17.0% and 8.5% respectively). Mean protein
intake of around 1.5 g  kg71 body weight was within recommendations on each occasion for both sexes. Carbohydrate
intakes between 5 and 7 g  kg71 body weight support a training programme of moderate intensity. Total and saturated fat
intakes were high at the start of the study (girls: 31.8 + 3.5% and 12.2 + 2.0% of energy intake; boys: 30.3 + 4.6% and
12.0 + 1.9% of energy intake) and it appeared to be difficult to achieve and maintain lower intakes. Consistent low fluid
intakes around 40 ml  kg71 body weight were observed. General non-stringent advice for improvement of the diet resulted
in significant favourable changes only for the consumption of wholegrain bread, vegetables, and soft drinks. Dietary habits of
adolescent sprint athletes are not always according to guidelines and are relatively stable but repeated advice can induce
moderate improvements.

Keywords: Adolescents, macronutrients, sprint athletes

development (Petrie, Stover, & Horswill, 2004).

Introduction
Sprint performance in athletics (60–400 m flat or
hurdles) relies on technical skills and the ability to
produce high forces in a short time. Therefore,
performance will rely on anaerobic energy delivery
with a delicate contribution of aerobic energy
systems, especially in the longer sprint events or in
multiple sprint work. After multiple sprints, such as
in interval training or running heats in a tournament,
carbohydrate stores can fall dramatically and should
be restored as part of optimal recovery (Gaitanos,
Williams, Boobis, & Brooks, 1993). In addition to
specific sprint training and competition events, a top
sprint athlete spends a considerable part of his or her
time on different resistance training programmes
(Tipton, Jeukendrup, & Hespel, 2007). For optimal
health, training results, and performance, nutrition is
of considerable importance. For adolescent athletes,
additional care should be given to their diet, since
the extra needs of their physical activities are
additional to their nutritional needs for growth and
Athletes in general are advised to consume a diet
rich in carbohydrates that provides more than 55% of
total energy intake or 6–10 g  kg71  day71
(ACSM, 2009; Burke, Cox, Cummings, & Desbrow,
2001). Strength athletes require protein to make up
between 12 and 15% of total energy intake (Maugh-
an & Burke, 2002) or 1.2–1.7 g  kg71  day71
according to ACSM guidelines. Sufficient fluid
intake and the prevention of dehydration is a key
component in the delicate interplay between optimal
performance and recovery (Petrie et al., 2004).
In a supplementary issue of the Journal of Sports
Sciences on the 2007 IAAF Consensus Conference on
Nutrition for Athletics, the need for more research
on the nutritional requirements of young athletes in
specific disciplines was noted (Meyer, O’Connor, &
Shirreffs, 2007; Tipton et al., 2007). Indeed,
literature on the nutritional profile of adolescent
sprinters and athletes is limited. Recent dietary
surveys reveal inadequate nutrient intakes in adoles-
cent athletes (de Sousa, Da Costa, Nogueira, &

Correspondence: D. Aerenhouts, Human Biometry and Biomechanics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium.
E-mail: dirk.aerenhouts@vub.ac.be
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2010.521946
 74 D. Aerenhouts et al.
Vivaldi, 2008; Juzwiak, Amancio, Vitalle, Pinheiro, &
Szejnfeld, 2008). Nevertheless, adolescent athletes
appear to have healthier dietary habits than their
non-athletic peers (Cavadini, Decarli, Grin, Narring,
& Michaud, 2000; Aerenhouts, Hebbelinck, Poort-
mans, & Clarys, 2008). However, these studies are
based on single occasion dietary assessments while
repeated dietary assessments are known to provide
more reliable information regarding habitual dietary
profiles (Willett, 1998). In a competitive season of 8
months, male adult swimmers were assessed four
times (Kabasakalis, Kalitsis, Tsalis, & Mougios,
2007). Their nutrient intakes were inadequate and
remained stable at different instants during the
season. Children following a swimming programme
of 23 weeks were assessed at the beginning, half-way
through, and at the end of the programme (Kabasa-
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kalis et al., 2009). These children showed a stable
but inadequate dietary intake with fat intakes above
40% and carbohydrate intakes below 50% of energy,
combined with excessive intakes of saturated fat and
cholesterol. Moreover, shortages of folate, vitamin E,
calcium, and magnesium were observed. Spanish
adolescent soccer players showed excessive fat intake
with intakes of calcium, fibre, magnesium, folate,
vitamin A, and vitamin E below the recommenda-
tions as revealed by analysis of two 5-day food diaries
(Garrido, Webster, & Chamorro, 2007). In most
research on the dietary habits of athletes, the proper
monitoring of the diet has been highly recommended
and that individual athletes should receive adequate
nutritional information. Consumption of micronu-
trient-rich foods such as wholegrain foods, fruits, and
vegetables is very important (Lukaski, 2004). In
general, for maintaining and optimizing health and
performance, adolescent athletes should be advised
to consume a well-balanced diet containing a variety
of foods in sufficient amounts to meet energy
demands (Meyer et al., 2007). Dietary supplements
should only be advised when a food-based solution is
not available (Maughan, Depiesse, & Geyer, 2007).
The aim of the present study was to estimate
dietary habits of adolescent Flemish sprint athletes
based on six 7-day food diaries over a period of 3
years and to compare macronutrient intakes with
reference values as currently prescribed in the
literature. In addition, the study protocol allows an
evaluation of these dietary habits between
seasons and throughout a 3-year period during
adolescence.
Methods
Participants
In cooperation with the Flemish Athletics League
(VAL), 120 athletes aged 12–18 years were selected
and invited to participate in a 3-year follow-up study
on sprint start performance, physical parameters, and
nutrition. Selection was based on in- and outdoor
sprint discipline rankings. Due to logistical limita-
tions, only 60 of the 76 responders were retained (29
girls: age 14.8 + 1.6 years; 31 boys: age 14.7 + 1.9
years). Participating athletes and their parents were
given detailed information about the study. In
accordance with the university’s ethics committee,
both athletes and parents were asked to provide
written informed consent.
Food intake and physical activities
To estimate mean daily intake of energy, nutrients,
and food items, a 7-day food record was adminis-
tered in both the summer and winter of 2006, 2007,
and 2008. Participants were instructed to maintain
their normal eating patterns and to report all foods
as accurately as possible by time of the day, portion
size, preparation and composition of foods. For
portion sizes they were asked to weigh the items.
When this was impossible, household measures
were used to provide an estimate of the portion
size (Health Council, 2006). Participants were also
asked to weigh themselves before breakfast of day 1
when they started recording as well as after day 7.
During the same week, a physical activity record
was completed, using a seven-level intensity scale
(from sleep to competition), to calculate each
participant’s physical activity level (PAL) (Vermor-
el, 2004). Participants recorded all their daily
activities, indicating the nature, intensity, and times
of the beginning and end of each activity. Within 2
weeks of completion, the records were checked by
the investigator in the presence of the athlete and at
least one of his or her parents. At that moment,
extra information was obtained where necessary.
Analysis of the food records was done by the same
investigator using the Becel nutrition software
program BINS 3.0.1, based on the Belgian (NU-
BEL 2004) and Dutch (NEVO 2001) food compo-
sition databanks. On each occasion, the results and
non-stringent advice for improvement of the diet in
terms of macronutrient composition, fluid intake,
whole grains (instead of refined foods), fruits, and
vegetables were fed back to each individual by
e-mail.
Anthropometry
During the same visit when handing over the food
and activity diaries, anthropometric data were
collected. Standing height was measured to the
nearest 0.1 cm using a wall-mounted stadiometer.
Weight was measured with the TANITA-TBF 410
accurate to 100 g, and fat mass and fat-free mass
 Energy and macronutrient intake of adolescent sprint athletes 75

were estimated by the underwater weighing method The ratio between estimated total energy intake and
using the formula of Siri (1961): BEE was used as a tool for detecting under-reporting.
Since none of the participants followed a calorie
percentage fat restriction diet, a cut-off value of 1.1, as suggested by
¼ ð495=underwater body densityÞ  450 Goldberg et al. (1991), was used to detect under-
reporters. Under-reporters, participants declaring
Underwater body density was calculated using the incomplete records, and participants reporting less
following formula: than 7 days were excluded from the analyses.

underwater body density

¼ W =½ðW  Ww =dw Þ  ðRV þ GIÞ
where W is body weight in air, Ww is body weight in
water accurate to 1 g (highest value of 5 measure-
ments, after maximal expiration), dw is the density of
the water (determined after measuring the water
temperature), RV is residual lung volume (based on
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Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed with SPSS v.17.0.
Statistical significance was set at P 5 0.05. The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to test for
normal distribution of the data. A repeated-measures
analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a paired t-
test and Bonferroni correction were applied to

gender, height, and weight), and GI is the gas in the
gastrointestinal tract (fixed to 100 g).
Basal energy expenditure (BEE) (Institute of
Medicine, 2005) was calculated and multiplied by
the PAL value obtained to estimate total energy
expenditure.
females:
BEEðkcal  day1 Þ ¼ 189  17:6  age ðyearsÞ
þ 625  height ðmÞ þ 7:9  weight ðkgÞ
males:
BEEðkcal  day1 Þ ¼ 68  43:3  age ðyearsÞ
þ 712  height ðmÞ þ 19:2  weight ðkgÞ
compare energy and macronutrient intakes between
occasions as well to test for day-to-day variability
within any single occasion. In the case of non-
parametric data, the Kruskal-Wallis test and Mann-
Whitney test were applied. Nutrient and food intakes
of girls and boys were compared with the recom-
mended dietary intakes (RDI) of the Belgian Health
Council (2006) and those proposed by the ACSM
(2009).
Results
Table I presents the total numbers of diaries and
rejected diaries on each occasion. Age and anthropo-
metric data on each occasion are shown in Table II.

Table I. Total number of diaries (and rejected diaries) on each occasion.

Spring 2006 Autumn 2006 Spring 2007 Autumn 2007 Spring 2008 Autumn 2008

Girls 29 (5) 28 (4) 28 (3) 28 (3) 24 (2) 21 (3)

Boys 31 (7) 30 (4) 30 (4) 30 (5) 26 (0) 24 (2)

Table II. Age and anthropometric data for female and male sprint athletes (mean + s).

Spring 2006 Autumn 2006 Spring 2007 Autumn 2007 Spring 2008 Autumn 2008

Girls (n ¼ 24) (n ¼ 24) (n ¼ 25) (n ¼ 25) (n ¼ 22) (n ¼ 18)

Age (years) 14.8 + 1.6 15.3 + 1.6 15.7 + 1.5 16.3 + 1.5 16.8 + 1.6 17.2 + 1.5
Height (cm) 167.1 + 6.9* 167.8 + 6.5** 168.5 + 6.0** 169.1 + 5.7** 169.4 + 6.0*** 169.1 + 6.1***
Weight (kg) 52.6 + 7.4* 54.3 + 7.3** 55.1 + 7.2** 55.8 + 7.2** 56.2 + 7.0*** 56.4 + 7.0***
Fat (%) 18.4 + 5.4*** 17.0 + 3.7*** 16.4 + 4.0*** 16.5 + 3.7*** 18.6 + 5.6*** 16.3 + 3.6***
Boys (n ¼ 24) (n ¼ 26) (n ¼ 26) (n ¼ 25) (n ¼ 26) (n ¼ 22)
Age (years) 14.7 + 1.9 15.2 + 1.8 15.7 + 1.9 16.1 + 1.8 16.7 + 1.8 17.2 + 1.8
Height (cm) 172.2 + 11.3 174.0 + 10.0 175.1 + 9.6 175.2 + 7.4 176.8 + 6.3 177.4 + 5.5
Weight (kg) 57.9 + 11.2 60.6 + 10.4 61.9 + 10.0 63.0 + 8.6 64.6 + 7.9 66.4 + 7.6
Fat (%) 10.2 + 4.1 9.3 + 3.5 9.4 + 3.4 8.1 + 3.0 8.2 + 3.0 7.9 + 2.5

Significantly different from boys: *P 5 0.05, **P 5 0.01, ***P 5 0.001.

 76 D. Aerenhouts et al.
Continuous increases in height and weight were
observed during the study period for both sexes,
except for girls whose height and weight remained
the same between occasions 5 and 6. Mean percent
body fat did not change during the 3 years of follow-
up in boys (P ¼ 0.208). In girls, percent body fat was
significantly higher on occasion 5 than on occasion 4
(P 5 0.001).
On each occasion, no significant day-to-day
variability in intake of energy or macronutrients
was observed. Reported energy intake did not cover
energy expenditure on all occasions except for the
final occasion in girls (Table III). Comparable
energy intakes throughout the study were observed
for both sexes, while only boys reported a higher
energy expenditure on occasion 5 compared with
occasion 1 (P ¼ 0.007). Boys systematically reported
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a higher energy intake and expenditure than girls
(P 5 0.001), resulting in a similar negative energy
balance. Girls and boys reported similar times spent
in sports activities, which remained stable during the
study period.
In boys, self-measured weight on day 1 of
recording was higher than the morning after day 7
on occasion 5 (66.9 + 8.1 kg vs. 66.6 + 8.1 kg,
P ¼ 0.024).
The energy contributions of the different macro-
nutrients are presented in Figure 1. For girls nor
boys, the energy contributions from protein, carbo-
hydrate, and saturated fat differed over time. In girls,
the energy contribution from total fat was higher on
occasion 1 than occasions 4 and 5 (P ¼ 0.004 and
P ¼ 0.003). Girls had higher energy contributions
from protein than boys on occasions 1 (P ¼ 0.025), 2
(P ¼ 0.022), and 3 (P ¼ 0.007). No other significant
differences in macronutrient contributions were
observed between girls and boys. An energy con-
tribution from protein of below 12% was recorded in
8%, 0%, 0%, 4%, 5%, and 0% of girls, and by 17%,
20%, 12%, 0%, 8%, and 5% of boys on occasions 1–
6. An energy contribution from carbohydrate of at
least 55% was achieved by 25%, 38%, 52%, 52%,
59%, and 44% of girls, and by 46%, 54%, 54%,
Table III. Energy intake (EI), energy expenditure (EE), and time spent in sports activities (SA) (mean + s).
Spring 2006 Autumn 2006
Girls (n ¼ 24) (n ¼ 24)
EI (kcal) 2059 + 316*** 2041 + 313***
EE (kcal) 2472 + 292 2601 + 303
SA (min  week71) 584 + 180 749 + 392
Boys (n ¼ 24) (n ¼ 26)
EI (kcal) 2672 + 525*** 2648 + 437***
EE (kcal) 3230 + 532 3389 + 543
SA (min  week71) 544 + 307 603 + 263
***Significantly lower than energy expenditure: P 5 0.001.
60%, 65%, and 64% of boys on occasions 1–6. An
energy contribution from total fat of below 30% was
achieved by 21%, 38%, 56%, 60%, 59%, and 56% of
girls, and by 42%, 54%, 46%, 56%, 58%, and 55%
of boys on occasions 1–6. An energy contribution
from saturated fat of below 10% was achieved by
13%, 25%, 28%, 36%, 36%, and 33% of girls, and
by 17%, 23%, 15%, 24%, 19%, and 23% of boys on
occasions 1–6 respectively.
Mean daily protein intake expressed as grams per
kilogram body weight did not change over the 3 years
of follow-up in both girls (1.4 to 1.5 g  kg71) and
boys (1.5 to 1.6 g  kg71), and there was no
difference between the sexes. Neither did mean daily
carbohydrate intake change during the study, but
girls had significantly lower intakes (occasions 1–6:
5.4 + 0.8, 5.2 + 0.9, 5.3 + 1.0, 5.1 + 0.8, 5.2 +
0.7, and 5.3 + 1.0 g  kg71) than boys (occasions
1–6: 6.5 + 1.2, 6.2 + 1.1, 6.0 + 1.0, 5.9 + 1.1,
5.8 + 1.0, and 6.0 + 1.0 g  kg71 ) (P ¼ 0.001,
P ¼ 0.003, P ¼ 0.019, P ¼ 0.008, P ¼ 0.023, and
P ¼ 0.039). No significant differences between girls
and boys were observed in daily fluid intake, which
remained stable during the study ranging between 35
and 42 ml  kg71 body weight in girls and between
36 and 41 ml  kg71 body weight in boys. Girls had
higher fibre intakes on occasions 3, 4, 5, and 6
compared with occasion 1 (P ¼ 0.001, P ¼ 0.005,
P ¼ 0.005, and P ¼ 0.003). On occasions 1, 2, and 6,
fibre intake was also lower in girls compared with
boys (P ¼ 0.019, P ¼ 0.013, and P ¼ 0.009). In boys,
no change in fibre intake was observed during the
study.
Pasta, rice, boiled and fried potatoes were eaten in
the same amounts throughout the 3-year follow-up
by both sexes, except that girls ate more mashed and
boiled potatoes on occasion 2 than occasion 3
(P ¼ 0.005). Boys ate more pasta and rice than girls
on occasions 5 (P ¼ 0.016) and 6 (P ¼ 0.019). Boys
ate more fried potatoes than girls on occasions 2
(P ¼ 0.010) and 5 (P ¼ 0.026), and on occasion 6 the
boys ate more boiled and mashed potatoes than the
girls (P ¼ 0.044).
Spring 2007 Autumn 2007 Spring 2008 Autumn 2008
(n ¼ 25) (n ¼ 25) (n ¼ 22) (n ¼ 18)
2032 + 381*** 1985 + 319*** 2058 + 359*** 2097 + 509
2544 + 285 2563 + 299 2451 + 279 2392 + 270
640 + 347 696 + 395 523 + 271 533 + 299
(n ¼ 26) (n ¼ 25) (n ¼ 26) (n ¼ 22)
2632 + 367*** 2493 + 530*** 3198 + 434*** 3143 + 365***
3397 + 542 3351 + 443 3422 + 487 3355 + 413
641 + 297 596 + 296 579 + 327 576 + 206
 Energy and macronutrient intake of adolescent sprint athletes 77
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Figure 1. Energy contributions from protein (a), carbohydrate (b), total fat (c), and saturated fat (d) on all six occasions for girls (~) and
boys (&). Dotted line: lower or upper reference limit. Significant difference between girls and boys: *P 5 0.05, **P 5 0.01.
 78 D. Aerenhouts et al.

Figure 2 shows bread consumption during the
study period. The quantity of white bread consumed
by both girls and boys did not change over the 3
years, as did the quantity of wholegrain bread for
boys only. Girls ate more wholegrain bread on
occasions 4, 5, and 6 than on occasion 1
(P ¼ 0.001, P ¼ 0.010, and P ¼ 0.003) and more on
occasion 4 compared with occasions 2 and 3
(P ¼ 0.012 and P ¼ 0.002). On the first three occa-
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sions, boys ate more wholegrain bread than girls
(P ¼ 0.044, P ¼ 0.009, and P ¼ 0.011). Girls ate
more wholegrain bread than white bread on occasion
4 (P ¼ 0.004) and boys ate more wholegrain than
white bread on occasions 2 (P ¼ 0.014) and 3
(P ¼ 0.011).
In both sexes, no significant change in fruit
consumption was observed and there was no
difference between girls and boys (Figure 3a). The

Figure 2. Daily white and wholegrain bread consumption on all six occasions for girls (~) and boys (&). Solid line: wholegrain bread,
dashed line: white bread. Significant difference between girls and boys: *P 5 0.05, **P 5 0.01.

Figure 3. Daily fruit (a) and vegetable (b) consumption on all six occasions for girls (~) and boys (&). Dotted line: lower or upper reference
limit.
 Energy and macronutrient intake of adolescent sprint athletes
reference dietary intake for fruit of 250 g  day71 was
achieved by 13%, 25%, 36%, 28%, 32%, and 28% of
girls, and by 29%, 19%, 15%, 20%, 31%, and 27%
of boys on occasions 1–6.
Mean daily vegetable consumption was similar
between girls and boys during the study, but
vegetable intake did not change during the study
for girls only (Figure 3b). In boys, more vegetables
were consumed on occasions 3, 5, and 6 than on
occasion 1 (P ¼ 0.004, P 5 0.001, and P ¼ 0.001), as
well as on occasion 5 compared with occasion 2
(P ¼ 0.003). None of the girls reached the reference
intake for vegetables of 300 g  day71 on occasion 1–
4 and only one on occasions 5 and 6, while none of
the boys reached the reference dietary intake on
occasions 1 and 4, just one boy on occasions 3, 5,
and 6, and two boys on occasion 2.
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Soup was consumed in similar amounts by both
sexes. In girls, soup consumption was higher on
occasion 2 than on occasions 1 and 5 (P ¼ 0.008 and
P ¼ 0.012) as well as occasion 4 compared with
occasion 5 (P ¼ 0.007). In boys, less soup was
consumed on occasion 1 than on occasions 2, 4,
and 6 (P ¼ 0.004, P 5 0.001, and P ¼ 0.005) as well
as on occasion 5 compared with occasions 2, 3, and 4
(P ¼ 0.004, P ¼ 0.005, and P 5 0.001).
Girls and boys drank similar amounts of plain
water, which remained stable in boys while girls
Figure 4. Daily plain water (a) and soft drink (b) consumption on all six occasions for girls (~) and boys (&). Significant difference between
girls and boys: *P 5 0.05, **P 5 0.01, ***P 5 0.001.
79
drank more water on occasion 5 than on occasions 1,
2, and 6 (P ¼ 0.001, P ¼ 0.002, and P ¼ 0.001). In
girls, consumption of soft drinks was lower on
occasions 3, 4, and 5 compared with occasion 1
(P ¼ 0.011, P ¼ 0.005, and P ¼ 0.008). Soft drink
consumption in boys was lower on occasions 2 and 4
compared with occasion 1 (P 5 0.001 and
P ¼ 0.004) and fewer soft drinks were consumed on
occasion 2 than occasion 3 (P ¼ 0.009). Apart from
on occasion 2, boys consumed more soft drinks than
girls on all occasions (P ¼ 0.037, P ¼ 0.079,
P ¼ 0.001, P ¼ 0.003, P ¼ 0.003, and P ¼ 0.006)
(Figure 4).
Discussion
To our knowledge, no previous longitudinal data on
dietary habits are available for adolescent sprint
athletes. Therefore, the present study is unique in
that for this very specific group of adolescent sprint
athletes, data were collected on six occasions over 3
years. This follow-up provided a clear picture of
adolescents’ dietary habits in combination with their
physical development over a 3-year period. Girls as
well as boys showed a normal evolution in height and
weight when compared with the Flemish reference
data (Roelants, Hauspie, & Hoppenbrouwers, 2009).
Except for a higher percentage of body fat on
 80 D. Aerenhouts et al.
occasion 5 than on occasion 4, a stable body fat in
girls during the 3 years of follow-up is remarkable
considering the increase that could be expected
during puberty (Siervogel et al., 2003). This may be
explained by regular high-intensity physical activities,
possibly in combination with an insufficient energy
intake as indicated by the reported negative energy
balance. However, a body fat of *17% is still
relatively high in female sprint athletes. Using
underwater weighing, Thorland and colleagues
(Thorland, Johnson, Fagot, Tharp, & Hammer,
1981) measured body fat as 13.4% in a group of 26
female American junior Olympic sprinters, which is
significantly lower than that for the girls in the
present study.
In the present study, the Goldberg cut-off value of
1.1 times basal energy expenditure was used to
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address under-reporting. Nonetheless, reported en-
ergy expenditure was systematically higher than
reported energy intake despite the clear instructions
given. Dietary under-reporting or under-eating (sig-
nificant weight loss in boys on occasion 5) possibly in
combination with overestimation of physical activ-
ities can explain this (Klesges et al., 1990). Besides a
higher percentage of energy from protein for girls
than boys on the first three occasions, percentages of
energy from macronutrients were similar in girls and
boys. Percentages of energy from macronutrients
remained stable throughout the 3 years, except in
girls for whom the percentage of energy from total fat
was higher on occasion 1 compared with occasions 4
and 5, though not occasion 6.
The high intake of saturated fat in the diet reveals
consistent unhealthy choices of fat sources confirm-
ing earlier findings on other Flemish adolescents
(Matthys, De Henauw, Devos, & De Backer, 2003),
and is of concern for health in later life. However,
the latest Belgian Food consumption survey (Van-
devijvere et al., 2008) shows significantly (P 5
0.001) higher fat (women: 37.0 + 6.5%; men:
38.9 + 6.2%) and saturated fat intakes (women:
15.6 + 3.6%; men: 15.7 + 3.7%) for the Belgian
population on all occasions. Moreover, looking at the
relative numbers of participants who achieved the
reference values for macronutrients, it is clear that
the composition of the diet with regard to macro-
nutrients improved in some of the participants from
occasion 1 to occasion 5, with a tendency to return to
initial values on occasion 6.
Consistent mean protein intakes of *1.5 g 
kg71  day71 in both sexes should be sufficient to
support growth and muscular development, since
strength athletes have protein needs of at least
1.2 g  kg71  day71 (ACSM, 2009). Furthermore,
a protein intake of 1.5 g  kg71  day71 was advised
for adolescent soccer players aged 15 years (Bois-
seau, Vermorel, Rance, Duché, & Patureau-Mirand,
2007). Considering the total time spent in sports
activities reported by these athletes, total carbohy-
drate intakes were relatively low (girls: 5.1 to
5.4 g  kg71 body weight; boys: 5.8 to 6.5 g  kg71
body weight), which would only allow a training
programme of moderate intensity (Burke et al.,
2001). More intense training programmes might
therefore be impaired, especially when total fluid
intake is insufficient.
Because of alterations in physical activity, indivi-
dual variations, and environmental changes, it is
difficult to set reference values for fluid intake.
However, total fluid intake was considerably low on
all occasions, even in the spring periods, especially
when considering the high intensities of activity of
these athletes. Since hydration status is crucial for
optimal recovery (Petrie et al., 2004), the athletes
were informed about the importance of drinking
sufficient amounts of water, but this appeared to be
ineffective in most participants. Only girls drank
more water on occasion 5 than on occasions 1, 2,
and 6. It should be noted that the second and sixth
food diary were completed in the autumn and the
fifth in the spring. Regarding drinks, it is difficult to
detect habitual changes since ambient temperatures
have a marked influence on fluid intake. However,
we did not observe clear seasonal changes in drinking
habits. Soft drink consumption decreased markedly
after the first feedback including the advice to drink
more water and fewer soft drinks. In boys, however, a
significant fall in soft drink consumption after the
first feedback was again followed by a significant rise
on the third occasion.
Although there was a trend towards higher fruit
intake, there were no significant differences through-
out the study period. For vegetables, significant but
insufficient higher quantities were consumed, since
almost all participants remained far below the
reference dietary intake of 300 g  day71 (Health
Conference on Diet and Physical Activity, 2008) on
all occasions. A high consumption of fruit and
vegetables is also crucial after an athletics career to
maintain health at older ages. Indeed, it has been
suggested that these foods, which are rich in fibre,
micronutrients, and antioxidants, help prevent can-
cer, cardiovascular and metabolic diseases (Craig &
Mangels, 2009). This information was also shared
with the athletes studied.
The quantities of carbohydrate-rich foods con-
sumed were similar during the 3 years in the two
sexes, except for bread. Nonetheless, participants
received advice to consume more (wholegrain) bread,
pasta and rice, boiled and mashed potatoes, and less
fried potatoes to improve the macronutrient composi-
tion of their diets. This shows how difficult it is to
change culturally embedded eating habits (e.g. fried
potatoes). Other recent studies of dietary habits in
 Energy and macronutrient intake of adolescent sprint athletes
adolescents in Western Europe (Alexy, Sichert-
Hellert & Kersting, 2002; Löwik et al., 1994) support
our findings that dietary changes occur gradually.
Such changes in dietary habits are influenced by
commercial advertising, mass communication, and
the food industry itself (Nicklas, Webber, Srinivasan,
& Berenson, 1993). Therefore, observed changes in
the diet of these sprint athletes may also be due to
influences from other sources. Other studies that used
multiple dietary assessments in athletic populations
also showed that dietary habits remain stable over a
period of several months (Garrido et al., 2007;
Kabasakalis et al., 2007, 2009). It should be men-
tioned that no nutritional feedback was given to the
athletes between the different assessments in any of the
studies. As the main aim of the present study was to
assess dietary habits among adolescent sprint athletes
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by repeated administration of a 7-day diet diary, we
deliberately did not intervene in the diet, but we did
provide nutritional feedback and information to the
athletes and their parents who were free to apply this
feedback or not. An athlete needs to be convinced of
the important role that diet can have in health and
performance (Meyer et al., 2007) before dietary
changes will be considered.
In conclusion, dietary habits in adolescent sprint
athletes as measured over a 3-year period were far
from optimal, especially with regard to fluid intake,
sources of fat, and fruit and vegetable consumption.
Macronutrients and food intake were shown to be
relatively stable without any significant seasonal
variations. Despite many participants achieving
reference dietary intake values during the course of
this study, it appears to be difficult to achieve
significant improvements in dietary habits solely
based on providing information. To achieve signifi-
cant improvements in an athlete’s diet as well as to
prevent a return to old habits, regular monitoring
with greater intervention in the diet may be needed.
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