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Lesson 1 and 2
Lesson 1 and 2
Introduction
The strength of a material is not the only criterion in considering the design of
structures. The stiffness of the material must be taken into consideration as well.
Mechanical properties like hardness, toughness and ductility are also important in the
selection of a material that will be used in designing structures.
This module is concentrated in the study of deformations that occur in structural
components that carry axial loads. Strain serves as a measure of the deformation
characteristics of a member that carries a load. Any structure subject to an external
load will deform; hence, strain is always associated with stress.
It also contains the analysis of statically indeterminate members. These are
structures combining axially loaded members in which the equations of static
equilibrium are not sufficient to solve them. This condition exists in structures where
the reactive forces or the internal resisting forces over a cross section exceed the
number of independent equations for equilibrium.
Another type of elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimensions that
accompany axial tension or compression. Analysis of such deformations involve
Poisson’s ratio. In this lesson, you will learn how to determine the strains caused by the
simultaneous action of biaxial and triaxial tensile or compressive stresses.
All engineering materials are affected by a change in temperature and these
changes cause bodies to expand or contract, hence will cause thermal stresses. In this
module, you will also learn how to determine the stresses in engineering materials
caused by changes in temperature.
Objectives
After completion of this module, you should be able to
1. Find the deformation of a body subjected to an axial load.
2. Analyze and solve problems on statically indeterminate members.
3. Determine lateral deformations of axially loaded members.
4. Determine the stress in a member caused by a change in temperature.
Lesson 1 – Axial and Shearing Deformation
Stress-Strain Diagram
Have you noticed that some objects can be stretched easily? Can you name some?
Yes, you can easily stretch a rubber band. How about an iron rod, can you stretch it?
Perhaps you would think it’s impossible; but it’s not. Why? In this module, you will come
to know these properties of materials in greater detail. You will see how quantities like
stress can help us determine the strength of materials.
To start, please click at the given link.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E
In this video, you can see a Universal Testing Machine loaded with a structural steel.
During testing, a monitor draws a diagram which is called the stress-strain diagram.
Figure 1-a shows a Universal Testing Machine, testing a ductile material in tension,
such as a structural steel. Figure 1-b is called the stress-strain diagram of the material
being tested. A ductile material has the capability of attaining large strains before they
fracture and can withstand high stress. Before failing, it has a large percentage of
elongation.
The data of a structural steel that is tested in tension is plotted on the graph with
the ordinate representing the load and the abscissa representing the elongation. The
diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which means that stress
and strain are proportional.
Figure 1-b
Figure 1-a
The graph shows different significant points.
Proportional Limit (𝜎𝑝𝑙 ) – it is the point on the stress-strain curve which shows the
highest stress at which the stress and strain are linearly proportional to each other,
where the constant of proportionality is 𝐸, known as the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young who introduced it. That is, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖.
From this relation, 𝐸 can be defined as the slope of the strain-strain curve along the
elastic region. Stress is no longer linearly proportional to strain above this point.
Elastic Limit (𝜎𝑒𝑙 ) - it is the maximum stress that can be applied to the body without
resulting in permanent deformation when the load is removed. When the load is
removed, the material returns to its original size and shape.
Yield point (𝜎𝑌 ) – located just above the elastic limit, this is the stress at which the
material continues to deform without increase in load. At this point the material
will have a permanent deformation.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (𝜎𝑢 ) – this is the highest stress on the specimen which it
can withstand.
Fracture Stress (𝜎𝑓 ) – also called breaking strength, it is the stress where the material
fractures.
The different regions or areas of the stress-strain diagram represent the following:
Elastic region – this is the area in the stress-strain curve from initial point to elastic
limit. In this region, the material will return to its original size and shape when
unloaded.
Plastic region – it is the area starting from the elastic limit to the fracture point. In this
region, the body does not go back to its original size and shape when the load is
removed; i.e., it shows plastic behavior.
Yielding region – this is the region where the body produces strain with a little or no
increase in load. It starts from the elastic limit to the yield point.
Strain Hardening – in this region, the body will elongate with increasing stress until the
stress reaches a maximum value and the cross sectional area will decrease uniformly.
This is the area from the yield point to the ultimate tensile stress.
Necking – this is the region where the cross sectional area of the material decreases in
a localized spot, forming a neck, and the capacity of the material to carry load will
decrease. This covers the area from the ultimate tensile stress to fracture point
where the material breaks.
Simple Strain
The unit deformation of a material is called strain, represented by the equation
𝑑𝛿
𝜖= where: 𝜖 = strain
𝑑𝐿 d differential elongation
dL differential length
For an axially loaded member, it becomes longer when the applied load is in tension
and shorter when the applied load is in compression. This change in length is called the
normal or linear strain. The average value of the strain is determined from the equation
where: 𝜖 = average strain
elongation
L length
𝛿
𝜖=
𝐿
The use of the formula for average strain are restricted to the following conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section, that is, prismatic.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Please click the link to watch another video. This shows the preparation of a material
before testing and how the strain is determined.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
Now, you have an idea how to determine the tensile strength and the strain of an axially
loaded material in tension.
Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or
compression, as shown in the stress-strain diagram, can be expressed by the equation
known as Hooke’s Law, named after the famous English scientist Robert Hooke who first
investigated the elastic properties of materials,
P
If 𝜎 is replaced by and 𝜖 by , the equation becomes
A L
P PL
E or where: 𝛿 = axial deformation
A L AE P = axial load
L = length
A = cross section
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
P
Since , deformation can be written as
A
𝜎𝐿
𝛿=
𝐸
Since both stress and strain are simple, the use of the formula for axial deformation
restricted by the following conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Stiffness, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force P acting on an elastic body to the resulting
displacement 𝛿, hence has the unit of N/mm; i. e.
𝑃
𝑘=
𝛿
Shearing Deformation
Shearing deformation causes a change in shape from a rectangle to a
parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 2. The action may be visualized as equivalent to the
infinitesimal sliding of infinitely thin layers past each other, thereby resulting in the
total shearing deformation s in the length L.
The average shearing strain is
Ps s
𝛿𝑠 where: 𝛾 = average strain
𝛾= 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
𝐿
𝐿 = length L
1. A steel control rod is 5.5 ft long and must not stretch more than 0.04 in. when a 2-
kip tensile load is applied to it. Knowing that E = 29 × 106 psi, determine the smallest
diameter rod that should be used.
The given quantities are: Required:
L = 5.5 ft the smallest diameter to be used
δ = 0.04 in.
P = 2 kips
E = 29 × 106 psi
Solution:
P = 2 × 103 convert P to pounds: 1 kip = 1000 lb
L = 5.5 × 12 convert L to inches: 1 ft = 12 in
The cross sectional area of the rod can be determined by substituting
𝛿, 𝑃, 𝐿, and 𝐸 in the equation for axial deformation.
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
2 103 5.5 12
0.04
A 29 106
A = 0.113793 in2
From this area, compute the required minimum diameter.
𝜋
𝑑 2 = 0.113793 ; d = 0.381 in. answer
4
2. Two gage marks are placed exactly 10 in. apart on a 12-in.-diameter aluminum rod
with E = 10.1 × 106 psi and an ultimate strength of 16 ksi. Knowing that the
distance between the gage marks is 10.009 in. after a load is applied, determine
(a) the stress in the rod, (b) the factor of safety.
The given quantities are: Required:
L = 10 in. a. σ
d = ½ in. b. factor of safety
E = 10.1 × 106 psi
σu = 16 ksi
δ = 10 – 10.009 = 0.009 in.
Solution:
a. To find the stress in the rod, we use the equation
L
E
Substitute values of δ, L, and E
10
0.009 ; σ = 9,090 psi or 9.09 ksi answer
10.1 106
5. An aluminum pipe must not stretch more than 0.05 in. when it is subjected to a
tensile load. Knowing that E = 10.1 × 106 psi and that the maximum allowable normal
stress is 14 ksi, determine
a. the maximum allowable length of the pipe,
b. the required area of the pipe if the tensile load is 127.5 kips.
Solution:
a. Compute for the required length from the formula for deformation:
L 14 L
; 0.05 3 ; L = 36.071 in. = 3.006 ft answer
E 10.110
b. Substitute the allowable stress and the load in the formula for stress to get
the area:
P 127.5
; 14 ; A = 9.107 in2 answer
A A
6. Link BC is 6 mm thick, has a width w = 25 mm, and is made of a steel with a 480-
MPa ultimate strength in tension. What is the safety factor used if the structure
shown was designed to support a 16-kN load P?
PBC
= 16 kN
Solution:
First, we find the axial force in the link BC by analyzing the FBD of AD.
MA = 0] 480PBC – 600(16) = 0; PBC = 20 kN
20 103
Compute for the stress in the link. = 133.333 MPa
6(25) 10 6
480 answer
Determine the factor of safety. FS 3.6
133.333
7. A steel bar 8.0 ft long has a circular cross section of diameter d1 = 0.75 in. over one-
half of its length and diameter d2 = 0.5 in. over the other half. The modulus of
elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi. How much will the bar elongate under a tensile load P =
5000 lb?
C
A B
Solution:
PL
Compute for the elongation of segment AB: ;
AE
0.018 in.
5000(4)(12)
AB
(0.752 )(30 106 )
4
Compute for the elongation of segment BC:
0.041 in.
5000(4)(12)
BC
(0.5 2 )(30 106 )
4
Add for the total elongation:
total 0.018 0.041 0.059 in. answer
8. The composite shaft, consisting of aluminum, copper, and steel sections, is subjected
to the loading shown. Neglect the size of the collars at B and C.
a. Determine the normal stress in each section.
b. Determine the displacement of end A with respect to end D.
PAB
PBC
PCD
Solution:
Find the axial forces.
PAB = 2.00 kips (T)
PBC = 7 – 2 = 5.00 kips (C)
PCD = 1.50 kips (C)
P 2
a. Stresses: ; AB 22.222 ksi
A 0.09
5
BC 41.667 ksi
0.12
1.5
CD 25 ksi answer
0.06
PL 2(18)
b. Deformations: AB 0.04 in. (elongation)
AE 0.09(10 103 )
PL 5(12)
BC 0.028 in. (contraction)
AE 0.12(18 103 )
PL 1.5(16)
AB 0.014 in. (contraction)
AE 0.06(29 103 )
Displacement of end A with respect to end D:
A / D AB BC CD = 0.04 – 0.028 – 0.014
9. A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in the
figure. Axial loads are applied at the points indicated. Find the largest value of P
that will not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0 mm or the following stresses: 140
MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that
the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use Es = 200 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa,
and Eb = 83 GPa.
Steel Bronze
Aluminum
A = 480 mm2 A = 650 mm2
A = 320 mm2
P 2P
3P 4P
Solution:
P Ps
Determine the axial loads:
Ps = P
Pb = 2P P Pb
3P
Pa = 2P
Pa 2P
Steel
L = 4 ft
A = 0.50 in2
E = 29 106 psi
A B C
2 ft 3 ft
P
Solution:
To find the axial force in the steel rod, we analyze the FBD of bar AC:
MA = 0] 5P – 2Ps = 0; Ps = 2.5P Ps
δs PL ;
2.5P(4)(12)
0.04 = ; P = 4833.33 lb
AE 0.5(29 10 6 )
Therefore, the largest load that can be applied is 4833 lb answer
11. The rigid bar AB, attached to vertical rods as shown in the figure, is horizontal
before the load P is applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude
is 50 kN.
Steel
L=4m
Aluminum A = 300 mm2
L=3m E = 200 GPa Pa Ps
A = 500 mm2 C
E = 70 GPa B
A
A B
3.5 m 2.5 m P = 50 kN
P
Solution:
Compute for the axial loads in the rods caused by P = 50 kN. From the FBD of
bar AB:
MA = 0] 3.5P – 6Ps = 0; Ps = 29.167 kN
MB = 0] 6Pa – 2.5P = 0; Pa = 20.833 kN
Steel: 29.167(4)
δs PL = = 1.944 mm a
AE 300(200) C s
= 3.5(1.944) 2.5(1.786)
6
ΔC = 1.878 mm answer
Indeterminate members are structures where the reactive forces or the internal
resisting forces over a cross section exceed the number of independent equations for
equilibrium. Such structures are called statically indeterminate and their analysis
require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic deformations of the
members; i.e., additional geometric relations between the elastic deformations
produced by the loads, called equations of conditions or equations of compatibility,
and force-displacement relations that would relate the forces with the displacements.
Sample problems
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any
questions with the solution, please feel free to consult your
instructor.
Solution:
Compatibility equation: the deformations of the two materials
are equal
P = 300 kN
s = c
σL σL
E S E C
σ s σc
; s = 14.2857c
200 14
If c = 6 MPa, s = 85.714 MPa (within the allowable)
Therefore, these are the working stresses in the two
materials.
Find the axial load that can be carried:
Ps
For steel: σs ; Ps = 85.714 As
A
P
For concrete: σc c ; Pc = 6[ π (200)2 – As]
A 4
= 188495.5592 – 6As
From equilibrium, Ps + Pc = 300000
85.714 As + 188495.5592 – 6As = 300000
As = 1398.806 mm2 answer
W = 9.81M
Pc Ps Pc
Copper Steel Copper
Solution:
Compatibility equation: s = c
σL σL
E S E C
σ s (240) σ c (160)
; s = 1.111c
200 120
If c = 70 MPa, s = 77.778 MPa ⟵ within the allowable, therefore,
these are the working stresses of the
materials
Ps
Hence, σs ; Ps = 77.778 (1200) = 93333.6 N
A
Pc
and σc ; Pc = 70 (900) = 63000 N
A
From the FBD of the block:
Ps + 2Pc = W
93333.6 + 2(63000) = 9.81M
M = 22.358 Mg answer
3. A homogeneous bar with a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 is attached to rigid
supports. It carries the axial loads P1 = 25 kN and P2 = 50 kN, applied as shown in
the figure. Determine the stress in segment BC.
R1 P1 P2 R2
A B C D
0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m
4. Three steel eye-bars, each 4 in. by 1 in. in section, are to be assembled by driving
rigid ⅞–in. diameter drift pins through holes drilled in the ends of the bars. The
centerline spacing between the holes is 30 ft in the two outer bars, but is 0.045 in.
shorter in the middle bar. Find the shearing stress developed in the drift pins.
Neglect local deformation at the holes.
0.045 in
P1
P2
P1
30 ft
Solution:
Compatibility equation: 2 + 1 = 0.045
P2 (359.955) P1 (360) = 0.045 Eq. 1
4(1)(29 10 6 ) 4(1)(29 10 6 )
Equilibrium equation: P2 – 2P1 = 0 ; P2 = 2P1
5. The light rigid bar ABCD shown in the figure is pinned at B and connected to two
vertical rods. Assuming that the bar was initially horizontal and the rods stress-free,
determine the stress in each rod after the load P = 20 kips is applied. (Pytel, 1987)
Ps
Steel
L = 3 ft B
A = 0.5 in2
B E = 29 106 psi
A D Pa
A 20 k
Aluminum C
L = 4 ft
A = 0.75 in2 δa
P
E = 10 106 psi 4 ft 2 ft 2 ft
δs
Solution:
FBD of the bar:
MB = 0] 20(4) – 2Ps – 4Pa = 0
80 – 2Ps – 4Pa = 0
Ps + 2Pa = 40 Eq. 1
From the deformation diagram:
δa δ
s
4 2
a = 2s
Pa (4) P (3)
2 s
0.75(10) 0.5(29)
Pa = 0.7759Ps Eq. 2
Solve Eq. 2 and Eq.1 simultaneously:
Ps = 15. 6752 kips ; Pa = 12. 1624 kip
Required stresses:
σ s 15.6752 σ a 12.1624
0.5 0.75
= 31.35 ksi = 16.217 ksi answer
Solution:
a. δ = 0.001(350) = 0.35 mm
PL Pa (350)
Load carried by aluminum: ; 0.35
AE (40 2 252 ) 10 6 (72 109 )
4
Pa = 55134.95 N
Pb (350)
Load carried by brass: 0.35
2
(25 ) 106 (100 109 )
4
Pb = 49087.39 N
Total load: P = Pa + Pb = 104222.34 N answer
b. If the allowable stresses are σa = 80 MPa and σb = 120 MPa,
aL bL Eb 100
Compatibility equation: a b ; ; b a a
Ea Eb Ea 72
If σa = 80 MPa, σa = 111.111 MPa < 120 MPa,
hence, these
are the
working
stresses
Loads carried by the materials: Pa 80
4
40
252 61261.06
2
N
Pb 111.111 (25) 2 54541.48 N
4
Total load: P = Pa + Pb =115802.54 N answer
7. A rigid bar of weight W = 800 N hangs from three equally spaced vertical wires, two
of steel and one of aluminum. The wires also support a load P acting at the midpoint
of the bar. The diameter of the steel wires is 2 mm, and the diameter of the
aluminum wire is 4 mm. What allowable load P can be supported if the allowable
stress in the steel wires is 220 MPa and in the aluminum wire is 80 MPa? Assume Es =
210 GPa and Ea = 70 GPa.
PS PA PS
Solution:
S L AL
Compatibility equation: S A; ;
ES EA
EA 70 1
A S S S
ES 210 3
If σS = 220 MPa, σA= 73.333 MPa < 80 MPa , therefore,
these are the
working
stresses
Load carried by steel: PS 220 (2) 2 691.15 N
4
Load carried by aluminum: PA 73.333 (4) 2 921.534 N
4
Allowable load: P = 2PS + PA – W
P = 2(691.15) + 921.534 – 800 = 1503.835 answer
8. Link BD is made of brass (E = 105 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 240
mm2. Link CE is made of aluminum (E = 72 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area
of 300 mm2. Knowing that they support rigid member ABC, determine the
maximum force P that can be applied vertically at point A if the deflection of A
is not to exceed 0.35 mm.
PBD
PCE
δCE
δBD
ΔA
Solution:
M 0 125P 225P 0 ;
B CE PCE = 0.555P
Solution: PS PB
δS
δB
Solution:
Equilibrium equation from the FBD of the bar:
M A 0 0.6PS 1.6PB 50(2.4) 0
0.6PS 1.6PB 120 103
0.6 S (600 106 ) 1.6 B (300 106 ) 120 103