Modelling of A Universal Motor With Speed Control

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Modelling of a universal motor with speed control
Article · January 2006
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Modelling of a universal motor with speed
control
by
Henrik Grop
Master Thesis
Supervisor:
Dr. Juliette Soulard
Royal Institute of Technology

Department of Electrical Engineering
Electrical Machines and Power Electronics
Stockholm 2006
XR-EE-EME 2006:003
Abstract
Noise emitted by a universal motor is believed to be strongly related to the fluctuations in the
electromagnetic torque produced by the machine. The variations of the current feeding the
machine give rise to the fluctuations in the torque. The variations of the current are depending
on the power electronics used to control the speed of the machine.
This thesis presents a method of modelling a universal motor in a non-linear way based on a
linear model and calculations from FEM using Flux version 8.1 by Cedrat. The FEM model is
derived starting from drawings of the machine and the winding connections.
A non-linear model implemented in Simulink is used to connect a triac, and a PWM. The
fluctuations in the torque and the total harmonic distortion of the motor current are compared
for the two control methods.
It is found that the PWM produces less variation in the torque in the zero to peak sense, but it
introduces high frequency ripple in the torque wave form instead. The difference between the
triac and the PWM is most significant when the machine is controlled to rotate at low speed.
At low speed, the PWM reduces the torque peak with approximately 5 % compared to the
triac.
Compared to the triac, the PWM controller reduces the THD in the machine current by
approximately 24 % at low speed and high torque.
I
II
Acknowledgements
This master thesis was written at the Royal Institute of Technology, School of Electrical
Engineering, division of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics. The work was carried
out in the period of September 2005 - March 2006.
First of all, I would like to thank Ankarsrum Industries for initiating the subject of this thesis.
A special thanks goes to Mr. Werner Fritz and Mr. Mats Pettersson who provided drawings
and measurement data.
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Juliette Soulard for outstanding assistance and
support during the work of this thesis.
All staff at the division have been very helpful in many ways, therefore I would like to thank
you all.
At last I would like to thank Mr. Jan Timmerman for very good times, especially at Roebel’s
bar on Friday evenings.
III
IV
Table of contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................I
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................ III
Table of contents...................................................................................................................... V
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Purpose of this work................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Outline of the thesis.................................................................................................... 1
2. Universal motors .............................................................................................................. 2
3. The investigated machine ................................................................................................ 3

3.1. Design......................................................................................................................... 3
3.1.1. Stator .................................................................................................................. 3
3.1.2. Rotor................................................................................................................... 4
3.1.3. Commutator........................................................................................................ 4
3.2. Windings .................................................................................................................... 5
3.2.1. Stator winding .................................................................................................... 5
3.2.2. Rotor winding..................................................................................................... 5
3.3. Measured performance............................................................................................... 8
4. Linear model..................................................................................................................... 9
4.1. Electrical system ...................................................................................................... 10
4.1.1. Back emf .......................................................................................................... 10
4.2. Mechanical system ................................................................................................... 12
4.2.1. Electromagnetic torque produced by the rotor................................................. 13
4.3. Electromechanical system ........................................................................................ 14
4.4. Implementation in Simulink..................................................................................... 14
4.5. Simulation results using the linear model ................................................................ 15
5. Finite element model ...................................................................................................... 17

5.1. Geometrical simplifications for the Finite Element Method (FEM) modelling....... 17
5.1.1. Stator ................................................................................................................ 17
5.1.2. Rotor................................................................................................................. 17
5.1.3. Rotor shaft ........................................................................................................ 17
5.2. Flux 2D..................................................................................................................... 18
5.3. Full pitch motor model............................................................................................. 18
5.3.1. Geometry.......................................................................................................... 18
5.3.2. Electric circuit .................................................................................................. 18
5.4. Short-pitch motor model .......................................................................................... 19
V
5.4.1. Geometry.......................................................................................................... 19
5.4.2. Mesh ................................................................................................................. 20
5.4.3. Electric circuit .................................................................................................. 21
5.4.4. End winding reactance ..................................................................................... 24
5.5. Results from full-pitch motor................................................................................... 27
5.5.1. Verification of commutation ............................................................................ 27
5.6. Results from short-pitch motor ................................................................................ 28
5.6.1. Machine resistance ........................................................................................... 28
5.6.2. Machine current and torque at 8000 rpm ......................................................... 29
5.6.3. Simulation time ................................................................................................ 31
6. Non-linear analytical model .......................................................................................... 32

6.1. Air gap flux for the induced voltage ........................................................................ 32
6.2. Inductance of the field windings .............................................................................. 34
6.3. Inductance of the rotor winding ............................................................................... 36
6.4. Results from non-linear analytical model ................................................................ 37
6.4.1. Machine current................................................................................................ 37
6.4.2. Torque-speed characteristics ............................................................................ 38
6.4.3. Current wave forms.......................................................................................... 38
6.4.4. Torque wave forms........................................................................................... 40
6.5. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 41
7. Speed control .................................................................................................................. 42

7.1. Triac ......................................................................................................................... 42
7.2. Sinus PWM .............................................................................................................. 49
8. Conclusions and future work ........................................................................................ 52
References ............................................................................................................................... 53
List of symbols ........................................................................................................................ 54
Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 56
VI
VII
VIII
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1. Purpose of this work

The purpose of this work is to investigate the possibility to model a small universal motor in a
non-linear way. The model should be used to compare two different power electronic
converters used to control the speed of the machine.
1.2. Outline of the thesis

Chapter 2 describes universal motors very shortly.
In chapter 3, the machine studied in this thesis is presented thoroughly. The different parts in
the machine are described. Drawings of the rotor and the stator are provided. The winding
type is described and a drawing of the winding in developed form is included.
In chapter 4, the electrical and mechanical equations which describe the machine are derived
and a linear model of the machine is presented.
Chapter 5 describes the FEM model of the machine. The simplifications that are made to the
geometry of the machine are described. A simple type of winding is used at first and then the
real machine winding is described. Only the model with the real machine winding is
thoroughly described.
In chapter 6, a non-linear model of the machine is presented. This model is implemented in

Matlab/Simulink.
Chapter 7 presents the control of the machine. A triac controller is compared to a sinus PWM
controller.
In Chapter 8, conclusions are drawn and a discussion of future work is presented.
1
Chapter 2 - Universal motors
2. Universal motors
Universal, or series motors, are widely used in fractional horsepower ratings in many
domestic appliances such as drilling machines, vacuum cleaners and food mixers. Large
universal motors, in the range of 500 hp are used for traction applications. This type of
machine is preferable where a high power to weight ratio is required. It can be fed with either
DC current or single phase AC current. The single phase AC current is most common to use
as supply in most applications [1].
Due to the high starting torque and the possibility to be fed with direct current, this machine is
as well used as starter motor for engines.
The machine is called a series motor because the excitation winding is connected in series
with the rotor winding. Further on, it is called universal motor because it can be operated with
both AC and DC supplies.
The speed of a universal motor can be very high, typically in the range of 5000-20000 rpm [2].
The speed is entirely dependent on the load and the supply voltage. Without load, a universal
motor may reach dangerously high speeds. In fact, the no-load speed is only limited by
friction and windage losses. Therefore, a universal motor should never be operated without a
load. Since an unloaded universal motor can destroy itself, the load should always be
connected directly to the shaft and should not be belt connected [2].
2
Chapter 3 - The investigated machine
3. The investigated machine
The different parts of the machine and their purpose are discussed here. The design of the
modelled machine is introduced.
3.1. Design
Variations of the flux in magnetic materials induce eddy currents. These currents cause
unwanted losses in the material. To minimize these losses, the stator and the rotor are made of
laminations [2].
3.1.1. Stator
The stator lamination is made of an electrical steel of quality M800-65A. This is a cold rolled
non grain-oriented electrical steel, which is also called DK70. This material is alloyed with
aluminium and silicone which increases the electrical resistance and thereby decreases the
eddy currents in the material. Small eddy currents imply small losses in the laminations. The
eddy current losses also depend on the thickness of the laminations. Thinner laminations give
smaller eddy current losses [3].
A drawing of the cross-section of the stator lamination is found in figure 3.1. The stator
consists of two excitation poles and magnetic paths between the poles. The holes in the
lamination are used for fixating the sheets together with screws when the stator is assembled.
The small rectangular shapes which look like holes are actually flanges, used for guidance
when stacking the sheets during assembly.
The inner space, to the left and to the right of the field poles, contains the field winding which
produces the magnetising flux in the magnetic circuit.
Figure 3.1 – Cross-section of a stator lamination sheet.
3
3.1.2. Rotor
The rotor, which supports the armature winding, is laminated in the same way as the stator.
The lamination is made of the same steel quality as the stator lamination. The laminations are
punched and stacked together on the rotor shaft of the machine. Twelve armature slots hold
the coils which conduct the armature current. Twelve rotor teeth complete the magnetic
circuit and guide the flux towards the air gap. A drawing of the rotor is presented in figure
3.2.
Figure 3.2 – Drawing of a rotor lamination sheet and a 3D-view of the rotor without the armature coil.
3.1.3. Commutator
To feed the rotating armature winding with current, there must be some physical electrical
connection between the outer static part of the machine and the inner rotating part. This
connection is achieved by using a set of brushes and a commutator. The brushes are fixed and
the commutator is attached on the rotor shaft. Moreover, the brush-commutator construction
has another purpose which is to reverse the current in the rotor coils when the coil leaves one
excitation pole and enters the region of the next pole. The current reversal in each coil must
be done in a specific rotor position in order to maintain the direction of the produced
electromagnetic torque and thereby the direction of rotation. In order to do this, the
commutator is made of several segments, depending on the number of coils and their
arrangement in the armature. The segments are isolated from each other with some electrical
insulating material. The brushes slide on the commutator surface during rotation and thereby
create a connection to the armature coils. The connection of the coils is always made in such a
way to make the current in the coils underneath the north pole of the excitation field have an
opposite direction compared to the current in the coils underneath the south pole. In other
words, with respect to the direction of the magnetizing field, the switching of the commutator
ensures a constant current pattern in the rotor [4]. Thus the rotor produces a unidirectional
torque which results in a rotating movement. The commutator in the test machine has 24
segments. A drawing showing the principle of the commutator assembled to the rotor shaft is
presented in figure 3.3.
4
Figure 3.3 – The commutator assembled on the rotor shaft.
3.2. Windings
3.2.1. Stator winding

The stator winding, wound around the field poles produces the magnetizing flux in the
machine [3]. Since the field winding is connected in series with the rotor winding, it carries
the same current as the rotor winding. Therefore it must be wound with larger conductors than
the rotor winding as the current is split in two parallel circuits in the rotor. The number of
turns per coil in the field winding is 110 (there are two field coils connected in series). The
diameter of the copper wire is 0.90 mm.
3.2.2. Rotor winding

The rotor winding carries the rotor current. It produces a flux which creates the
electromagnetic torque in the air gap when interacting with the magnetizing flux. The current
in the armature winding is fed by a brush-commutator system. The coil ends are connected to
the different segments in the commutator.
The coil sides are placed in slots in the rotor. For DC-machines, the most common way of
placing these coil sides is by letting the distance between the forward coil side and the
backward coil side to be one pole pitch. This is called a full pitch winding. The pole pitch is
defined as
o
360
One pole pitch = 180 o electrical = mechanical
p
where p is the total number of stator poles.
5
There are several ways of inserting the coils in the rotor. The two most common ones are the
lap winding and the wave winding (see figure 3.4). In the lap winding, the two ends of one
coil are connected to segments in the commutator sitting next to each other. This makes the
coil lap back on itself. [4]
In the wave winding, the coil ends are connected to two commutator segments spread apart.
This way of connecting the coil ends makes the coils look like a wave pattern as they are put
into the machine [1].
Figure 3.4 – Left image – Coil configuration in a lap winding. Right image – Coil configuration in a wave
winding [6].
The rotor winding in the studied universal motor is a short-pitch lap winding. This means the
machine is wound in two layers with two coils side by side in each slot, i.e. four different
coils in a slot. Each of the four coils in one slot of the rotor has seventeen conductors. The
diameter of the conductor wire is 0.50 mm. For a full pole pitch winding in this machine, each
coil would span six rotor slots. In the studied machine, the coil span is equal to five slots. The
coil pitch can be calculated in electrical degrees [4] by:
y 5
coil pitch=180° × =180° × =150° electrical
τp 6
where
y - is the coil span, in number of slots, and
τ p - is the pole pitch, in number of slots
The mechanical coil pitch angle is the same as the electrical since the machine has two poles.
The winding principle with end connections to the commutator is shown in figure 3.5. Note
that only two coils are shown in the first layer in one slot in this figure. The rest of the coils
are wound in a similar manner.
6
Figure 3.5 – The principle of winding the coils and connecting the coil ends to the commutator. The figure is
seen from the commutator side of the machine [13].
By studying figure 3.5, a drawing of the winding in developed form has been constructed [4].
The first coils which are illustrated in figure 3.5 are first drawn in respective rotor slots in
figure 3.6. The ends of the coils are then connected to the correct commutator segment.
Figure 3.6 – The armature winding in developed form with the coils in figure 3.5 displayed.
7
The remaining coils are then drawn in a similar way by doing a one slot translation in a
counter-clockwise direction until the fourth coil in slot 1 and slot 6 are drawn. These are the
last coils wound in the rotor. The complete rotor winding in developed form is viewed in
figure 3.7. This figure is very important for the definition of the finite element model of the
machine (chapter 5). The winding type of this machine makes the geometry in the finite
element model complex.
Figure 3.7 – The configuration of the coils in the armature winding with connections to the commutator
segments.
3.3. Measured performance

The performance of the machine has been tested at Ankarsrum and the test results are
presented in figure A1 of the appendix.
8
Chapter 4 - Linear model
4. Linear model
The system of differential equations that describes the machine is derived from the equivalent
circuit of the universal motor. The universal motor is basically a DC-machine with the field
winding connected in series with the rotor winding. The equivalent circuit is presented in
figure 4.1 [2].
Figure 4.1 – Equivalent circuit of the universal motor
In figure 4.1, the parameters are
R a - rotor winding resistance

R f - field winding resistance
La - rotor winding inductance
Lf - field winding inductance
u(t) - terminal voltage
e(t) - back emf
i(t) - current in the machine
J - moment of inertia of machine and load
D - viscous damping constant
T(t) - electromagnetic torque
TL - load torque
ωm (t) - angular velocity of machine
9
4.1. Electrical system

By applying Kirchoff’s voltage law on the circuit in figure 4.1, the following equation can be
derived.
u (t ) − ( La + L f ) dtd i(t ) − e(t ) = ( R

a + R f ) i (t ) (eq. 4.1)
This differential equation can be solved if an expression for the induced back emf can be
determined. This expression will be derived in next section.
4.1.1. Back emf

As the rotor rotates in a magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced in the turns of the
rotor winding. The emf induced in one turn of a coil is given by equation 4.2. This is the
general form of Faraday’s law for a moving conductor in a time varying magnetic field [8].
∂B
econductor = ∫ Ea • dl = − ∫ • ds + ∫ ( v × B ) • dl (eq. 4.2)
C S
∂t C
where v is the velocity vector of the conductor and B is the magnetic flux density vector in
which the conductor is moving. C is the path along the conductor in the magnetic field and
S is the surface bounded by C . The first term on the right side of equation 4.2 is the
transformer emf due to time variations of the magnetic flux density. If the armature reaction is
not considered, the coil short circuited by the brush, i.e the coil undergoing commutation, is
the only contribution to the transformer action of equation 4.2. To simplify the analytical
model of the machine, this transformer action of the coil undergoing commutation is not
considered.
The second term to the right of equation 4.2 is the flux cutting emf. A homogenous magnetic
field beneath the magnetising poles of the machine is assumed. The flux cutting back emf
produced in one turn of a coil according to figure 4.2 together with the simplifications made,
is given by equation 4.3 [5].
econductor = ∫ Ea • dl ≈ ∫ ( v × B ) • dl (eq. 4.3)

C C
10
Figure 4.2 – Back emf induced in a conductor moving in a homogenous magnetic field [5].
The magnitude of the velocity of the conductors in figure 4.2 is given by:
v = ωm r (eq. 4.4)
where ωm is the angular velocity of the rotor and r is the radius of the rotor. Further on, the
magnitude of the electric field along the conductor is
Ea = ωm rBn (eq. 4.5)
Bn is the normal-component of the magnetic flux density, i.e. the component perpendicular to
the velocity of the conductor. The electric field Ea is in the opposite direction in conductor 2
compared to conductor 1.
By integrating the electric field along the length of the conductor moving in the magnetic
field, the total emf voltage produced in the conductor is given. Assuming a constant electric
field along the conductor, the emf induced in one conductor is:
econductor = E ⋅ lconductor = ωm rBn ⋅ lconductor (eq. 4.6)
lconductor is the length of the conductor moving in the magnetic field, i.e. the active length of
the machine. Since the electric fields in the two conductors are of opposite directions, the total
induced emf voltage in one turn is:
eturn = 2 E ⋅ lconductor = 2ωm rBn ⋅ lconductor (eq. 4.7)
The flux density seen by the conductors beneath each pole in the machine is calculated
according to:
11
ψn ψn ψn p
Bn = = = (eq. 4.8)
Apole 2π rpolel pole 2π rpolel pole c
⋅c
p
Where p is the number of poles in the machine and c is the pole coverage factor. rpole is the
radius of the pole which approximately is the same as the radius of the rotor i.e:
rpole ≈ r (eq. 4.9)
Further on, l pole is the same length as lconductor , i.e.
l pole = lconductor (eq. 4.10)
Again, index n stands for the normal component, and ψ n is the normal component of the flux
beneath a pole. Substituting equation 4.8-4.10 in 4.7 gives the expression of the induced emf
in one turn of a coil.
p
eturn = ωm ψ (eq. 4.11)
πc n
This is the induced emf in one turn of a coil due to a conductor moving in a magnetic field.
The total emf induced in the rotor winding consisting of N turns is the single turn voltage
multiplied by the total number of turns. If the N turns are connected in parallel paths, the
total emf induced is divided by the number of parallel paths a . Therefore, the total induced
emf in the rotor winding is:
N p
e= ωmψ n = K aωmψ n [V] (eq. 4.12)
a πc
N p
Ka = is called the armature constant (or the rotor constant). This constant contains
a πc
information on the configuration of the rotor winding.
Assuming non-saturated operating conditions, the flux ψ n is directly proportional to the

current in the field winding. Since the field winding is connected in series with the rotor
winding, the flux is proportional to the rotor current according to.
e = K a Kψ ωm I a [V] (eq. 4.13)
Where Kψ is the flux constant.
4.2. Mechanical system

The differential equation, describing the mechanical behaviour of the motor is given by:
12
d
Te (t ) = TL + Dωm (t ) + J ωm (t ) (eq. 4.14)
dt
Where D is the friction constant.
The machine speed and current 1 are connecting the electrical and mechanical differential
equations, which leads to an electromechanical system. In next section, an expression for the
developed electromagnetic torque is derived.
4.2.1. Electromagnetic torque produced by the rotor

Assuming the coils are placed in the air gap, an expression for the developed electromagnetic
torque in a universal motor is achieved by summing the forces acting on each conductor in the
rotor winding. The force acting on one conductor in the rotor is given by [5].
Fe ,conductor = ∫ (I × B ) dl (eq. 4.15)

C
Where C is the path along the current carrying conductor located in the magnetic field B .
Assuming a constant magnetic field along C , the magnitude of the force acting on one
conductor is equal to:
Fe ,conductor = IBn l conductor (eq. 4.16)
Once again, Bn is the normal component of the flux density, i.e. the component
perpendicular to the current and the rotor periphery as shown in figure 4.3. lconductor is the
length of the conductor located in the magnetic field which is the same as the active length of
the machine l .
Figure 4.3 – A conductor carrying a current in a homogenous magnetic field
The electromagnetic torque produced by one conductor is then given by multiplying the force
acting on the conductor, by the radius of the rotor.
Te ,conductor = IBn lr (eq. 4.17)
The total number of conductors in the rotor winding is 2 N , where N is the total number of
turns. As stated in section 4.1.1, the number of parallel circuits in the rotor is a , and the
I
current in each conductor is a This means that the total electromagnetic torque acting on
a
the rotor is given by:
1
See section 4.3
13
2 NI a
Te = Bn lr (eq. 4.18)
a
With Bn replaced by equation 4.8, the torque is obtained by:
Np
Te = I aψ n = K a I aψ n [ Nm ] (eq. 4.19)
πac
Again, with the flux ψ n directly proportional to the machine current, equation 4.19 can be
written as [5].
Te = K a Kψ I a2 (eq. 4.20)
According to equation 4.20, the torque pulsates at twice the supply frequency.
4.3. Electromechanical system

The machine is now described by the following set of differential equations forming an
electromechanical system according to equation 4.21.
⎧
⎪⎪u (t ) − ( La + L f ) dt i (t ) − K a Kψ i (t )ωm (t ) = ( Ra + R f ) i(t )
d
⎨ (eq. 4.21)
⎪ K K i 2 (t ) = T + Dω (t ) + J d ω (t )
⎪⎩ a ψ L m
dt
m
The back emf and the developed torque have been substituted with the expressions derived in
section 4.1.1 and 4.2.1 respectively.
4.4. Implementation in Simulink

The system of differential equations given by equation 4.21 is implemented in Simulink as a
block diagram. The input voltage u (t ) and the load torque TL are input signals. The current
and rotor speed are outputs. The linear simulink model of the machine is presented in figure
4.4.
Figure 4.4 – Block diagram modelling the universal motor.
14
Further on, the block denoted Universal Motor in figure 4.4 consists of a block representing
the electrical system in equation 4.21 and another block representing the mechanical system
as shown in figure 4.5.
1
Machi ne current
2 Load Torque
Load T orque
i i
w
w 2
Rotor speed
Flux Flux
1 Voltage
Ka Ka
Input voltage
El ectrical system Mechani cal system
Figure 4.5 – The electrical and mechanical systems of the universal motor.
The contents of the electrical and the mechanical system are shown in figure A2 and figure
A3 in appendix.
4.5. Simulation results using the linear model

Even though this model does not take saturation into account, simulations are run in order to
verify the behaviour of the model. The machine constant K a is calculated according to
equation 4.12. The unknown parameters included in the model are at this stage only guessed.
The parameters used in the simulations are:
Known parameters Guessed parameters
Ra = 1.651 Ω La = 10 mH
R f = 1.164 Ω L f = 10 mH
u = 120 V / 60 Hz K a Kψ = 0.21
J = 0.0001 kg ⋅ m2
D = 0 Nm ⋅ s
Figure 4.6 shows the rotor speed when a constant load torque TL = 0.5 Nm is applied. The
maximum speed reached is approximately 5300 rpm with a load torque of 0.5 Nm.
15
Figure 4.6 – Simulated rotor speed vs time with TL =0.5 Nm .
The speed given by the simulations is far lower than the speed of the machine measured at
this load torque which would be approximately 8000 rpm at this load torque. This is due to
the fact that the saturation is not taken into account in this linear model.
The current and torque wave form are of perfect sine shape which are shown in figure 4.7 and
figure 4.8. The torque pulsates with twice the frequency of the current as expected.
Figure 4.7 – Machine current as function of time Figure 4.8 – Produced electromagnetic torque as
function of time.
16
Chapter 5 - Finite element model
5. Finite element model
A finite element model of a full pitch machine is introduced in this chapter and a FEM model
of the short pitch machine described in chapter 3 is thoroughly described.
5.1. Geometrical simplifications for the Finite Element

Method (FEM) modelling
The simplifications of the geometry are presented in this section. These simplifications are
made to
• Obtain a better mesh of the geometry

• Simplify the drawing of the geometry
The results from FEM simulations are more trustworthy if the triangles of the mesh are
equilateral. If sharp edges and small radii’s are present in the geometry, the number of
elements in those regions has to be very high in order to get a satisfactory mesh. Therefore it
is desirable to have as few small radii’s and sharp corners as possible.
5.1.1. Stator
In the finite element model, some holes in the stator geometry were not included. This
simplification of the geometry can be made because the positions of the holes are not critical.
This is the case for the holes situated in regions where the area of the magnetic path is large
enough to ensure that the iron in these regions is not saturated.
Further on, small smoothening radii’s in the stator were not taken into account in the finite
element model. Besides simplifying the drawing of the geometry in the finite element
program, this also makes the meshing of the geometry simpler to implement.
5.1.2. Rotor
Some simplifications are also made to the smoothening radii’s of the rotor in the finite
element model.
5.1.3. Rotor shaft

The rotor shaft is the part of the machine that mechanically transfers the electromagnetic
torque produced by the rotor to a connected load. The material properties of the shaft are
critical in a mechanical point of view, but since the shaft is made of a solid non-magnetic steel
material, it is not necessary to include the real properties of the shaft material in an
electromagnetic model. The only crucial thing that must be correct is the diameter of the shaft.
17
In the finite element model, the shaft is treated as a hole filled with vacuum in the centre of
the rotor.
5.2. Flux 2D
The software used in the FEM modelling in this project is the 2D 8.1 version of Flux which is
a dedicated tool for making FEM models of electrical machines. This is due to the possibility
to assign rotating properties to the air gap, and external connections with electrical circuits [7].
These are two features which are used in the simulation of this machine.
5.3. Full pitch motor model

A simplified finite element model is obtained for a machine with two full-pitch rotor coils in
each slot. This model is used to verify that the commutation works properly. This simplified
motor is also used to test how to implement the non-linear model in Simulink. The model is
only briefly presented here because the procedure used to create it is very similar to the one
for the short-pitch motor.
5.3.1. Geometry
The geometry of the full-pitch model is almost the same as for the test motor model. The only
difference is that instead of having four regions in each rotor slot, the full-pitch machine only
has two. The geometry of the full-pitch machine is presented in figure A9 in appendix. The
rotor slots are divided in two regions which contain the rotor coils. The region coils are then
linked to the electric circuit.
5.3.2. Electric circuit

The rotor coils in the electric circuit in figure A10 in appendix have twice as many turns as
for the short pitch machine presented in section 5.4. This is because the total number of coils
in the full pitch winding is half the number of coils in the short pitch winding and the number
of ampere turns in the rotor must be kept constant in order to have similar properties as the
real machine.
18
5.4. Short-pitch motor model
5.4.1. Geometry
Making the geometrical simplifications stated in the previous sections, the geometry is drawn
in Flux2D. The final drawing of the universal machine is presented in figure 5.1. The rotor,
the stator and the air are sectioned into regions which are assigned the respective material
properties. Each rotor slot is separated into four regions so that the rotor coils in the electric
circuit can be associated with the right region. The black slot corresponds to rotor slot 1a at
rotor position zero, i.e.
θ mec = 0
The winding description given by Ankarsrum is shown in figure 3.5. It is drawn to give a
clockwise rotation at the commutator side of the machine. In Flux, a counter clockwise
rotation is defined positive. Instead of redrawing the drawing of the winding and in this way
give the machine a counter clockwise rotation, a negative speed of the rotor is chosen in Flux.
The coils in the rotor are at first inserted in the bottom of the slots, then in the outer region
closer to the air gap. This removes the symmetry in the machine and the entire geometry of
the machine must therefore be drawn in Flux. This implies that totally 48 rotor coil regions
must be described. The large number of coils and regions give rise to very time- consuming
simulations. The simulation time is especially high when the machine is fed with a current
source of high amplitude. This is because the iron becomes highly saturated and the solver has
difficulties to find a solution of the problem.
Figure 5.1 – The finite element model of the short pitch machine seen from the commutator side. The black
slot corresponds to rotor slot 1a at rotor position zero degrees.
19
5.4.2. Mesh
The geometry has to be meshed into a number of triangular surface elements. The most
sensitive regions need a very fine mesh in order to get good results. The air gap is divided into
three separate regions, one closest to the rotor, one in the middle and one closest to the stator.
This is usually done when the variations in the torque are to be studied. The mesh can be seen
in figure 5.2 which also includes a view of the fine mesh in the air gap region. The middle gap
is remeshed at each timestep, the rotor air gap moving as the rotor and the stator air gap being
fixed. To eliminate so called mesh noise, the mesh has to be implemented in such a way that
the mesh in the air gap appears to be constant in time [9]. When the simulation time is
increased by one time step the mesh in the air gap should appear to be exactly the same as in
the previous time step.
Figure 5.2 – The mesh of the short pitch model. The right image shows an enlargement of
the air gap region with its three-layer mesh.
20
5.4.3. Electric circuit

Figure 5.3 shows a sketch of the position of the commutator segments relative to the rotor
slots and relative to the brushes at position θ mec = 0 . The figure also contains information
about how the machine is wound. This can be seen under Winding Arrangement in the right
side of the figure. The brushes are on a fictional horizontal axis.
Figure 5.3 – The rotor slots with its coils and their relative position to the commutator at rotor angle zero
degrees.
Figure 5.4 shows one commutator segment and one brush. The commutator segment is
approaching the brush. The connection is established when the edge of the commutator
segment reaches the edge of the brush. The brush starts to conduct current through the
commutator segment. The connection is maintained until the other edge of the segment leaves
the brush at the other edge of the brush.
Figure 5.4 – The commutation process.
A virtual set of brushes and a commutator are attached to the rotor in the FEM model as
shown in figure 5.3. It is important to notice that no physical commutator or brush is actually
included in the FEM model. These parts are solely modelled by variable resistances called
21
brush-segment components in the electrical circuit. The instantaneous resistance of the brush-
segment is governed by the rotor angle θ mec . The virtual commutator–brush approach of the
problem simplifies the determination of the angular parameters of the switches.
The brush-segment component is characterized by five parameters [9]:
• The on state resistance Ron in ohms.

• The off state resistance Roff in ohms.
• The angular position, θ pos in degrees, of the commutator segment with respect to the
brush position.
• The brush opening angle, θbru in degrees.
• The opening angle of the commutator segment, θbar in degrees.
The brush-segment component is in full conduction whenever the mechanical angle of the
rotor θ mec is opposite to the angular position of the commutator segment with respect to the
brush θ pos [9].
Figure 5.5 – Brush-segment conduction characteristics [9]
22
The drive circuit presented in figure A5 in appendix is fed by a 120 V / 60Hz voltage source
in series with a small inductance representing the end windings of the machine. The 48 square
shaped brush-commutator segments in the upper and lower section of the drawing represent
the brush-commutator connections. Figure 5.6 shows θ pos for commutator segment number
22 with respect to the right brush and to the left brush at θ mec = 0 . In figure A5 in appendix,
this gliding contact to the right brush is handled by brush-segment number G22 and brush-
segment G46 handles the contact to the left brush. A table showing the numbering of the
brush-segments and their corresponding segment and brush is found in appendix.
The angular parameters of the brush-segment components for the modelled machine at
position zero, i.e. θ mec = 0 , are presented in figure 5.7.
Figure 5.6 – The commutator and its segments with positions relative to the right and left brush. These angles
are used to set the switch parameter θ pos .
23
Brush-segment Brush-segment
Pos. r.r.b. Pos. r.l.b.
number number
1 -7.5 25 172.5
2 7.5 26 -172.5
3 22.5 27 -157.5
4 37.5 28 -142.5
5 52.5 29 -127.5
6 67.5 30 -112.5
7 82.5 31 -97.5
8 97.5 32 -82.5
9 112.5 33 -67.5
10 127.5 34 -52.5
11 142.5 35 -37.5
12 157.5 36 -22.5
13 172.5 37 -7.5
14 -172.5 38 7.5
15 -157.5 39 22.5
16 -142.5 40 37.5
17 -127.5 41 52.5
18 -112.5 42 67.5
19 -97.5 43 82.5
20 -82.5 44 97.5
21 -67.5 45 112.5
22 -52.5 46 127.5
23 -37.5 47 142.5
24 -22.5 48 157.5
Figure 5.7 – The position of the segments relative the brushes, θ pos at θ mec = 0 . Pos r.r.b: Position relative
right brush, Pos r.l.b: Position relative left brush.
5.4.4. End winding reactance

The effect of the end windings is not included in a two dimensional FE problem such as the
one that is used. Therefore the end-winding reactance should be added in the circuit. In [10],
an empirical method to determine the end-winding reactance is proposed. A simplified
drawing of the end winding is viewed in figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8 – The simplified shape of a coil end [10].
The angle γ is the angle between the end winding and the radial rotor plane. ly is the length of
the end winding. α is calculated approximately by measuring the length of the end winding
and the nearest length between the forward and the backward coil, which is the distance τ.
24
τ
cos γ = (eq. 5.1)
ly
[7] states that inductance of a coil end Ly is equal to:
⎛ b ' sin γ ⎞ −6
Ly = 0.2nl2l y ln ⎜ kz ⎟⎟ ⋅10 H (eq. 5.2)
⎜ 2g
⎝ 1,1 ⎠
where
nl - Total number of conductors in a coil end

bkz' - Ideal reduced commutation zone, the length along the anchor
where the current in the winding is reversed
g1,1 - A coil ends average geometrical distance from itself
g1,1 = 0.2235 ( b1 + h1 ) (eq. 5.3)
b1 is the width of the coil and h1 is the height of the coil showed in figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9 - Cross section of a coil end [10].
For simplicity, the reduced commutation zone length bkz' , is substituted with the non-reduced
length bkz . This gives a somewhat larger inductance.
⎛ β − 1 + fλ ⎞
bkz = τ s ⎜1 + ⎟ (eq. 5.4)
⎝ uc ⎠
where uc is the number of coils, side by side in a slot .
25
bc − bi
β= (eq. 5.5)
λτ
with
bc - the width of the brush
bi - the thickness of the insulation between two adjacent commutator segments
λτ - the distance between two adjacent commutator segments
π dk
λτ = (eq. 5.6)
nk
Where d k is the diameter of the commutator and nk is the number of segments in the
commutator.
τ s is the distance between two adjacent rotor slots
2π r
τs = (eq. 5.7)
Q
D is the outer diameter of the rotor and Q is the total number of rotor slots.
f λ is the reduction from full pole pitch expressed in number of commutator segments.
nk
fλ = − ucτ p (eq. 5.8)
p
τ p is the pole pitch in number of rotor slots.
With expressions 5.1-5.8 and some geometrical data from drawings and approximations, a
first value of the end winding inductance can be calculated. It is found to be approximately.
Ly ≈ 5μ H (eq. 5.9)
At 60 Hz this inductance corresponds to a reactance equal to
X Ly = ω Ly ≈ 2mΩ (eq. 5.10)
There are one end winding per coil on both sides of the machine and there are a = 2 number
of parallel paths in the rotor. With 4 coils per rotor slot, the total end winding reactance can be
written.
1
X Ltoty = 2 4Qω Ly = 48 ⋅ 2mΩ = 96mΩ (eq. 5.11)
a
At maximum current in the machine, this reactance results in a total reactive voltage drop of
less than 1V. Therefore the effect of the end windings could be neglected.
26
5.5. Results from full-pitch motor

The FEM model of the full-pitch motor is primarily used to verify that commutation works
properly i.e. that the brush-segments in the electric circuit is described properly.
5.5.1. Verification of commutation

The method used to describe the brush-commutator connection was explained in detail in
section 5.4 which deals with the FEM model of the short-pitch machine.
The model of the full-pitch machine is fed with a constant current and the commutation
process is studied. To speed up the simulation time, no stator current is present. To further
decrease the simulation time, the coils in the rotor have less turns than they should have
(reduced level of magnetization).
If the commutation is described properly, the coils situated in the region under one stator pole
should always have opposite current direction compared to the coils situated in the region
under the other stator pole. The coils in rotor slots 1-6 should have the same current direction
at θ mec = 0 . Every time the rotor has rotated to a position where a commutator segment enters
the brush, the associated coils should start to commutate. The first time step corresponds
to θ mec = 10o , which means that the coils in slot 1 and slot 7 are fully commutated. When the
rotor has rotated to position θ mec = 180o , the coils in slot 1 and slot 7 should have reversed
their current direction. The commutation order of the coils in slot 1-3 and their corresponding
coils on the opposite side of the rotor, i.e. coil 7-9, are shown in figure 5.10 and figure 5.11
respectively. All the curves are as expected, so the commutator was well described.
Figure 5.10 – Current in conductors in slot 1-3 Figure 5.11 – Current in conductors in slot 7-9
27
5.6. Results from short-pitch motor
5.6.1. Machine resistance

The winding resistance is represented by the resistors connected in series with the coils. Their
values depend on the loading of the machine since losses increase the temperature of the
winding and therefore its resistance. This heating results in a linearly increasing resistance for
the coils.
It was assumed that the rotor and the stator resistances provided by Ankarsrum have been
measured at room temperature. In the electric circuit associated to the FEM model, the
resistance at the unknown working temperature should be used. To identify the value of the
machine resistance at a load corresponding to 8000 rpm, the FEM model is simulated. The
current and the torque are compared to the measured values. This was done for different
values of the machine resistance. Using the results for the current, a linear approximation is
done and an approximate value of the resistance is determined. Finally, the machine is once
again simulated with the identified resistance and the simulated current is compared to the
measured current. It was intended to do this procedure for several speeds, i.e. different loads,
but the simulation time turned out to be long. Therefore this simulation was only performed at
8000 rpm.
Figure 5.12 shows the relationship between the total machine resistance and current together
with the linear approximation at 8000 rpm. It was found that a total machine resistance of 5.7
Ω corresponds to a winding temperature of approximately 280 οC which is non-realistic. The
high resistance can however be explained by the contact between the brush and the
commutator that is not so well characterized.
Figure 5.12 – Relationship between the current and the total machine resistance at 8000 rpm.
28
5.6.2. Machine current and torque at 8000 rpm

The most relevant results from the FEM simulations are presented here. The machine speed is
fixed at 8000 rpm and the applied voltage is 120V / 60 Hz. The value of the sum of the stator
and rotor resistances is 5.7 Ω.
Figure 5.13 – The voltage applied to the machine in the simulation.
Figure 5.14 shows the current drawn by the machine. The steady-state current seems to be
reached almost instantaneously. Therefore the simulation time can be set to two periods. This
amount of time ensures that the steady-state is obtained in the second period of the current
wave form. The RMS value of the current is 6.21 A which can be compared to the measured
value 6.29 A. It can be seen that the current is distorted due to saturation of the magnetic
circuit. This implies that a non-linear model is necessary to predict the performance of this
machine. Since the current is adjusted with the total resistance of the machine, the produced
electromagnetic torque should also be analyzed to verify the model.
Figure 5.14 - The machine current wave form at 8000 rpm, 120V / 60Hz and total machine
resistance 5.7Ω.
29
Figure 5.15 – Produced electromagnetic torque
In figure 5.15, the electromagnetic torque is shown. It pulsates with twice the supply
frequency and also presents some high frequency ripple at the torque peaks. The average
torque from the simulations is 0.496 Nm. This value corresponds very well to the measured
value which is 0.498 Nm. The simulated current is approximately 0.1 A smaller than the
measured value. Increasing the simulated current by reducing the total resistance would lead
to an increased average torque, but the results for the torque would still be very close to
measurements.
Figure 5.16 – The input power to the machine
Another parameter that can be used to test the validity of the model is the input power, which
is shown in figure 5.16. The average power consumed by the motor in the simulation is 697.8
W. This is 9.5 % higher than the measured value which is 637 W.
30
5.6.3. Simulation time

The simulation time for this machine with so many coil regions in the geometry is very high.
It should be mentioned that the results from one working point of the short-pitch motor model
presented in this chapter took more than a weekend to produce. The simulations were carried
out on a Pentium 4, 2.40 GHz with 512 Mb of RAM. Due to the high simulation time, it was
decided to use the full pitch motor model in the following FEM simulations.
31
Chapter 6 - Non-linear analytical model
6. Non-linear analytical model
As the short-pitch machine turned out to be very time consuming to simulate, the full-pitch
machine will instead be investigated. Unfortunately, the full pitch machine also requires long
simulation time. Therefore only four loads/speeds have been simulated. To further decrease
the simulation time, the time stepping procedure in FEM is terminated after one period of the
electromagnetic torque, i.e. half the period of the current wave form. This is believed to give
results accurate enough according to the results obtained for the 8000 rpm simulation of the
short-pitch machine. This simulation showed no transient behaviour at the start. It is therefore
assumed that the full-pitch machine does not show transients either.
To begin with, two ways of making a non-linear analytical model in Simulink have been
considered. These are:
• Combined Simulink-Flux model

• Pure Simulink model
In the combined Simulink-Flux model, a block representing the FE model of the machine
would be implemented in Simulink. This method would probably yield more accurate result
compared to the pure Simulink model. The risk of serious difficulties which may occur when
the programs are connected is considered high. Further on, the simulation time is expected to
be even higher than with FEM only. These are the reasons why the pure Simulink model, was
chosen.
As the iron in the machine becomes saturated, the air gap flux will no longer show a linear
behaviour with the machine current. Therefore, a method to calculate the flux in the air gap
for different currents is needed in order to determine the induced back emf in equation 4.13
and the electromagnetic torque in equation 4.20. The air gap flux calculation procedure is
presented in section 6.1. Further on, the inductance of the field winding will also become
saturated. The calculation of the non-linear field winding inductance is presented in section
6.2. No method has been investigated to calculate the rotor winding inductance but it is
believed to be small compared to the inductance of the field winding.
6.1. Air gap flux for the induced voltage

The normal component of the flux density under one pole is calculated using Flux. The flux
density is not homogenous in the air gap beneath a field pole due to armature reaction.
Therefore an average value of the normal component of the flux density is calculated
according to
1
lC C∫
Bn,avg = Bn dl (eq. 6.1)
Where C is the integration path shown in figure 6.1. lC is the length of C

.
32
Figure 6.1 – The path where the flux density is calculated
An increasing current is applied to the full-pitch machine in the FEM simulation and equation
6.1 is applied for the different current levels. This gives the average value of the flux density
which generates the back emf in the rotor winding. The average flux density in the air gap
beneath a pole as function of the machine current is shown in figure 6.2. With Bn available,
it is straight forward to calculate the average flux cut by the conductors in the rotor winding
using the width of the excitation pole. A lookup table is added to the linear Simulink model in
section 4. This table has the machine current as input and the flux, which is used in equation
4.12 and 4.19 as output. With the air gap flux known for any current, the back-emf can be
calculated.
Figure 6.2 – The average flux density in the air gap calculated by FEM.
33
6.2. Inductance of the field windings

In the linear analytical model, it is assumed that the flux produced by the field windings is
directly proportional to the machine current. Unfortunately, this is not true when the machine
operates with high currents at high loads, i.e. the iron in the machine is highly saturated. To
deal with the non-linearity in the inductance of the field windings, the following procedure is
used.
The objective is to calculate the field winding inductance of the machine for different rates of
saturation. This is achieved by simulating the flux linkage seen by the stator- and the rotor
winding for different current levels with FEM.
The method to obtain the flux linkage from magneto-static FEM simulations is thoroughly
described in [11] and is shortly presented here.
The method is based on the magnetic vector potential. This quantity reflects how much flux
per unit length is circulating around a certain point.
Starting with one of Maxwell’s equations
∇• B = 0 (eq. 6.2)
Equation 6.2 implies that the curl of another vector field A can be used to express B such as:
B = ∇× A (eq. 6.3)
where A is the magnetic vector potential.
The total flux seen by a coil is given by integrating the flux density over the area of the coil.
φ= ∫∫ B • ds = ∫∫ (∇ × A ) • ds
Acoil Acoil
(eq. 6.4)
By applying Stoke’s theorem, equation 6.4 becomes:
φ= ∫∫ B • ds = ∫ A • dl
Acoil C
(eq. 6.5)
where C is the countour bounding the area Acoil .
In a 2D model A , has only one component in the axial direction (A z ) . Equation 6.5 can
therefore be written as:
φ = ∫ A • dl = Leff ⋅ ( A1 − A2 ) + Lend ⋅ ( Aend 1 − Aend 2 ) (eq. 6.6)

C
where Leff is the length of the coil, i.e the effective length of the machine. A1 is the
averaged vector potential on one side of the winding and A 2 is the averaged vector potential
on the other side of the winding.
Neglecting the end windings, equation 6.6 becomes:
34
φ = ∫ A • dl ≈ Leff ⋅ ( A1 − A2 ) (eq. 6.7)

C
This method is applied to the field winding of the full-pitch motor model, with A1 the
averaged vector magnetic potential in the right slot holding the stator winding and A 2 the
averaged vector magnetic potential in the left stator winding slot.
The total flux seen by the field winding is:
ψ field = N field Leff ⋅ (∑ p

i =1
Ar ,i − ∑ i =1 Al ,i
p
) (eq. 6.8)
N field is the number of turns in the field winding, Ar ,i and Al ,i are the averaged vector
potential in the right and left region holding field coil i .
For a non-linear magnetic circuit, two inductances can be defined. The absolute inductance is
defined as the proportionality factor between the flux and the current i.e. the usual way in a
linear case.
φ
L f ,abs = (eq. 6.9)
Ia
An incremental inductance can also be defined as:
dφ
L f ,inc = (eq. 6.10)
dI a
Figure 6.3 illustrates the values of the absolute and incremental inductance for a level of
current where the circuit is saturated. As can be seen, the value of the incremental inductance
is much lower than the absolute inductance at saturation. They are equal in the linear region.
For the Simulink model of the universal motor, it is the incremental inductance that should be
used as the inductive voltage drop in the field winding can be expressed as:
dφ f dφ f dia di
ef = = ⋅ = L f ,inc (ia ) ⋅ a (eq. 6.11)
dt dia dt dt
The saturated flux linkage seen by the stator widning is shown in figure 6.3. The two different
interpretations of the inductance concept are also shown in the same figure.
35
Flux linkage
0.25
L = dΨ/di
inc
0.2
Flux linkageΨ [Wb]

Instantaneous operating point
0.15
L = Ψ/i
abs
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
I [A]
Figure 6.3 – The flux linkage seen by the stator winding and
the two ways of interpreting the inductance.
As for the air gap flux used to model the back emf, the incremental self inductance of the field
winding L f , is implemented in the non-linear Simulink model as a lookup table. With the
machine current I a as input, the lookup table returns the incremental field winding
inductance, saturated or non-saturated depending on the level of I a . The incremental
inductance of the field winding as function of the machine current is presented in figure 6.4.
The electrical system of the non-linear analytical model is shown in figure A4 in appendix.
Field winding inductance

100
90
80
70
Lf = dΨ/dI [mH]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
I [A]
Figure 6.4 – The field winding inductance calculated

based on equation 6.10.
6.3. Inductance of the rotor winding

The inductance of the rotor winding is chosen based on trial and error. It is considered
constant and independent of the load. The inductance of the rotor winding is set to 6 mH.
36
6.4. Results from non-linear analytical model

The interesting results from the non-linear analytical model are presented here. These
results are compared to the FEM results for the full-pitch machine.
6.4.1. Machine current

The RMS value of the current drawn by the machine is plotted versus the produced
electromagnetic torque in figure 6.5. It is found out that the current obtained from the
non-linear analytical model compares well to the current in the FEM model. The FEM
value of the current is between 5-7 % (depending on the torque) less than with the
Simulink model at a given torque.
Electromagnetic torque vs current

0.8
FEM
Simulink
0.7
0.6
0.5
Te [Nm]
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Irms [A]
Figure 6.5 – Electromagnetic torque vs. current.
37
6.4.2. Torque-speed characteristics

The torque available at different speeds is presented in figure 6.6. The torque from the
non-linear analytical model is overestimated by approximately 7 % for 10000 rpm. This
might be explained by the inductance of the rotor winding which may show non-linear
behaviour in reality. However, no method of modelling this inductance in a non-linear
way has been investigated. Further on, the commutation is not modelled in Simulink. This
factor also influences the torque/speed characteristics of the machine.
In FEM time-stepping simulations with a voltage source and the rotor forced to rotate at a
certain speed, the time steps are coarse in order to keep the simulations reasonably long.
The large time steps generate solutions which are somewhat noisy. This is a source of
error when the rms value of the current and the average produced electromagnetic torque
are calculated from FEM.
The FEM simulations for the two highest loads are only simulated for half the current period.
If the entire period were investigated, the current would increase. This was seen by comparing
calculations from the third highest torque (8000 rpm in figure 6.6). The current increase led to
better results for this point.
Electromagnetic torque vs speed

0.8
FEM
Simulink
0.7
0.6
0.5
Te [Nm]
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000
speed [Rpm]
Figure 6.6 – Electromagnetic torque vs. speed.
6.4.3. Current wave forms

Some current wave forms generated by the non-linear analytical model at different loads and
speeds are presented in this section. It is interesting to note that the wave form at 8000 rpm
for the simulated full-pitch machine is of similar shape as for the short-pitch machine at 8000
rpm which is presented in figure 5.14, in section 5.6.2. The current wave forms for 6500,
7000, 8000 and 10000 rpm and their related load torque are presented in figure 6.7. For
comparison, the current from the 8000 rpm FEM simulation is provided in figure 6.8.
38
Current vs time at 6500 rpm, 0.69 Nm from non-linear analytical model Current vs time at 7000 rpm, 0.631 Nm from non-linear analytical model
20 15
Machine current Ia Machine current Ia
15
10
10
5
5
Ia [A]
Ia [A]
0 0
-5
-5
-10
-10
-15
-20 -15
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Current vs time at 8000 rpm, 0.524 Nm from non-linear analytical model Current vs time at 10000 rpm, 0.321 Nm from non-linear analytical model
15 15
10 10
5 5
Ia [A]
Ia [A]
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 6.7 – The current wave forms simulated at different loads

and speeds by the non-linear analytical Simulink model.
Figure 6.8 – The current wave form simulated with

FEM at 8000 rpm, 0.52 Nm load torque.
39
6.4.4. Torque wave forms

The electromagnetic torque corresponding to the currents presented in figure 6.7 in section
6.4.3 is plotted in figure 6.9. The torque simulated by FEM is plotted in figure 6.10 as a
reference.
Electromagnetic torque vs time at 6500 rpm, 0.69 Nm from non-linear analytical model Electromagnetic torque vs time at 7000 rpm, 0.631 Nm from non-linear analytical model
2 2
Electromagnetic torque Electromagnetic torque
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Electromagnetic torque vs time at 8000 rpm, 0.524 Nm from non-linear analytical model Electromagnetic torque vs time at 10000 rpm, 0.321 Nm from non-linear analytical model
2 2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 6.9 – The torque wave forms simulated at different loads and
speeds with the non-linear analytical Simulink model.
Figure 6.10 – The torque wave form simulated with

FEM at 8000 rpm, 0.52 Nm load torque.
40
6.5. Conclusions
The current waveforms clearly show that a non-linear model is required to predict the
performance of such universal motors (full-pitch and/or short-pitch). A way to obtain the
required non-linear functions from FEM has been presented. Good correlation has been
obtained for the current and torque (wave forms, RMS value and mean value respectively). At
high speed, the commutation might be added in the model to help obtaining better correlation.
Further on, the non-linearity of the rotor winding inductance should be investigated. The good
correlation between FEM and the non-linear analytical model offers to use the latter for
investigating control strategies.
41
Chapter 7 - Speed control
7. Speed control
In this chapter, two speed control strategies are implemented in Matlab/Simulink together
with the non-linear analytical model of the full-pitch motor. These two strategies are
implemented with triacs or controlled switches. The two circuits are shown in figure 7.1 and
figure 7.2. The influence of the torque and current waveforms are compared.
Figure 7.1 – Triac motor controller block.
Figure 7.2 – PWM motor controller block.
7.1. Triac
To control the speed of the machine, an open loop triac controller that controls the effective
applied machine terminal voltage, is implemented in Simulink. It is believed that the
switching of the machine voltage caused by the triac adds harmonics to the supply current and
affects the torque wave form of the machine in a negative way.
42
The triac block is shown in figure 7.1. The control angle block is high whenever the control
angle has passed in the electrical period of the voltage. If the triac is feeding a pure resistive
load, the zero current detection block can be removed.
The machine is an inductive load. Therefore, for each half period, the triac can only turn off
the applied terminal voltage once the current has reached zero. The sr-latch in figure 7.1 holds
the on-state of the switch until the zero current detection block detects a zero crossing in the
current wave form so that the behaviour of a triac is described. Some signals in the triac block
are plotted in figure. This plot corresponds to a control angle of 45ο and a current that lags the
voltage by 30ο. For simplicity, the amplitude of the load current and the supply voltage are
both set to unity. The triac is turned on as the control angle has elapsed in each half period.
For a resistive load, the triac is always turned off as the control angle signal turns low.
However, if the load is inductive (as in figure 7.3), it is seen that the current is not zero as the
control angle turns low. This means that the triac can not turn off. As the current crosses zero,
the current state (Zero current detection block in figure 7.1) turns high for a very short time.
This spike is sensed by the reset input in the flip-flop and the output voltage is set to zero by
the switch. The triac is then turned on once the control angle turns high in the next half cycle.
Signals in the triac block

1 Supply voltage
0
-1
10 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Load current
0
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Amplitude
1 Control angle
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
1 Current state
0.5
0
10 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Output voltage
0
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Electrical angle [degrees]
Figure 7.3 – The signals in the triac controller block in figure 7.1.
For control angles α higher than the current lag ϕ , the operation of the triac is perfectly
stable. However, with control angles lower than the current lag, the triac is unstable. This is
due to the fact that the current need to cross zero during the period when the control angle
signal is low. If this is not the case, the triac is constantly on. The phenomena is presented in
figure 7.5 where the current lag is ϕ = 40 o and the control angle is α = 30 o . However, it is
assumed that the torque and current wave forms are mostly affected at high control angles.
Therefore this problem is not investigated further as only values of alpha higher than the
current lag will be chosen from now on.
43
To verify that the triac controller works properly, the output voltage at different control angles
and pure resistive load are plotted in figure 7.4. The output voltages with inductive load at
different control angles are plotted in figure 7.5. Note that the upper left plot for the inductive
load shows unstable operation.
44
Figure 7.4 – Triac output voltage at different control angles with pure
resistive load
Figure 7.5 - Triac output voltage at different control angles with

inductive load ϕ = 40o
45
It is assumed that the torque wave form is mostly affected at high torque and high control
angles α . Therefore, the motor and its controller are simulated at 0.69 Nm which is the
highest load simulated in chapter 6. The terminal voltage, machine current and the produced
electromagnetic torque are shown in figure 7.6-7.8. The speed of the machine varies between
5000 rpm down to 2000 rpm in steps of 1000 rpm. The control angles corresponding to the
simulated speeds are α = 56 o − 78.5 o .
Applied terminal voltage, α =56o Applied terminal voltage, α =65o

200 200
Terminal voltage Terminal voltage
150 150
100 100
50 50
Voltage [V]
Voltage [V]
0 0
-50 -50
-100 -100
-150 -150
-200 -200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Applied terminal voltage, α =72o Applied terminal voltage, α =78.5o

200 200
Terminal voltage Terminal voltage
150 150
100 100
50 50
Voltage [V]
Voltage [V]
0 0
-50 -50
-100 -100
-150 -150
-200 -200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 7.6 – The terminal voltage at different control angles
46
Current vs time at 5000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =56o Current vs time at 4000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =65o
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
Ia [A]
Ia [A]
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Current vs time at 3000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =72o Current vs time at 2000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =78.5o
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
Ia [A]
Ia [A]
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 7.7 – The machine current at different control angles
Electromagnetic torque vs time at 5000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =56o Electromagnetic torque vs time at 4000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =65o
2 2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Electromagnetic torque vs time at 3000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =72o Electromagnetic torque vs time at 2000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, α =78.5o
2 2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 7.8 – The produced torque at different control angles
47
The total harmonic distortion (THD) are calculated for the current wave forms according to
[12].
2
⎛ I (n) ⎞
= 100 ⋅ ∑n = 2 ⎜
∞
I THD ⎟ [%] (eq. 7.1)
⎜I ⎟
⎝ (1) ⎠
where I (1) is the fundamental component and I (n ) are the harmonics. This calculation is
performed in Simulink.
The triac controller definitely adds harmonics to the machine current as shown in table 7.1
where the THD for different control angles are shown.
Table 7.1 – The total harmonic distortion of the current at different speeds at 0.69 Nm load torque with triac
control.
Control angle (degrees) Speed (rpm) THD (%)
56 5000 38.13
65 4000 40.79
72 3000 42.76
78.5 2000 44.46
As a direct consequence to the current distortion, the torque wave form is also affected due to
the triac controller. This is seen by comparing figure 7.8, with figure 6.9 which shows the
torque wave form without speed control. The peak of the produced electromagnetic torque
when the machine is speed controlled with a triac is higher while the rise time of the torque
seems to be shorter. The machine without triac speed control has a smoother variation of
torque with time. With triac speed control, the current drops to zero under a certain period.
Therefore the machine does not produce any torque during that phase. At a certain time, the
triac starts to conduct the current and the torque increases rapidly. This is most likely to
produce noise as well as affect the wearing of gears and transmissions connected to the
machine.
48
7.2. Sinus PWM

Instead of having a triac controller controlling the speed of the machine, a PWM controller is
tested in the model. The PWM block is shown in figure 7.2. A triangle wave of high
frequency is compared to a reference voltage. Depending on which signal is the highest, the
switch in figure 7.2 is high, + Vd or low, − Vd .
The fundamental of the output voltage can be calculated as [12]

∧
V 1 = m a ⋅ Vd (eq. 7.2)
Where m a is the modulation index, which is defined as [12]
∧
V ref
ma = ∧
(eq 7.3)
V tri
The switching frequency used is f s = 3 kHz . The time step that is used for the simulations is
10 μs i.e, the sample frequency is 100 kHz.
The current and torque wave forms are shown in figure 7.9 and figure 7.10 respectively.
Current vs time at 5000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.93 Current vs time at 4000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.88
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
Ia [A]
Ia [A]
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Current vs time at 3000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.825 Current vs time at 2000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.78
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
Ia [A]
Ia [A]
0 0
-5 -5
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 7.9 – The current wave form when sinus PWM-control is used.
49
Electromagnetic torque vs time at 5000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.93 Electromagnetic torque vs time at 4000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.88
2 2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Torque [Nm]
Torque [Nm]
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Electromagnetic torque vs time at 3000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.825 Electromagnetic torque vs time at 2000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, ma=0.78
2 2
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Torque [Nm]
1.2
Torque [Nm]
1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Time [s] Time [s]
Figure 7.10 – The torque wave form when sinus PWM-control is used.
The distortion in the current wave form is calculated in the same way as for the triac
controller. The results are gathered in table 7.2.
Table 7.2 – The total harmonic distortion of the current at different speeds at 0.705 Nm load torque with
PWM-control.
Modulation index Speed (rpm) THD (%)
0.93 5000 33.68
0.88 4000 33.66
0.825 3000 33.70
0.78 2000 33.80
The current wave form is now less distorted compared to the triac control even though it
contains high frequency ripple due to the switching. The reduction of the current distortion is
most significant at low speeds. At 2000 rpm, the THD is approximately 24 % lower with
PWM control. Figure 7.11 shows the harmonic content in the current at 2000 rpm, 0.69 Nm,
for the two different control strategies. The third harmonic is significantly reduced when
PWM control is used. On the other hand, a switching frequency at 3000 Hz is introduced.
50
Current harmonics, 2000 rpm 0.69 Nm, Triac controlled Current harmonics, 2000 rpm 0.69 Nm, Sinus-PWM controlled
15 15
Ia(n) Ia(n)
10 10
Amplitude [A]
Amplitude [A]
5 5
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
Figure 7.11 – The harmonic content in the current at 2000 rpm, 0.69 Nm, for the two different control
strategies. Triac control to the left and sinus-PWM to the right.
The produced electromagnetic torque for the machine with a PWM controller consists of high
frequency ripple. The long period where the machine produces no torque introduced by the
triac is not present for the PWM. The high frequency ripple in the current can most likely be
reduced by the use of filters. This would lead to less ripple in the torque wave form as well.
The peak torque is approximately 5 % lower with PWM-control compared to triac at 2000
rpm, 0.69 Nm. This would probably reduce the 120 Hz noise produced by the machine.
Further on, with PWM, the torque wave forms are similar independent of the machine speed.
This is not the case for the triac where the zero current period prevents the machine from
producing a torque during a certain period of time. This dead time has to be compensated with
a high peak in the torque in order to keep the speed.
It would be interesting to simulate at least one point with FEM together with a triac controller,
in order to look at the variations of the normal forces acting on the rotor teeth and excitation
poles.
51
Chapter 8 - Conclusions and future work
8. Conclusions and future work
Two FEM models of a full-pitch and a short-pitch universal motor have been developed.
Comparisons with measurements showed that these models are giving realistic results.
This project has shown how to derive a non-linear analytical model of a universal motor.
Although the simulation times in the FEM simulations are really long for the short pitch
machine, it is assumed that a model of the short pitch machine can be created in a similar
manner as the non linear Simulink model of the full pitch machine presented in this report. A
general conclusion drawn is that nonlinearities due to saturation are difficult to model.
To decrease the simulation time for the FEM simulations, only half or even one fourth of the
geometry could be used for the full-pitch machine. This would lead to fewer elements and a
less complex problem to solve. However, this would not be possible for the short-pitch
machine because there is no symmetry with respect to the coils in this machine.
The non-linearity of the rotor winding inductance should be analyzed. The errors in the
torque/speed characteristics of the machine might be reduced by taking it into account. To
further improve the model of the machine, the effects of commutation should be described. A
transformer induced emf in the rotor was found in a FEM simulation. The influence of this
should be investigated.
If the machine is speed controlled with a triac, the wave form of the produced electromagnetic
torque is higher in amplitude at low speeds compared to the PWM controller. The level of 120
Hz noise emitted by the machine may therefore be reduced if the machine is controlled by
PWM. The higher torque peaks caused by the triac controller also most likely increase
wearing of gears connected to the machine.
More load levels should be analyzed for the triac and the PWM. A closed loop control should
be implemented in Simulink for the triac control as well as for the PWM control.
It would be interesting to connect Simulink with Flux and perform the control simulations on
this model and compare the results to the simulation results provided in chapter 7. In this way,
the effect of slotting and armature reaction would be fully taken into account and the forces
acting on the different parts of the machine could be investigated.
The FEM simulation used to calculate the back emf and the field inductance should be
performed at more rotor angles to investigate how these quantities varies as the position of the
rotor is changed.
52
References
References
[1] P.C. Sen – “Principles of electrical machines and power electronics”, second edition,
ISBN 0-471-02295-0, 1997.
[2] Peter F. Ryff, David Platnick, Joseph A. Karnas – “Electrical machines and transformers,
Principles and applications”, ISBN 0-13-247222-8, New Yersey 1987.
[3] http://www.sura.se – Information of stator- and rotor laminations
[4] MG Say EO Taylor - “Direct current machines”, ISBN 0-273-01219-3, Bath, Great Britain,
1980.
[5] http://www.ece.msstate.edu – Back emf calculation
[6] http://www.reliance.com – Information of winding types in DC – machines
[7] http://www.cedrat.com – Flux features
[8] David K. Cheng – “Field and wave electromagnetics”, Second edition - United States,
1992, ISBN 0-201-12819-5.
[9] Flux Help
[10] Emil Alm 1944 – ”D.T.V Elektroteknik III, Elektromaskinlara II D”.
[11] P.Thelin, J. Soulard, H.-P. Nee and C. Sadarangani, “Comparison between Different
Ways to Calculate the Induced No-Load Voltage of PM Synchronous Motors using Finite
Element Methods”, Presented at PEDS’01, Bali, Indonesia, Oct. 2001.
[12] Hans-Peter Nee – “Kompendium i Eleffektsystem”, KTH, Stockholm 2003.
[13] – Drawings Ankarsrum.
53
List of symbols
List of symbols
Number of stator poles p [− ]

Coil pitch y [−]
Pole pitch τp [−]
Active length of machine L eff [m]
Instantaneous current i [A ]
Instantaneous voltage u [V ]
Instantaneous emf e [V ]
Instantaneous rotor speed ωm [s −1 ]
Time t [s]
Supply frequency f [ Hz]
Field winding resistance Rf [Ω ]
Rotor winding resistance Ra [Ω ]
Field winding inductance Lf [H ]
Rotor winding inductance La [H ]
Moment of inertia J [kg ⋅ m 2 ]
Viscous damping constant D [ Nm ⋅ s]
Instantaneous electromagnetic torque Te [ Nm ]
Load torque TL [ Nm ]
Rotor constant Ka [−]
Flux constant Kψ [ Wb ⋅ A −1 ]
Electromagnetic force Fe [ N]
Pole coverage factor c [−]
Radius of rotor r [m]
Radius of stator pole rpole [m]
Number of parallel paths in the rotor a [−]
Number of turns in the rotor N [−]
Length of rotor conductor in magnetic field l conductor [m]
Length of stator pole l pole [m]
Flux linkage Ψ [ Wb]
Flux φ [ Wb]
Flux density B [T ]
Flux density, normal component Bn [T ]
Position of rotor θ mec [− ]
Brush resistance at on state R on [Ω ]
54
List of symbols
Brush resistance at off state R off [Ω ]

Position of commutator segment θ pos [− ]
Opening angle of a brush θ bru [− ]
Opening angle of a commutator segment θ bar [− ]
In plane length between forward and backward coil in rotor τ [m]
Length of end winding ly [m]
Inductance of one coil end Ly [H ]
Average value of simultaneously commutating coils β [− ]
Reactance of one coil end X Ly [Ω ]
Number of conductors in a coil end nl [− ]
Reduced commutation zone b 'kz [m]
Angle between end winding and plane of rotor lamination γ [− ]
A coil ends average geometrical distance from itself g 1,1 [m]
Height of a coil end h1 [m]
Width of a coil end b1 [m]
Distance between two adjacent rotor slots τs [m]
Distance between two adjacent commutator segments λτ [m]
Diameter of commutator dk [m]
Total number of rotor slots Q [− ]
Total number of commutator segments nk [− ]
Reduction from full pitch expressed in number of segments fλ [− ]
Width of brush bc [m]
Width of insulation between commutator segments bi [m]
Number of coils side by side in a rotor slot uc [− ]
Vector magnetic potential A [ Wb ⋅ m −1 ]
Vector differential operator ∇ [− ]
Conductance G [ Ω −1 ]
55
Appendix
Appendix
56
Appendix
Performance test
n (rpm*1) I (A*1000) P1 (W*10)
P2 (W*10) Cos phi Eta
25,000 1.00
22,500 0.90
20,000 0.80
17,500 0.70
15,000 0.60
Eta, Cos phi

12,500 0.50
10,000 0.40
7,500 0.30
5,000 0.20
2,500 0.10
0 0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ncm
Motortype: KS4242/110 94119202 File: PT433.xls Remark: TP20040104

Armature winding: 4x17t/s Ø 0.50mm KIA
Field winding: 110t/c Ø 0.90mm Author: ASUL/AH,LC Mörkrotorplåt 02746
Testvoltage: 120V 60Hz Rotation: Date: 2004-05-28
Figure A1 – Results from the performance test of the short pitch machine.
57
Appendix
Lf
Field winding inductance
La
Rotor winding inductance
1
w
k
E (Vc-(Rf +Ra)*i-E)/(Lf +La) 1
1
Rotor constant Product1 s
3 i
Product2 Integrator
Ka
Vc-(Rf +Ra)*i-E i
2 Machine current
flux
f lux
Gain
58
-K-
2
Vc-(Rf +Ra)*i
Voltage
(Rf +Ra)*i
Product
Rf
Field winding resistance
Figure A2 – The electrical system for the linear Simulink model.

Ra
Rotor winding resistance

Appendix
Moment of inertia
(Te-TL-Dw)/J 1
1
D s
Dw Te-TL-Dw w
Product8 Integrator1
Product7
Viscous damping
Te
59
i
w
2 To Workspace4
To Workspace1
Ka*phi*i=Te
3
Te-TL
Flux
4
Ka
Product3
1
Load Torque
Figure A3 – The mechanical system for the linear and non-linear Simulink models.
Appendix
Abs
abs(i)
|u|
Lf (i)
Look-Up
Table1
6e-3
La
Lf +La
1
w
E
k 3
Product1 (Vc-(Rf +Ra)*i-E)/(Lf +La) 1
k 1
Constant5 s
i
Product2 Integrator
To Workspace
2 Look-Up
Flux Table
60
f lux
2
Vc-(Rf +Ra)*i
Voltage
(Rf +Ra)*i
Product
Rf
Constant1
Figure A4 – The electrical system for the non- linear Simulink model.
Ra
Constant2
Appendix
Figure A5 – The circuit connected to the short pitch machine in the finite element model.
61
Appendix
Figure A6 – The coils corresponding to the rotor coils in the short pitch machine. This is an enlargement of
figure A5.
62
Appendix
Component Component descr i pt i on

V1 Vol t age sour ce
R1, R2 St at or coi l r esi st ances
R3- R26 Rot or coi l r esi st ances
L1 End wi ndi ng i nduct ance
Figure A7 – Description of the components in the circuit in figure A5 and A6.
63
Appendix
Coi l Descr i pt i on Coi l Descr i pt i on

B1p Exci t at i on coi l
B1n Exci t at i on coi l
B1a Coi l in r ot or sl ot 1a B7a Coi l i n r ot or sl ot 7a

B1b Coi l in r ot or sl ot 1b B7b Coi l i n r ot or sl ot 7b
B1c Coi l in r ot or sl ot 1c B7c Coi l i n r ot or sl ot 7c
B1d Coi l in r ot or sl ot 1d B7d Coi l i n r ot or sl ot 7d
Figure A8 – Description of the components in the circuit in figure A5 and A6.
64
Appendix
Figure A9 – The FEM geometry of the full pitch machine.
65
Appendix
Figure A10 – The circuit connected to the full pitch machine in the finite element model.
66
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Modelling of a universal motor with speed control

Article · January 2006

Master thesis View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Royal Institute of Technology

2. Universal motors .............................................................................................................. 2

3. The investigated machine ................................................................................................ 3

5. Finite element model ...................................................................................................... 17

6. Non-linear analytical model .......................................................................................... 32

7. Speed control .................................................................................................................. 42

8. Conclusions and future work ........................................................................................ 52

List of symbols ........................................................................................................................ 54

1.1. Purpose of this work

1.2. Outline of the thesis

In chapter 6, a non-linear model of the machine is presented. This model is implemented in

In Chapter 8, conclusions are drawn and a discussion of future work is presented.

3. The investigated machine

Figure 3.1 – Cross-section of a stator lamination sheet.

Figure 3.3 – The commutator assembled on the rotor shaft.

3.2.1. Stator winding

3.2.2. Rotor winding

3.3. Measured performance

Figure 4.1 – Equivalent circuit of the universal motor

In figure 4.1, the parameters are

R a - rotor winding resistance

4.1. Electrical system

u (t ) − ( La + L f ) dtd i(t ) − e(t ) = ( R

4.1.1. Back emf

econductor = ∫ Ea • dl ≈ ∫ ( v × B ) • dl (eq. 4.3)

Ea = ωm rBn (eq. 4.5)

econductor = E ⋅ lconductor = ωm rBn ⋅ lconductor (eq. 4.6)

eturn = 2 E ⋅ lconductor = 2ωm rBn ⋅ lconductor (eq. 4.7)

rpole ≈ r (eq. 4.9)

Further on, l pole is the same length as lconductor , i.e.

l pole = lconductor (eq. 4.10)

Assuming non-saturated operating conditions, the flux ψ n is directly proportional to the

e = K a Kψ ωm I a [V] (eq. 4.13)

Where Kψ is the flux constant.

4.2. Mechanical system

4.2.1. Electromagnetic torque produced by the rotor

Fe ,conductor = ∫ (I × B ) dl (eq. 4.15)

Fe ,conductor = IBn l conductor (eq. 4.16)

Figure 4.3 – A conductor carrying a current in a homogenous magnetic field

Te ,conductor = IBn lr (eq. 4.17)

With Bn replaced by equation 4.8, the torque is obtained by:

4.3. Electromechanical system

4.4. Implementation in Simulink

Figure 4.4 – Block diagram modelling the universal motor.

El ectrical system Mechani cal system

4.5. Simulation results using the linear model

Figure 4.6 – Simulated rotor speed vs time with TL =0.5 Nm .

5. Finite element model

5.1. Geometrical simplifications for the Finite Element

• Obtain a better mesh of the geometry

5.1.3. Rotor shaft

5.3. Full pitch motor model