EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 1

Examining Bilingual Education Through Teachers’ Lens

Minyuan Chu (500809329)

Department of Early Childhood Studies, Ryerson University

CLD 464 – Senior Internship

Instructor: Lisa Johnston

April 11, 2021

EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 2

Abstract

This paper will address the current bilingual education model through the lens of educators.

While more and more scholars begin to focus on the benefits of bilingual education with its

popularization worldwide, critical analysis on the current bilingual education pedagogies are

important in consolidation of the bilingual curriculums. Through reviewing different scholar

articles/researches within the last 20 years, this paper will analyze the contemporary bilingual

education model from four sections: balance/equity in bilingual education; gaps between

pedagogies and actual practices; educators’ perception and challenges in bilingual curriculums;

strategies of enhancing bilingual curriculums. By unfolding the potential problems of bilingual

education from macro level (pedagogies, policies) to micro level (educators, curriculums), this

paper will conclude with the challenges existing within bilingual curriculums and recognize the

complex connections among different sectors (government, policy makers, educators, children

with their families). Further, the paper will provide possible strategies for bilingual educators,

and more importantly, empower educators’ voice and suggest future studies to call attention to

educators’ perceptions.

Keywords: bilingual education, teacher’s perception, pedagogies, equity, challenges

EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 3

Examining Bilingual Education Through Teachers’ Lens

Introduction

The emergence of bilingual education takes account to the contemporary ideology

towards multilingualism and it satisfies under the global economy needs (Dorner & Cervantes‐

Soon, 2020). The enforcement of language policy in some regions also acts as a schema in

popularizing the bilingual education (Ostorga & Farruggio, 2020;2018;). While many researches

have highlighted on the benefits of bilingual education to children’s holistic development, the

current scholarships are shifting to address the related issues in the language model in bilingual

education (Dorner & Cervantes‐Soon, 2020). Not only revealing the specific issues taking place

in bilingual education, this paper is also significant to the field of early childhood education as it

provides insights for policy-makers and educators to challenge the contemporary framework and

empowers the voice of educators in this field (Oliveira, Lima Becker, & Chang-Bacon, 2020).

The paper will focus on criticizing the linguistic model in bilingual education through

listening to educators’ voices within the context. In order to thoroughly examine the theoretical

and empirical foundation of bilingual education, the paper will elaborate from the macro-level

(pedagogies and policies) to the micro-level (educators’ perceptions and challenges) within the

global context. Four themes are branched from the possible concerns in bilingual education:

balance/equity in bilingual education; gaps between pedagogies and actual practices; educators’

perception and challenges in bilingual curriculums; strategies of enhancing bilingual

curriculums.

The outcomes of this literature review will seek to explain any related issues in bilingual

education and clarifies the consequence of these issues in terms of educators’ challenge in

implementation. The findings in this paper could pave the way for future studies that are
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 4

interested in examine related topics. More importantly, this paper will allow people to be aware

of the complex network within bilingual education and urging future scholarships to include

educators’ perceptions.

Literature Review

Theme I: Balance/Equity in bilingual education

In the contemporary society, bilingual education has been emerged and falls under the

ideology of global economy (Dorner & Cervantes‐Soon, 2020). As an increasing number of

attention are paid to the dual language models in education, many scholars have studied on the

benefits of bilingual education programs and concluded on the success of early linguistic context

to children’s development (Boyson, Semmer, Thompson, & Rosenbusch, 2013). Conversely,

some current scholarships are presenting the underlying issue of equitable pedagogies in

bilingual education (Dorner & Cervantes‐Soon, 2020; Oliveira, Lima Becker, & Chang-Bacon,

2020).

The study by Oliveira, Lima Becker, and Chang-Bacon (2020) conducted a classroom

observation in a dual language bilingual education (DLBE) program (Portuguese and English).

The result of this research provided an insight to the unequitable instructions to language-

minority students in the curriculum. As one sample from this study elucidated that students with

language-minority are often under-evaluated and being “invisible” to teachers since most

curricular instructions are tailored to English-dominant students. Aligning to the findings in

Oliveira, Lima Becker, and Chang-Bacon’s (2020) study, the article written by Dorner and

Cervantes‐Soon (2020) also summarized on the universal ideologies and discourses of bilingual

education in a global context. As Flores and García (2017) criticized the racialized basement of

contemporary bilingual education framework, the article reveals the linguistic categorization in
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 5

which children are trapped with their language proficiencies. Such practices are not only

overlooking children’s individual development, but more importantly, dehumanizing language-

minority students with the inability of speaking English (Dorner & Cervantes‐Soon, 2020).

In addition, a research focusing on Asian bilingual students by Yeh et al. (2002)

concluded on the importance of cultural awareness to children’s language learning. Yeh et al.’s

(2002) research further claimed on the essentiality for educators to understand students’ native

cultures as a strategy in designing bilingual curriculums. Corresponding to Yeh et al.’s (2002)

study, an investigation on Taiwan’s bilingual education policy by Graham, Pan, and Eslami

(2021) expounded on their concerns of the westernized bilingual curriculum in Taiwan could

result in overlooks of local context and culture. The underlying message of these facts reveals

that unquestioning practices under bilingual education model can facilitate the dominance of

monolingualism in bilingual programs. Accordingly, this emphasis on cultural awareness makes

a connection to the equity problem in bilingual education in terms of the marginalization of

English-learning children’s needs in classrooms. In consequence, educators play a significant

role in delivering bilingual curriculums and establishing an equitable environment for children’s

learning. Dorner and Cervantes‐Soon’s (2020) article urges educators to develop cultural

understandings on language-minoritized children and actively listen to their needs in order to

create an equitable bilingual program.

On the other hand, some researches examine the struggle of balance in bilingual

curriculums, including Dubiner, Deeb, and Schwartz’s (2018) research of balanced linguistic

input in bilingual programs and Oattes, Oostdam, de Graaff, and Wilschut’s (2018) study on the

balance between content and language. Drawing on the findings from Graham, Pan, and Eslami’s

(2021) study on Taiwan’s bilingual programs, a teacher indicated her lack of confidence in
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 6

balancing language and content within the classroom. Similar findings are also shown in the

study by Oattes, Oostdam, de Graaff, and Wilschut (2018). The educators claimed on their

struggles of balancing language and content, and the conscious shifts between dual languages are

often used to support children in understanding the subject contents (Oattes, Oostdam, de Graaff,

& Wilschut, 2018). It is concluded that the professionalism of educators’ teaching skills in

bilingual education is missing (Graham, Pan, and Eslami, 2021).

Moreover, many teachers also expressed on their challenges in balancing between

majority and minority languages, particularly among teachers who self-evaluate as not confident

with teaching in dual language. Graham et al.’s (2021) study examined on the balance of global

and local context with the disclosure that reality often disappoints the ideology of bilingual

education since language, culture, and identity are disconnected in the bilingual education

programs. Although the ideologies of many bilingual programs intend to support children’s

competency in speaking multiple languages while embracing their cultures and identities, the

ironic fact, however, contributes to the underlying issues of equity in bilingual education as we

discussed previously.

Tracing back to the statement of cultural awareness in Yeh et al.’s (2002) research,

scholars put forward such questions to educators and recognize educators’ roles in bilingual

education model. Dubiner, Deeb, and Schwartz’s (2018) study on the relationship between

educators’ perceptions of their roles and children’s language practices showed an evident

correlation between teachers’ perception and children’s acquisition of languages. Analysis in

Graham et al.’s (2021) scholarship also pinpointed educators’ roles in maximizing the

effectiveness of bilingual education. Based on the discussion of existing issues in bilingual

education, we should realize that a gap appears between the current pedagogies and teachers’
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 7

actual practices. In the next section, we will focus on the disconnection between bilingual

education model and educators’ practices in curriculums through listening to educators’

statements of their experience in the programs.

Theme II: Gaps between pedagogies and actual practices

Recalling to the previous disclosure of disconnection between bilingual education

frameworks and educators’ curricular practices from Graham et al.’s (2021) study, it is fair to say

that few educators have competencies in adequate teaching skills and many educators may not be

aware of the power dynamics existing in curriculums, which as a result, unconsciously contribute

to the equity issues in bilingual education (Ostorga & Farruggio, 2020;2018;). However, the

“failure” of bilingual education does not blame on educators’ unreadiness to teach but largely

questions on the ideology of bilingual education (Menken & Solorza, 2014).

According to Ostorga and Farruggio (2020;2018;), the effectiveness of bilingual

education is often determined through standardized test scores without considering other

beneficial outcomes and cultural diversity in the field. The findings from Menken and Solorza’s

(2014) research also illustrated on such vicious cycle existing in many bilingual programs. While

the accountability measure of language proficiency tests already hints the inequity towards

emergent bilinguals, students’ poor performance in these tests are undoubtedly blamed to the

bilingual programs with the pressure on increased English instructions (Menken & Solorza,

2014). In consequence, the series of causal relationships have raised the issue of English

predominance and eventually led to the diminishment of bilingual programs.

Drawing on some data collected from multiple researches, a pattern of “test-driven

ideology” in the contemporary bilingual education model was revealed through educators’

perspectives. For instance, one of the participants from Ostorga and Farruggio’s (2020;2018;)
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 8

study claimed that children are not creating meaningful experience in the bilingual program due

to the limitations in pedagogies, and along with children’s increasing grades, the curriculum

would heavily focus on the preparation for tests. Besides, similar struggles from educators in

bilingual education were described in Oliveira, Lima Becker, and Chang-Bacon’s (2020)

scholarship. The teachers in a Portuguese-English bilingual program expressed their pressure

from English-dominant parents of implementing Portuguese instruction in the classroom

(Oliveira, Lima Becker, & Chang-Bacon, 2020). Unfortunately, the worries from educators in

this program comes down to the dissatisfaction from English-dominant parents resulting in the

dismission of bilingual education programs. The stated facts are collectively pointing out a

general discrepancy between established language policies and educators’ reality in a bilingual

program.

Language policy, as doubtlessly powerful frameworks in the process of formation and

implementation of one education program, affects educators’ decisions on creating authentic

curriculums (Schwartz et al., 2016). However, the reality of many bilingual programs often fails

to incorporate the factors of complex contexts behind philosophies, including demographics,

cultures, and sociologies (Schwartz et al., 2016). Although policies are designated as

fundamental constructions of bilingual programs, inadequate interpretations could result in

negative consequences such as marginalization of racial and linguistic minority children which

also associates to the issue of equity (Palmer & Snodgrass Rangel, 2011). In other words,

educators’ role in this model is not limited on complying with the established policies and

pedagogies, but more critically, negotiates between instructions and actual implementations in

their practices (Schwartz et al., 2016; Palmer & Snodgrass Rangel, 2011). Sadly, Palmer and

Snodgrass Rangel’s (2011) research exhibited that even though many participated teachers are
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 9

aware of the limitations in current language policies and expressed their commitment on the

authentic learning, teachers could only resign themselves to the pressure from linguistic ideology

in bilingual education so that their jobs are saved. Correspondingly, Oliveira, Lima Becker, and

Chang-Bacon (2020) uncovered the fact in which educators’ care of bilingual programs have

obliged them from addressing the power dynamics in this model. The gap between pedagogies

and actual practices has put educators’ positions into dilemmas as we have claimed at the

beginning of this section. Nonetheless, many studies have valued educators’ role as complex and

crucial in challenging the contemporary pedagogies (Flores & García, 2017; Wu, 2017; Yeh et

al., 2002). Furthermore, scholarships have recognized educators’ importance in the process of

policy-making and suggests that critical evaluation to the curriculum should be consistent and

link to children’s cultures (Schwartz et al., 2016).

In general, teachers in bilingual education programs are demonstrating challenges in

different degrees. Many articles focused on analyzing educators’ challenges in bilingual

education in order to envision a more consolidated pedagogy for bilingual education. The

following theme will listen to educators’ voices, and summarize common challenges which

educators are facing in their practices.

Theme III: Educators’ perceptions and challenges in bilingual curriculums

Building on the previous statement of existing issues and disconnections of teacher’s

practices within the bilingual education ideologies, educators as victims from such issues are

facing multiple challenges and creating a sense of confounding in delivering effective bilingual

curriculums to students. Following up to the macro-levels of pedagogies and policies, we will

address on the in-depth surveys with educators’ words on their challenges through experience.

The lists of educators’ challenges will reify the existing problems in bilingual education.
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 10

Bringing back to Schwartz et al.’s (2010) article on the explanation of relationships

between teachers’ understandings of their role and their perception of the bilingual pedagogies

within a given context, one could acknowledge that the competency of educators’ knowledge

plays an important role in scaffolding bilingual curriculums. Despite of the limitation in

ethnography from each research, this section deliberates on the general challenges which

educators are experiencing in the universal bilingual curriculums.

In the research conducted by Yeh et al. (2002), participated bilingual educators are

requested to complete a self-reported competency rating and the result was interesting to show a

connection between educators’ experience and competencies. As many participants from this

study indicated their lack of professional training, Tekin (2016) also found related concerns on

the shortage of professional educators in Omani bilingual education programs. Besides, one of

the teachers from Hebrew-Russian bilingual program expounded on her confusion in giving

language instructions and the majority of her practices were based on intuition and experience

(Schwartz et al., 2010). Moreover, Flores and García’s (2017) investigation on Latinx bilingual

programs also revealed educators’ helplessness of being left with the struggle in constructing

meaningful curriculum for children. Drawing from these instances in a global context, we

highlighted on one of the majors challenges in bilingual educators’ professionalism and their

theoretical knowledge.

As we have concluded previously on the importance of building cultural awareness for

educators, Yeh et al.’s (2002) study provided further data on another pedagogical challenge —

lack of instructional materials in the curriculum. Participants from Yeh et al.’s (2002) study

expressed on the deficiency in culture-related materials within the classroom as such

instructional materials could optimize children’s cultural understandings. Coincidently, the

EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 11

research by Schwartz et al. (2016) on the same ethnic group – Asian bilingual children, also

revealed on the lack of support in curricular resources such as hands on materials. Teachers

claimed that comparing to the English-related resources, the mainly assistant resources in

curriculums came from Mandarin language textbooks (Schwartz et al., 2016). The challenge

towards the consolidated curriculum not only appears among specific ethnic groups but remains

in a broader context of bilingual education. Tekin’s (2016) summary on bilingual educators’

challenges emphasized the shortage of well-designed bilingual curriculums with the connection

to the low-quality materials implemented. Hence, we conclude that the lack of culturally relevant

materials is another major challenge that many educators are experiencing.

Likewise, Tekin’s (2016) report on the challenges in bilingual education has paid close

attention to the relationship between educators and parents in bilingual programs. Tekin (2016)

claimed on the essentiality of building trusted relationship between educators and families as the

foundation of optimal bilingual education. Aligning to this urgence of collaboration, Yeh et al.’s

study (2002) provided us with a detailed data on educators’ concerns of collaboration with

parents. As many parents may not be aware of their own roles in the bilingual education model

and families are often confused on their involvement in children’s learning process. Particularly

when communicating with immigrant families, educators can play an important role in

promoting parental involvement and establishing a reciprocal relationship with parents

(Bermudez & Padron, as cited in Yeh et al., 2002). Menken and Solorza (2014) articulated in

their article that parents’ misconception on English-learning in bilingual program could lead to

children’s failure in learning English in the first place. Alongside with these findings, Schwartz

et al. (2016) demonstrated the importance of parental involvement in the program

conceptualization and emphasized that the bilingual education program could be enhanced only
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 12

if all sectors involving policy makers, educators, and parents can create resonance in carrying out

an authentic bilingual curriculum.

Some other instances of challenges that fluctuate the relation among different

stakeholders includes expensive tuitions of enrolling in bilingual programs, governments’ weak

supervision/ignorance on bilingual curriculums, and educators’ unconfident in speaking foreign

languages (Tekin, 2016). Indeed, we recognize that challenges towards bilingual education

comes from any disconnection within this network. No matter if the problem exists in the

untrusted relationship between educators and parents or the emergence of particular challenge

towards educators comes from the rooted issues in policies, the emphasis of complex networks in

this model traces to the moral compass of child-focused approaches (Dorner & Cervantes‐Soon,

2020).

By now, we have talked through the rooted inequities within bilingual education models

and the negative influence which resulted in the gap between pedagogies and teachers’ actual

practices. Further, the paper addressed on several major challenges that educators expressed in

their reality of implementing bilingual educating. Lastly, we will conclude this paper with

possible strategies in supporting educators and children in the bilingual curriculum.

Theme IV: Strategies of enhancing bilingual curriculums

To illustrate the possible solutions of educators’ challenges in the curriculum, we have to

first interrogate ourselves on the conceptualization of a critical bilingual pedagogy; what does a

critical model of bilingual education look like and how are we going to achieve it? (Dorner &

Cervantes‐Soon, 2020).

In order to change the current overview of bilingual education pedagogies, educators

have to be conscious of their positions in the model. Dorner and Cervanges-Soon (2020)
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 13

suggested that critically listening to students and families’ needs could support educators in their

cultural competency, and therefore facilitates the construction of an equitable bilingual

curriculum. Dorner (2020) further highlighted on the importance for educators to consistently

challenge on the linguistic model in order to against the hegemony of English in bilingual

programs. This aligns with what Dubiner, Deeb, and Schwartz (2018) suggest in their articles as

the concept of critical reflection in modifying authentic experience for children. This suggestion

was proved later through participants’ comments on the effectives of critical reflection. Both

Dorner and Cervanges-Soon’s (2020) study and Dubiner et al.’s (2018) research have

foreshadowed on the continual change and evolution of bilingual programs. To add on, Schwartz

et al.’s (2016) article indicated some related factors which give rise to the continual evolution in

programs, including changes in the demographics of children and the broader linguistic shifts in

societies.

On the other hand, educators’ low-confidence and confusion in delivering bilingual

materials has prompted the urgency of creating professional training programs for anyone is

working in the field of bilingual education (Schwartz et al., 2010; Yeh et al., 2002). According to

Schwartz et al.’s (2010) statement on the correlation between teacher training and teachers’

perception of bilingualism, educators who receive few or no professional training are more likely

to contribute to the English-dominant principle. In turn, educators with theoretical knowledge

can foster culturally inclusive curriculums while enhancing children’s language development.

Respondents from Tekin’s (2016) study also expressed that teacher education programs should

be generalized across countries so that more educators are prepared to address challenging

moments.
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 14

Among different recommendations in terms of improving current bilingual education

programs, an outstanding point drawn from Yeh et al.’s (2002) research on effective strategies

pointed out the necessity of developing cultural consciousness in response to children’s cultural

needs. Aligning to this suggestion, Tekin (2016) put forward that the traditional teaching method

must be changed into a more flexible and cultural-diverse approach. The Development of

cultural consciousness not only supports educators in constructing an equitable curriculum, but

also prevents the hegemony of one particular language in bilingual programs (Graham, Pan, &

Eslami, 2021).

Lastly, looking back on the close relationships among stakeholders in bilingual education

which have been carried throughout the paper, many scholars including Tekin (2016), Dorner and

Cervanges-Soon (2020), and Graham et al. (2021) demonstrated accusations towards policy-

makers in bilingual education and urged a revolution in this field. The conversation on the

constitution of bilingual education pedagogies must involve each stakeholder with their own

preceptive roles in the bilingual education model (Ostorga & Farruggio, 2020;2018;).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the purposes of this paper is to understand the current issues permeating

under the ideology of bilingual education while pinpointing the challenges which educators

encountered. As we looked over the issues of balance/equity in the pedagogies of bilingual

education, it led to our deep considerations on the impacts of such issues to different

stakeholders in this programme (Dorner & Cervantes‐Soon, 2020). The analysis of the

inequitable issue allows us to re-examine the bilingual education as a complex network among

government, policy makers, educators, families, and children. Furthermore, the expositions of

teachers’ challenges in bilingual education has proved on the reciprocal connections between
EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 15

each sectors and the possible solutions to these underlying issues have to start with the critical

reflection on each one’s roles in particular (Yeh et al., 2002).

Drawing from the important themes of this paper, we recognize that similarities exist in

bilingual educators’ challenges and the current issues of bilingual education models. Despite of

the specific ethnography of different researches, this paper intends to draw attention to the

existing problems of bilingual education within the global context. While the majority of

scholarships in this field conducted a qualitative method, the in-depth responses from individuals

could provide readers with detailed examples under particular context. Moreover, the in-depth

responses from educators have empowered their voices in the field.

This paper concludes with the suggestion that future studies should not only focusing on

the benefits of bilingual education, but also critically critiquing on the related issues in bilingual

programs in worldwide. Besides, future practices need to pay attention to educators’ perspectives

in policy-making process and scholarships in the relevant educational field. This paper can be

utilized as a reference for any further studies in related topics and recommendations from this

paper can be referred as strategies in addressing future challenges in bilingual education.

EXAMINING BILINGUAL EDUCATION THROUGH TEACHERS’ LENS 16

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