Chapter one

 Introduction
 Discussion about accident , brake system and advanced emergency brake system

Driving is a compulsory activity for most people. People use their cars to move from one place
to another place. The number of vehicles is increasing day by day. Nowadays, accidents are
increasing and are uncertain. An accident will occur every time and everywhere and cause the
worst damage, serious injury, and even death. These accidents are mostly caused by the delay of
the driver to hit the brake.(Bu and Tan 2007). Accident statistics reveal that driving at an
inappropriate speed is the primary cause of most accidents. Other accident sources are incorrect
use of the road, failure to maintain the safety margin to the preceding vehicle, errors concerning
right-of-way and traffic priority, errors occurring when making turns, and driving under the
influence of alcohol.(WHO 2019)

Accidents involving commercial truck vehicles rarely occur due to brake failures but occur
frequently due to brake defects and driver delay to hit the brake at emergency time. Typical
brake-related defects include oversize drums, worn-out brake linings, out-of-adjustment push rod
strokes, and leaks in the system. Statistics indicate that truck tractors pulling semi-trailers
accounted for 63% of the trucks involved in fatal crashes and about 47% of the trucks involved
in non-fatal crashes. About 25% of the crashes involving trucks are due to brake deficiency, 60%
are because of the delay of the driver to apply the brake at exact stopping distance and time and
the remaining 15% is because of road condition (Tilahun et el 2015).

The common braking of ISUZU truck is not sufficient for the avoidance of accidents when a
driver is not active. Further improvement has to be done in the braking system of commercial
vehicles in order to stop a vehicle when a driver is not able to apply a brake at the emergency
time therefore, it may need an automatic braking system. This Thesis proposal is designed to
develop a new system that can solve this problem where drivers may not brake manually but the
vehicles can stop automatically due to obstacles. The automatic braking system allows the
vehicle to brake without the support of the driver. The work presents on this advanced
emergency braking system for forward collision avoidance of ISUZU truck is with the help of a
sensing unit, controlling unit and an actuating unit which actuates brake at emergency time.

o Back ground of the study will include

 What is brake

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy from a moving system it
is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most
often accomplished by means of friction. The main function of the brake system is to decelerate
or decrease the speed of a vehicle. By stepping on the brake pedal, the brake pads compress
against the rotor attached to the wheel, which then forces the vehicle to slow down due to
friction.
The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into thermal
energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force several times
as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy as
heat. Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods of time regardless how
fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to generating high torque
and absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods of time.
International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology
An ISO 3297: 2007 Certified Organization Volume 3, Special Issue 2, April 2014
Second National Conference on Trends in Automotive Parts Systems and Applications (TAPSA-
2014) (9-TAPS )
Braking systems are indispensable for the roadworthiness and safe operation of a motor vehicle
in road traffic conditions. They are therefore subject to strict legal requirements. The increasing
effectiveness and sophistication demanded of braking systems over the course of time has meant
that the mechanical systems have been continually improved. With the advent of
microelectronics, the braking system has become a complex electronic system.
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_3, © Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden 2014
Functions of Brake system
(a) The braking system must decelerate a vehicle in a controlled and repeatable fashion and
when appropriate cause the vehicle to stop.
(b) The braking system should permit the vehicle to maintain a constant speed when travelling
downhill.
(c) The braking system must hold the vehicle stationary when on a flat or on a gradient.
Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design; ISBN: 9780750650441
2001 Julian Happian-Smith.

 Historical development of brake

The first use of the wheel is dated to 5,000 B.C. usually, cattle were used as draft animals; later,
horses and donkeys were also used. The invention of the wheel made it necessary to invent the
brake. After all, a horse-drawn carriage traveling downhill had to be slowed down, not only to
keep its speed within controllable limits, but also to prevent it running into the back of the
horses. This was likely done using wooden rods braced against the ground or the wheel disks.
Beginning around 700 B.C., wheels acquired iron tires to prevent premature wear of the wheel
rim.
Wooden block brakes.
The earliest brake system applied the physical principles used to design brakes today; however,
the system consisted only of wooden blocks and a single lever used by the driver to apply the
brake. This form was used on vehicles with steel-rimmed wheels, including horse-drawn vehicles
and steam-driven automobiles In 1817, at the dawn of the industrial age,Baron Karl Drais rode
from Karlsruhe in southern Germany to Kehl, proving to a stunned public that it is possible to
ride on two wheels without falling over. As he surely had difficulty stopping when driving
downhill, his last, 1820 model featured a friction brake on the rear wheel (Fig. 1).
 Figure .Baron Karl Drais’ wheel with friction brake, 1820
In 1850, the iron axle was introduced in carriage construction, along with the shoe brake. In this
type of brake, brake shoes were pressed against the metallic running surface of the iron-coated
wooden wheels. The shoe brake could be operated from the driver’s seat with the aid of a crank
handle and a gear linkage (Fig. 2).

Figure .Shoe brake with crank and linkage on a carriage (diagram)

Band and external shoe brakes
As solid rubber tires quickly became established for motor vehicles (beginning with the
triangular Benz motorcar in 1886 and the Daimler steel-wheeled car of 1889) and were soon
replaced by air-filled rubber tires for a more comfortable ride, the era of the shoe brake in
automobiles had already come to an end. From then on, band brakes (flexible steel brake bands
that braked either directly or via several brake shoes riveted to the inside) or external shoe brakes
(rigid cast iron or steel brake shoes with brake linings) began to be used. These pedal-operated
brakes worked with external brake drums that were normally installed at the front on the
intermediate drive shaft or on the drive axle in the rear wheel area.
 Figure .Daimler steel-wheeled car with band brake,1889\
Internal shoe drum brakes with mechanical cable activation
Over time, vehicles became faster and heavier. Therefore, they required a more effective brake
system. Thus band and external shoe brakes soon gave way to the internal shoe drum brake, for
which Louis Renault applied for a patent in 1902. A spreading mechanism pushed two crescent-
shaped brake shoes against the inner surface of the cast iron or steel brake drums, which were
connected to the wheel. Due to its self-reinforcing effect, the drum brake features low operating
forces compared to the braking forces, long maintenance periods and long-lasting linings. At
first, the braking force was transmitted to the two drum brakes of the rear wheels using brake
cables. Beginning in about 1920, vehicles were fitted with drum brakes on all four wheels. The
braking force was still transmitted using mechanical means, i.e. levers, joints and brake cables.
These cable-operated drum brakes remained in use for a long time.
Hydraulic brake activation
The main problem of the cable brake was the great maintenance effort and the uneven braking
effect caused by uneven friction during mechanical transmission. This was remedied when
Lockheed introduced a hydraulically actuated brake in 1919. A special brake fluid now
transmitted the brake pedal force uniformly to the actuating cylinders of the wheel brakes over
metal lines and hoses, without the need for levers, joints and cables. Hydraulic brake activation
also made it possible to amplify the foot pressure applied by the driver by using intake manifold
depression as a source of power for a brake servo system. The principle was patented in 1919 by
Hispano-Suiza. In 1926, the “Adler Standard” was the first car in Europe to be equipped with a
hydraulic brake system. The first hydraulic braking force reinforcement in auto racing were used
in the Mercedes-Benz “Silver Arrows” in 1954. This ultimately became standard equipment for
many mass-production vehicles.

Disk brake
Although British automaker Lancaster had patented the disk brake in 1902, it was a long time
until this type of brake was introduced. Not until some fifty years later, beginning in 1955, did
the legendary Citroën DS-19 become the first mass-produced car to be fitted with disk brakes.
The disk brake was derived from the multi-plate brake and was initially developed for the
aircraft industry. In the disk brake, one brake lining presses the brake disk from the inside and
outside. The brake disk (which is normally made of cast iron or, less commonly, of steel) is
connected to the wheel. Its advantage is its simple and easy-to-assemble structure. It also
counteracts the reduction in braking effect caused by overheating and prevents misalignment of
the wheels of an axle. The first German car with disk brakes on the front wheels was the BMW
502 in 1959. The first German cars to have disk brakes on all four wheels were the Mercedes 300
SE, the Lancia Flavia and the Fiat 2300 in 1961. Today, virtually all cars have a disk braking
system, at least on the front wheels. In 1974.

http://crosleyautoclub.com/Crosley_Q-A.html#Brakes

Air Brake System

George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air
brake on March 5, 1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured
brake invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake. The air brake system is one
of the most important safety systems on a vehicle. Air brake systems are carefully designed with
valves, tubing, or hoses, etc., selected to result in balanced vehicle braking performance – where
all the brakes apply as close to simultaneously as possible and with the desired amount of force.
Air brake hand book

 cause and effect of accident in the world and in Ethiopia

rivew on accident in ethiopia (dawit olma)

Every day around the world, more than 3000 people die from road traffic injury. Low-income
and middle-income countries account for about 85% of the deaths and for 90% of the annual
disability-adjusted life years lost because of road traffic injury. Projections show that, between
2000 and 2020, road traffic deaths will decline by about 30% in high-income countries
butincrease substantially in low-income and middle-income countries. Without appropriate
action, by 2020, road traffic injuries are predicted to be the third leading contributor to the global
burden of disease and injury. (World Health Organization, WHO 2009)

Table: 1 Change in rank order of DALYs for the 10 leading causes of diseases.
Source: WHO global burden of diseases (World Health Organization, WHO 2009)

According to the world health organization, the first comprehensive analysis of road traffic
crashes in Ethiopia using police-reported crash data. Road traffic crashes pose a significant
burden in Ethiopia, as is the case for other developing countries. Currently, developing countries
contribute to over 90% of the world’s road traffic fatalities (WHO, 2009 ) and overall road injury
disability-adjusted life year (DALYs) increased by 2.5% between 1990 and 2010, with pedestrian
injury DALYs increasing by 12.9%, more than any other category (Murray, Lozano, Naghavi , &
et al, 2012). This finding implies that a pedestrian injury on the road is a problem that has
increased at a global level and is disproportionately attributable to developing countries.
 Figure accident in Ethiopia (federal police commision)
According to the federal police commission report, pedestrians and passenger are the highly
likely victims of fatality accidents as shown in figure 6 below. Most accidents occur because
drivers do not give priority to pedestrians. Hence, major work needs to be done by concerned
Organizations to safeguard the safety of passengers and pedestrians and save lives.

Figure 6. Traffic accident death by road user category

Source : Federal police commission annual report (2007)
 effect of stopping distance

Stopping distance is an important design parameter which influences e.g. geometric design, road
safety, construction cost. The stopping distance consists of the reaction distance and the braking
distance
.(DETERMINATION OF BRAKING DISTANCE AND DRIVER BEHAVIOUR BASED ON BRAKING
TRIALS Article · January 2014 Poul Greibe)
The distance being traveled each second during the stop is always greater at the beginning of the
stop. To keep stopping distance as short as possible, it is important that the brakes become fully
effective when the pedal is depressed by the driver. Any time lost between the instant the brake
pedal is depressed and the instant actual deceleration begins is important because the vehicle
continues to travel at close to its initial speed. In this case, the loss of only one second between
the instant the driver depresses the brake pedal and the point where the brakes are really applied
will result in lengthening the actual stopping distance
www.bendix.com 1-800-AIR-BRAKE (1-800-247-2725)(bendex AIR BRAKE)

Evolution of the Federal Mandate

On March 10, 1995, NHTSA published Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) No.
121, Air Brake Systems. In part, this rule re-established stopping distance requirements for
medium and heavy trucks. The mandate replaced earlier stopping distance requirements that had
been invalidated in 1978 because of reliability issues with antilock braking systems. Under
FMVSS No. 121, stopping distance requirements varied according to vehicle type. Most truck
tractors were required to stop within 355 feet when tested at 60 mph while pulling an un-braked
control trailer in the loaded-to-GVWR (gross vehicle weight rating) condition. Unloaded, truck
tractors were required to stop within 335 feet. A decade later, NHTSA set out to update the rules.
On Dec. 15, 2005, the agency published an NPRM to amend FMVSS No. 121. NHTSA sought to
reduce stopping distance by 20 to 30 percent.
For heavy trucks in the unloaded condition, the agency has reduced the specified stopping
distance from 60 mph by 30 percent, from 335 feet to 235 feet. This requirement applies to all
tractors.
According to NHTSA, it drafted the final rule to “advance the safety and braking performance of
truck tractors without imposing overly high costs on the trucking industry or requiring technical
advances beyond what are available in the commercial market today. The agency moved to
amend the braking standard to reduce the number of fatalities and injuries associated with
crashes involving heavy trucks and other vehicles.
Expected Benefits of Reduced Stopping Distances
According to the FMCSA, 3,757 people were killed in crashes involving large trucks in
2011, the most recent year for which statistics are available. During 2010, 3,686 people died in
truck crashes. In 2011, 88,000 people were injured in large-truck accidents; in
2010, 80,000 people were injured.

As estimated by NHTSA, once all heavy truck tractors on the road are equipped with enhanced
braking systems capable of meeting the new stopping distance requirements, approximately 227
lives will be saved and 300 serious injuries will be prevented annually. In terms of property
damage, NHTSA estimates an annual savings of more than $169 million. This amount alone is
expected to exceed the total cost to fleets and owner-operators seeking new technology to meet
the rule. With increased braking power, drivers in panic situations may be able to avert many
collisions that, in the past, were often unavoidable.
According to an overview of recent studies (Rósen et al., 2011): at a collision speed of 20 km/h
nearly all pedestrians survive a crash with a passenger car; about 90% survive at a collision
speed of 40 km/h, at a collision speed of 80 km/h the number of survivors is less than 50%, and
at a collision speed of 100 km/h only 10% of the pedestrians survive.
Rosén, E., Stigson, H. & Sander, U. (2011). Literature review of pedestrian fatality risk as a
function of car impact speed. In: Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 43, nr. 1, p. 25-33.
 solution of accident
o ABS system

In road vehicles, the unwanted skidding phenomenon can be prevented by means of active
braking control systems. As a matter of fact, most modern road vehicles are equipped with
electronic ABS. ABS can greatly improve the safety of a vehicle in extreme circumstances, since
it can maximise the longitudinal tyre–road friction while keeping large lateral (directional) forces
that ensure vehicle drivability. The use of automatic braking control systems has also been
extended to electronic stability control (ESC) systems [27, 39, 45,]).
27. Gissinger, G., Menare, C., Constans, A.: A mechatronic conception of a new intelligent
braking system. Control Engineering Practice 11, 163–170 (2003)
39. Johansen, T., Petersen, I., Kalkkuhl, J., L¨udemann, J.: Hybrid control strategies in ABS. In:
Proceedings of the American Control Conference, Washington DC,
USA (2001)
45. Kiencke, U., Nielsen, L.: Automotive Control Systems. Springer, Berlin (2000)

Antilock braking system (ABS)

An electronic braking system was first used on a volume-production vehicle in 1978. ABS
(Antilock Braking System) prevents the wheels locking up and the vehicle becoming
uncontrollable under heavy braking. As with conventional systems, an ABS system has a
mechanical link between the brake pedal and the brakes. But it also incorporates an additional
component, the hydraulic modulator. Solenoid valves in the hydraulic modulator are controlled
in such a way that if the degree of wheel slip exceeds a certain amount, the brake pressure in the
individual wheel cylinders is selectively limited to prevent the wheels locking.
K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_3, © Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden 2014. Anti-Lock brake system If wheels lockup due to panic braking, steering control
is lost. Anti-lock brakes detect locked wheels and rapidly pump the brakes. A computer with a
series of sensors monitors the speed of the wheels and, if necessary, signals the brakes to be
pulsed.
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET)e-ISSN: 2395-
0056Volume: 07 Issue: 03| Mar2020www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072( IRJET v7131)

o TCS system
Traction Control (TCS) is an option that is often found on vehicles equipped with antilock brake
systems (ABS). Traction control is essentially an "add-on" feature to ABS that improves traction
when the vehicle is accelerating on a wet or slick surface, or is accelerating too quickly for the
tires to maintain their grip. Traction control prevents wheel spin by applying the brakes on the
drive wheel that is losing traction, and/or momentarily reducing engine torque by various
methods. The main difference between ABS and TCS, therefore, is that ABS only comes into
play when braking while TCS only comes into play while accelerating. The primary input to the
TCS control program comes from the wheel speed sensors. The sensors continually monitor the
speed of the wheels anytime the vehicle is moving. The sensors generate a signal that is
proportional to wheel speed, so by comparing wheel speeds the ABS/TCS system can detect
changes that indicate a wheel is losing traction, skidding or spinning. When traction control is
needed, it applies the brakes on the drive wheel(s) that is losing traction. Slowing the wheel
allows it to regain traction. At the same time, torque is shifted through the open differential to the
opposite wheel that still has traction. (Gerstenmeier, 1986; Demel and Hemming,
1989).ENRESO.WORLD(2526)

o ESC system

Electronic stability control (ESC)

The stability systems referred to in this section is for directional stability under slippery road
conditions. These systems are originally sprung from ABS and traction control systems that has
been developed for more advanced wheel control (van Zanten et al., 1995). Today, these systems
offer holistic control of each individual wheel of the car. By comparing the steering input with
the yaw motion and lateral acceleration of the vehicle the system identifies if the car is about to
lose directional control. To avoid loss of control, and to offer correction of control wheels that
are about to spin or slide can be individually controlled by exact braking or by reducing engine
power.

Roll Stability Control System

This type of stability systems are designed to increase the rollover stability of vehicles with
elevated center of gravity. One of the most common types of accidents among this vehicle type is
tripping (meaning that the vehicle strikes a low object, such as a curb or shallow ditch, causing it
to tip over). Due to the high number of rollover accidents this type of systems are becoming
increasingly common on the market. Basically the rollover control acts more or less like an anti-
skid (ESC) system with an additional roll sensor for measuring the tendency to tip sideways.
When the vehicle reaches a critical lateral acceleration during a turn the most common
intervention is to apply the brake on the outer wheels to induce understeering. This limits the
vehicles proneness to rollover when turning too sharp in a curve. The first Roll Stability Control
system (RSC) was incorporated in a car 2003. An original ESP system can also be equipped with
additional Rollover Mitigation Functions (RMF) without additional roll sensors (Liebemann, et
al. 2004). Some manufacturers are introducing alternative systems with advanced active
suspension controls to mitigate rollover. More advanced versions of the system with Rollover
Protection, also incorporates a function that inflates the side airbag curtains at onset of a tip/roll.
References
Forkenbrock, G.J. (2004). NHTSA’s Handling and ESC 2004 Research Program – An
Uptade. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/vrtc/ca/esc.htm (2007-05-11)
Forkenbrock, G.J. & Garrot, W.R. (2005). “NHTSA’s Light Vehicle ESC Research
Program”, SAE presentation June 09, 2005.
Forkenbrock, G.J, & Elsasser, D.H. (2005). ”An assessment of human driver steering
capability”, DOT HS 809 875.

 Aerodynamic drag force effect on truck :show the possible way of using
drag force as auxiliary brake at emergency time by using automatic wind
deflector

Aerodynamic drag force effect on truck

In the field of commercial goods transport, trucks have an important place. One of the main
problems faced by truck manufacturers is the Air resistance associated with the highway running.
Since trucks have a large frontal area and the presence of a trailer also leads to the truck
experiencing significant resistance which has to be overcome. This can be reduced through the
use of wind deflectors. A well-designed wind deflector can reduce wind resistance to a certain
extent.
Optimizing the angle of the wind deflector also causes reduced drag force acting on the vehicle,
thereby reducing the fuel Intake .
(Aerodynamic analysis and optimization of wind deflector in a
Commercial load transport vehicle.
Ramesh D K a , Rajesha R b , Snehashree K B b , Shashanka A Bhat b ,Manogna N R b)
To save energy and to protect the global environment, fuel consumption reduction is a primary
concern of automotive development. In vehicle body development, reduction of drag is essential
for improving fuel consumption and driving performance [1]. [1]. Xu Yan, Jian Ye, Zhiming
Zhao, Xingjun Hu, Lei Liao 2011 “Effect of Vortex Generators on Aerodynamic Characteristics
of a Car” Advanced Material Research ISSN: 1662-8985, Vols. 418-420, pp 1873-1877
but in this thesis the wind deflector has two main advantage the first advantage is reduce the
aerodynamic drag of the truck to minimize the fuel consumption and exhaust emissions to the
surrounding by giving aerodynamic efficient shape to the truck the second main advantage of the
wind deflector on the truck is increase the frontal area of the truck due to emergency brake by
raising up through pneumatic cylinder.

 Discussion about electromagnetic system configuration

Electromagnetic brake system

An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as electromagnets. An
electromagnet works on the magnetic effect of current. It has been found that if a soft iron rod
called core is placed inside a solenoid, then the strength of the magnetic field becomes very large
because the iron ore is magnetized by induction. [5]Kesavamurthy, N., ‘‘Eddy-current in solid
iron due to alternating magnetic flux,’’ TheInstitution of Engineers Monograph, No. 339U, pp.
207–
213, June, 1959,

Electromagnetic braking system consist of solenoid coil which is uses principle of

electromagnetic effect of electrical current for Braking. This is combination of Electrical and
Mechanical components here Electrical energy is used to apply braking torque or retardation.The
eddy current brake which used in this thesis project does not have any mechanical contact with
the propeller shaft of the truck, and thus no wear and tear of it, and creates no noise. Because the
braking force is directly proportional to the speed, the eddy current brake itself can never
completely stop a truck but it is often necessary to bring the truck to a complete stop with an
additional set of fin brakes (friction brakes) and aerodynamic brake(automatic wind deflector ).
Discussion about electro mechanical system

o Sensor

American National Standards Institute state that sensor is a device which provides a usable
output in response to a specified measurement. A sensor acquires a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical).

Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical phenomena into an electrical

signal. Active element of a sensor is called a transducer. Instrument Society of America. 1975.
Electrical Transducer Nomenclature and Terminology. ANSI Standard MC6.1. Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina: Instrument Society of America.
o controller

A controller, in a computing context, is a hardware device or a software program that manages or

directs the flow of data between two entities. In computing, controllers may be cards, microchips
or separate hardware devices for the control of a peripheral device. In a general sense, a
controller can be thought of as something or someone that interfaces between two systems and
manages communications between them. A device controller is a system that handles the
incoming and outgoing signals of the CPU. A device is connected to the computer via a plug and
socket, and the socket is connected to a device controller. Device controllers use binary and
digital codes. https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/controller

o actuator
Actuation is the process of conversion of energy to mechanical form. A device that accomplishes
this conversion is called actuator. Actuator plays a very important role while implementing
control. The controller provides command signal to the actuator for actuation. There are many
types of actuators available depending on the load involved. The term load is associated with
many factors including force, torque, and speed of operation, accuracy, precision and power
consumption. Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are under fluid power actuators. Fluid power
refers to energy that is transmitted via a fluid under pressure. When a pressure is applied to a
confined chamber containing a piston, the piston will exert a force causing a motion. The piston
will move if the difference in force across the piston is larger than the total load plus the friction
forces.
https://sepac.com/blog/why-switch-from-hydraulic-to-electromechanical-actuator-solutions/

1.1. Statement of the Problem

Air brake systems is type of brake which are mostly used in heavy commercial vehicles like
buses, straight trucks, and combination vehicles such as tractor-trailers. Proper functioning of the
brake system of a commercial truck vehicle is critical not only from the safety viewpoint of the
vehicle itself but also for other vehicles and passengers in traffic. Any accident involving a
commercial truck vehicle results not only in an economic loss of the goods transported but also
in loss of life.
The conventional pneumatic brake system converts the drivers‟ foot pressure into pneumatic
pressure of the brake actuators to stop the vehicle. This convectional pneumatic brakes system
have the following chief problems
1. Common braking is not sufficient for the avoidance of accidents when a driver is not active.
2. The vehicle's safety is extremely dependent on the driver's state
The appropriate stopping distance for the vehicle may not be maintained at the time of the
emergency braking. Hence this thesis proposal aims to provide the safety measures for driver and
passenger eliminating the above-mentioned problems by integrating the elector-mechanical
system to detect the existence of the obstacle, measure the distance between vehicle and obstacle,
measure the weight and speed of the vehicle, give alert for the driver and if the driver neglect to
apply the brake at the predetermined stopping distance the system will apply wheel brake, engine
brake, and aerodynamic brake automatically before collision will happen. If this thesis proposal
finishes and works physically the accident occurs by delaying the driver to apply the brake at the
emergency time will decrease 80% from the total accident that occurs by a delay of the driver to
apply the brake at exact stopping distance and time.

1.2. Objectives of the proposal

1.2.1. General objective
 The general objective to design and simulation of advanced emergency brake system for
commercial truck vehicle specially for ISUZU truck
1.2.2. Specific objective
The main objective of this thesis proposal will be achieved through the following specific
objectives:

 Select proper sensors, ECU, actuator

 Design emergency brake system closed-loop configuration
 Write the controller program
 Develop the circuit diagram
 Design automatic wind deflector as aerodynamic brake
 Develop the final prototype and show the working principle of the system

1.3. Significance of the proposal

This thesis proposal work is done for the vehicles that are operating with conventional pneumatic
braking systems such as heavy-duty vehicles, commercial truck vehicle and commercial
passenger vehicle specially for ISUZU truck to make automatic actuation of the brakes during
the time of emergency braking and support the wheel and engine brake by using automatically
operated wind deflector as aerodynamic brake during unexpected obstacle and vehicle is occur in
front of moving vehicle.
When this thesis proposal is finished, it will play a great role for
 The reduction of vehicle accidents and loss of lives
 The reduction of economic loss due to vehicle accident
  The reduction of infrastructures damage due to collision
 The reduction of the intensity of the collision
 The application of appropriate stopping distance in heavy-duty vehicles
 The reduction of drivers stress for the safety consideration

1.4. Scope of the proposal

The scope of this project is to design and develop a prototype of an advanced emergency brake
system with mechanical, electrical, and pneumatic parts operating in an integrated manner and
prepare complete documentation on what basic sciences and working efforts have to be
considered to develop an advanced emergency brake system for ISUZU truck by
electromechanical system. This thesis proposal also shows how ultrasonic sensor detects the
obstacle, infrared ray measure speed and weight sensor measure weight on the vehicle and how
the controller process the output from the sensor, to control the relay as an Actuator for
controlling of the solenoid valve of the pneumatic brake system and wind deflector (as an
auxiliary aerodynamic brake) to develop a usable advanced emergency braking system for
ISUZU truck as a prototype. but this thesis proposal will not cover and give detail about the
science behind their method of data transferring, coding and material configuration of some of
the electrical device which used for sensing and controlling of the system, because the main
objective of this thesis proposal is to design and develop advanced emergency brake system for
ISUZU truck by selecting the appropriate sensing, controlling and actuating device based on the
general-purpose to integrate with the conventional pneumatic brake system and apply the brake
at emergency time

o limitation of the study

o organization of the study
 Chapter two

 literature review
 literature review about emergency brake systems

Bhumkar (2012IJETT v31P234) presents a system of accident avoidance & detection on

highways. This project is about advanced technologies in cars for making it more intelligent and
interactive for avoiding accidents on roads. This system is about advanced technology in cars for
making it more intelligent & interactive for avoiding accidents on roads. The purpose of such a
model is to advance a system to detect fatigue symptoms in drivers and control the speed of
vehicle to avoid accidents. ARM is using for making this system more efficient, reliable &
effective. In this system, they have described real-time online safety prototypes that control the
vehicle speed under driver fatigue. The purpose of this system is to avoid accidents. The main
component of this system consists of a number of real-time sensors like gas, eye blink, alcohol,
fuel impact sensor & software is interface with GPS & Google maps APIs for location. Through
this research work, they have proposed an intelligent car system for accident prevention &
making the world a much better.

IJSTE - International Journal of Science Technology & Engineering | Volume 4 | Issue 10 | April
2018 ISSN (online): 2349-784X All rights reserved by www.ijste.org 102

M. Rajyalakshmi B. Kranthi Kumar (2018 IJSTE v4110064) present Design and Fabrication of
Intelligent Mechatronic Braking System In this paper, they use ultrasonic sensors in safety
systems for controlling the speed of a vehicle is proposed. An intelligent mechatronic system
includes an ultrasonic wave emitter and receiver provided on the front portion of a car emitting
and receiving ultrasonic waves frontward in a predetermined distance. Then a microcontroller is
used to control the speed of the vehicle based on the detection pulse information to push the
brake pedal and apply brake to the car stupendously for safety purpose. The extremely rapid
response time provided by the electronic control can be used for crucially shortening the braking
distance by introducing advanced control of braking system operation.

S.Ruthara Kumar et al,[7] presented the implementation of a digital driving system for a semi-
autonomous vehicle to improve the efficiency of driver-vehicle interface using PIC based data
acquisition system. The vehicle detects the speed breaker and also some primary zones before
certain limitation by tags using UART module for introducing the new invention of priority
based Intelligent Braking System (IBS) .
[7] S.Ruthara Kumar et al, “IMPLEMENTATION OF INTELLIGENT BRAKING SYSTEM (IBS) USING
UART FOR VEHICLE CONTROL SYSTEM”, International Journal of Advanced Research Trends in
Engineering and Technology (IJARTET), 2016, Vol. 3, Issue 1, PP 93-96

Tushar Kavatkar et al (2012) proposed ultrasonic control collision avoidance system. The
braking system was designed and applied on a car to make the driving process safe using
embedded system design. Most of the accident occurs due to the delay of the driver to hit the
brake, so in this project work braking system is developed such that when it is active it can apply
brake depending upon the object sensed by the ultrasonic sensor to stop the vehicle at emergency
time without driver command. Using ultrasonic sensors. A microcontroller is used to control the
braking of the vehicle based on the detection pulse. Currently, vehicles are often equipped with
active safety systems to reduce the risk of accidents, many of which occur in urban
environments.
Tushar Kavatkar et al, “Design and Analysis of Intelligent Braking System”, IJEDR, 2017, Vol.
5, Issue 1, PP 119-131
Yared (2019) proposed the automatic braking control system of Sino truck work using different
sensor and electrical component. Ultrasonic sensors work on the principle of reflected sound
waves and are used to measure distance. The microcontroller acts as the bridge between the
sensors and solenoid by receiving an electrical signal from the ultrasonic sensors and sending the
signal to the relay to activate a solenoid so that solenoid plunger can be actuated pressed the foot
valve and have a brake at emergency time .this system depending only stopping distance of the
vehicle not consider other parameter such as speed of vehicle and weight.

Abubakar R Golandaj (2014) proposed automatic sensor operated pneumatic braking system. he
state that This Braking system is consists of IR transmitter and Receiver circuit, Control Unit,
Pneumatic breaking system. The IR sensor is used to detect the obstacle. There is any obstacle in
the path, the IR sensor senses the obstacle and giving the control signal to the breaking system.
The pneumatic braking system is used to brake the system. The control circuit is used to activate
the solenoid valve. If the solenoid valve is activated, the compressed air passes to the Double
Acting Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activate the pneumatic cylinder and moves the
piston rod. If the piston moves forward, then the braking arrangement activated. The ac motor
and a pulley with belt drive arrangement used for the movement of the wheel. The braking
arrangement is used to brake the wheel gradually or suddenly due to the piston movement. The
braking speed is varied by adjusting the valve is called “flow control valve”.
.(IEJET V61 AUTOMATIC SENSOR OPERATED PNEUMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM
Abubakar R Golandaj)

Rahul Nair Pappully (2014) conduct a research on Design and Fabrication of Active Hood Lift
System In this research, the active hood lift system is designed to enhance the performance for
protection of pedestrians. The active hood lift system lifts the hood when the vehicle hits a
pedestrian, thus mitigating head injury to the pedestrian. The hood is lifted using two double
acting Pneumatic cylinders that are fixed under the bonnet/hood of the model. When the sensors
that are fixed on the bumper detect a pedestrian crash, the pneumatic cylinders lift the hood
instantly to a height of ten centi-meter thus creating space beneath the hood and providing a
cushioning effect. Therefore, the active hood lift system has been developed to ensure sufficient
space to avoid the collision of the pedestrian head with hard parts and used reduce seriousness of
pedestrian injury
And decrease the vehicle damage during an accident
.(IEJET V41 REVIEW Design and Fabrication of Active Hood Lift System Rahul Nair Pappully
1 , Hemanth Mandava 2 , Manu Abhishek 3 , Mr. Satish Kumar 4)
Dhanya (2012) has proposed the technology of an advanced automatic braking system with a
sensor fusion concept. In this, they use the properties of both capacitive & ultrasonic sensors for
detecting the existence of obstacle and calculating the distance between the vehicle and the
obstacle, and this distance measurement is used to control automatic braking systems for safety
application. In this system, they use the 32-bit microcontroller with ARM processor (LPC2138)
as the brain of this system for controlling the process. The additional feature included in the
system are automatic retarding & automatic horn disabling in the restricted area, this is done
through RF signal communication. The RF transmitter is placed in the restricted area, where the
speed is limited & the horn is restricted. RF transmitter placed in the traffic signal, transmit the
value of limited speed in km/hr & a signal corresponding for disabling the horn and
automatically reduce speed into particular rate & horn is disabling in that area.
Huang et al. (2009) proposed an alternative system for junction collisions based on vehicle to
vehicle communications. They stated that traditional vehicle collision warning and avoidance
systems did not work well in the case of perpendicular path intersection accidents. One of the
main reasons for this was that most vehicle based threat detection systems required line of sight
to the hazard and that this was not always available at a junction. Then they develop system that
overcame the line of sight limitations of vehicle sensor based systems and did not require the
infrastructure support of vehicle to infrastructure communication systems. However, they
acknowledge that a drawback of this system was that its effectiveness was dependent on the
number of vehicles using it. Research was underway to assess the critical mass of equipped
vehicles that might be required before substantial benefits were observed.

Niveditha.P.R1(20--) proposed Collision Warning System using Ultrasonic Sensors and

Automatic Brake System This system develop electro mechanical system to prevent accidents of
vehicles using Stereo Multi-Purpose cameras, Automated Emergency Braking Systems and
Ultrasonic Sensors. The stereo multi-purpose camera provides spatial intelligence of up to 50
meters in front of the vehicle and there is an environment recognition of 500 meters. The vehicle
with this system can automatically brake due to obstacles or any hindrance when the sensor
senses the obstacles. The braking circuit function is to brake the car automatically after receiving
signal from the sensors. This Integrated safety systems are based on three principles. They are:
collision avoidance, collision mitigation braking systems and forward collision warning.
Collision Warning System using Ultrasonic Sensors and Automatic Brake System
Niveditha.P.R1 and S.Gowri2

Gopal P. Gawande1 (2014)et.al, proposed Speed Control and Automatic Braking System. The
main objective of this paper is to design speed control & automatic braking system in the
vehicle. They state that the speed control & automatic braking system will involve the electronic
circuits such as sensor, relay, control system, microcontroller, signal transmitter and signal
receiver, Peripheral Interface Circuit (PIC). In this project they try to apply the skill and
knowledge of designing electronic circuit for the speed control & automatic braking system.
They use the software Proteus to design the circuit. The concept in designing the speed control &
automatic braking system is strategic control of an accident being vehicles. For this project they
use ultrasonic sensor for detection the obstacle & IR sensor for automatic braking system
purpose. The system will be design to prevent the driver and passenger inside the vehicle from
accident

International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJER) Gopal P. Gawande1 Shruti
V. Gavhale2, Irshad A. Zariye3, Sagar P. Ritpurkar4 EXTC Department, AVBIT, Pawnar
(WARDHA), Maharashtra (INDIA)

Ezoe et al. (2006) proposed a report on a collision mitigation braking system for trucks. The
system comprises of a millimeter wave radar sensor, yaw rate sensor and steering wheel angle
sensor, the outputs of which are processed to predict the likelihood of a collision occurring. This
report shows that if the likelihood of a rear end collision with an obstacle ahead is judged as
probable, audible and visual warnings are provided to alert the driver and an automatic braking
impulse is triggered to provide further warning. Should the driver fail to react to the warnings
when the collision likelihood is judged as being high the system applies full autonomous braking
in order to reduce the impact speed via the vehicle EBS.

Nitsche and Schulz (2004) discuss potential automotive applications of the ALASCA laser
scanner with particular reference to warning and emergency brake systems. They claim that the
device, coupled with appropriate analysis algorithms, this ALASCA laser scanner is capable of
detecting and separately classifying the following classes of road user: Trucks, Car,
Bicycles/motorcycles, and Pedestrians to give warning before collision is occurring. The report
separates automated emergency braking functions from pedestrian detection and protection
functions, which are described as the activation of devices such as deployable bonnets which
used to protect the pedestrian during accident. The report does not explicitly state whether
pedestrians can be detected in time for the automated emergency brake system to be effective or
not but it does state that the sensors can detect pedestrians earlier than is required for the
activation of deployable devices, thus implying that it is possible.

Ms. Divya K .S proposed Vehicle Speed Control System using CAN .This paper presents an idea
to develop a collision avoidance system with onboard sensors and microcontroller. A CAN-bus
based communication system for accident avoidance system is developed. Also, this system use
of ARM 7 processor ensures high efficiency, fast operation, and low power, low cost and higher
performance. It also uses radar which is mounted in front of the vehicle It is an object detection
system that uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude, and direction or speed of objects
and scan the front environment and it will trigger a signal to the main controller. The speed of the
vehicle will be controlled by the servo motor when an obstacle is detected. Also when an
unauthorized person starts the car, then the anti-theft system becomes active and gives indication
by sending a SMS through GSM that the car is being stolen. So the main advantage of this paper
is it has high speed communication rate compared to other communication protocol. Initially the
speed is controlled by adjusting potentiometer and it is displayed on LCD. Also temperature,
distance between the vehicle and the object is displayed. And if the distance is less than the
predefined value the speed of the vehicle is reduced by using servo motor. Breaking system and
Anti- theft mechanism also can implement in this paper.
.( IJST11 REVIEW Vehicle Speed Control System using CAN Ms. Divya K .S)

Prof. Chetanraj Patil (20--)presented Design And Analysis Of Intelligent Braking System .The
aim of this study is to design and develop a control system based on intelligent electronically
controlled automotive braking system is called “intelligent braking system”. The Sensor
Operated Pneumatic Brake consists of IR transmitter and Receiver circuit, Control Unit,
Pneumatic breaking system. The IR sensor is used to detect the obstacle. There is any obstacle in
the path, the IR sensor senses the obstacle and giving the control signal to the breaking system.
Then the pneumatic breaking system is used to brake the system according to input signal from
the controller . So basically here the car brakes on its own by determining the distance from the
object.
.( IJSARV42 reviewDesign And Analysis Of Intelligent Braking System Prof. Chetanraj Patil 1 ,
Anup P. Mankar 2 , Onkar H. Pawar 3 , Mahesh R. Mahajan 4 , Ashish N. Nemade 5)

Hemkant Mali1 et.el (2017 IJSRDv5140) present The Smart Brake In this project work
conventional brake has been converted in pneumatic brake by the help of compressed air and
pneumatic cylinder. This air compressor is connected to the flow control valve and it is use to
actuate the pneumatic cylinder which is connected with brake lever. There is a Ultrasonic Sensor
on front side of the vehicle, the sensor detect the obstacle and sends a signal to the flow control
valve to actuate the air supply to apply the brake. In this project there is DC electrical energy is
required in operation of Infrared Sensor. The main advantage of this project is less comfort and
safety with a emergency brake system. The main objective of this project automobile can run
automatic braking due to obstacle when obstacle is to be detected by the sensors. The function of
braking circuit is to apply the brake after detection of obstacle. The basic objective of these paper
is to developed and smart braking system using ultrasonic sensor and to design a vehicle with
less human attention to the driving and to increase the safety of the driver and passengers.
IJSRD - International Journal for Scientific Research & Development| Vol. 5, Issue 04, 2017 |
ISSN (online): 2321-0613
Vidyadhar (2014) presents a system that can enhance the safety of the vehicle. This system gives
solution can assist the driver by warning the driver about impending obstacle & approaching
vehicle that may lead to a collision, in addition, this they are also implementing & auto retarding
system which helps in avoiding accidents during emergency time. In this system ultrasonic
sensor, motor driver, and LCD are used. In addition to this, they have implemented an automatic
wiper speed control which controls the speed of the wiper is based on the intensity of rainfall. In
the wiper speed control system, the IR sensor is very sensitive & can detect very small quantities
of moisture. In case even slight rainfall the system will get activated, in a higher amount of rain,
the motor faster & will imply the wiper runs faster & save the driver from distraction & provide
convenience & safety therefor this system support the driver by reducing fatigue in rainy season .
Matsumoto et al (2001) conducted a research on accident avoidance technologies on the Nissan
Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV). In this project the automatic braking decelerates the vehicle to
a stop or reduces the collision speed as much as possible in the event the driver is slow to brake
or does not brake sufficiently in relation to an obstacle ahead. In a situation where there is an
increased risk of a collision with an object in front of the host vehicle, such as a stopped vehicle,
on account of human error due to the driver’s inattention or misjudgment, the driver is alerted to
the potential danger by audible and visual warnings. When the driver fail to maneuver around the
obstacle automatic braking is applied to reduce the impact speed. If the driver brakes to
decelerate in this case, the driver’s operation is given first priority. However the system
continues to control the brakes if the driver’s action does not decelerate the vehicle sufficiently
to achieve maximum possible collision avoidance.

LS saloon and Lexus (2007) have introduced additional features to the Pre-Crash Safety (PCS)
system. The system combines information gathered from a 25GHz millimeter-wave radar and a
twin-lens infra-red stereo camera which used to detect the existence of obstacle. The camera
monitors near infra-red radiation, emitted from dedicated units built into the car’s headlamp
high-beam projectors, reflected by objects directly ahead up to 25m. The PCS system assesses
the likelihood of a collision with an obstacle ahead based on its position, speed and trajectory. If
the collision probability is judged as high a warning buzzer and ‘brake’ alert on the dashboard
display are activated. If the driver does not brake in a set time and the system determines that the
risk of collision with a pedestrian is extremely high, the system may automatically apply the
brakes, reducing speed in order to help the driver reduce the impact and in certain cases avoid the
collision. And also if the systems determine that a collision cannot be avoided the front seat belts
are pre-tensioned and the brakes are automatically applied to reduce the vehicle speed at impact.

Muqaddas Bin Tahir . (2012) have Proposed a new technique of distance measuring (Hurdle
Detection) for a safe environment in the vehicle through ultrasonic rays to reduce the collision or
accident of vehicle. In this system, eight ultrasonic sensors are used to sense the different types
of objects which is exist on vehicle ahead. But in this system the ultrasonic sensor only used to
detect the existence of object (hurdle) there is no any measure taking on this system. By
implementing a possible improvement in the safety system in the vehicle, the vehicle & sensor
will be able to operate normally until the sensor detects possible risk. In this, the sensor does not
give output or signal until the car comes within 75 feet of an object, at which the timer sends
information of the hurdle to the driver. The sensor only indicates the presence of an object; it is
up to the user or driver to tackle the hurdle.

Kalhammer et al. (2006) also identified the possibility of developing systems capable of
detecting pedestrians using a long-wave infra-red camera. This infra-red camera reflect infrared
ray to the pedestrian and sense the existence of pedestrian then it send the signal to the controller.
It was stated that this would be capable of forming part of an enhanced brake assist function
and/or as part of an autonomously braking system. The authors concluded that it was feasible to
develop such a system in time to meet the proposed requirements for complementary measures
included in the second phase of the pedestrian protection Directive.

Gangyan et al. (2017) proposed the concept of intelligent braking, pneumatic automatic braking,
and then a kind of pneumatic automatic braking circuit is designed. The pressure change rate is
used as a new index to evaluate automatic braking and control. They proposed to identify the
basic characteristics of pneumatic components, to design an automatic pressure regulator for
pressure control, to adjust the supply pressure independently with a pneumatic booster valve, and
use the braking pressure change rate as a control target and other concepts, all of them prove a
reference for improving the brake system of autonomous vehicles.

S-Max and Galaxy (2007) fitted Volvo S80 with a Collision Warning with Brake Support system
that continually monitors the area in front with a radar sensor. If the driver fails to react when
approaching a vehicle in front an Audible signal and warning light are triggered. The brake
linings are automatically prepared such that they are just in contact with the discs and the system
will boost the brake force if the driver fails to brake hard enough, as well as flashing the brake
lights to warn drivers behind. If the driver does not react to these alerts or start braking and the
risk of colliding with the car in front increases, effective braking is applied automatically.

Mercedes Benz [2] is prepared with the option of innovative ‘distronic’ distance control system
which makes sure the security of cruise control for highway by reducing the vehicle speed if the
system detects a slower running vehicle up to 150 meters in front of it. The Mercedes is installed
with a radar sensor which senses the hurdle at a distance of 150 meters from the driver’s car and
slows down the car according to the distance which means that as the distance decreases, the
speed of car is also decreased. These sensors observe the traffic with a high performance
computer so that the safety distance remains maintained. When the vehicle moves too close to
another vehicle, the electronic system automatically reduces the speed of the car and activates
the brakes as well whenever it is required to do so. Once a safe distance gets covered, the system
comes back to the pervious selected driving speed.
Mercedes Benz research and development north America inc .sunnwaly CA pastoria ave
Honda [1] has designed the Honda intelligent Driver Support System (HIDS) that helps the
driver in two driving tasks- keeping in lane and maintaining vehicle speed. The millimeter wave
radar is used with C-MOS camera to detect and analyze the lane marker and to determine the
other vehicle. Allison Smyth used an automotive accident monitoring system that mounts on the
front of archetype vehicle. The system tested for this device would be conducted at speeds less
than 20 mph. This device uses sonar technology (mostly used in submarine) to send out signal
from the front of vehicle. This signal will warn the driver if the vehicle he is driving is too close
with another vehicle. The warning will be sent through a chain of light emitting diodes (LEDs).
A green LED tells the driver that he is doing fine, amber LED is a warning and red means that
the driver needs to slow down immediately. There for this system can minimize the occurrence
of collision by detect the existence of another vehicle.
Driver Assistance System 2004 (Lane Keep Assist System) Akira Iihoshi (Honda Motor
Corporation)
Babu et al. (2017) had designed and developed a control system based on an intelligent
electronically controlled automotive braking system is called “automatic reverse braking
system”. This Braking system is consists of an IR transmitter and Receiver circuit, Control Unit,
Pneumatic breaking system. There is an obstacle in the path, the IR sensor senses the existence
of obstacle and giving the control signal to the braking system. The pneumatic braking system
receive the signal from the controller which is used to break the system. The “pneumatic braking
circuit” can stop the vehicle within 2 to 3 seconds running at a speed of 50 KM. The Reverse
braking system is a fully automation project. & safe place to live.
McCarthy et al. (2004) carried out research that successfully developed a proof of concept sensor
system that was capable of detecting pedestrians in front of a vehicle. This project found that
such a system could potentially be used to brake the vehicle and/or to implement active
secondary safety features such as a pop-up bonnet and that this could offer substantial benefits in
pedestrian accidents. The prototype system was developed by fusing a high resolution 24 GHz
short range radar with a passive infra-red sensor to detect the pedestrian on the road. The basic
functions were that the radar was used to identify distance and relative velocity of pedestrian
accurately and the infra-red sensor was used to decide whether or not the object detected by the
radar was a pedestrian or not. This system used to the driver to take measure depend on detect
signal such as reduce speed of vehicle or stop the vehicle at desired stopping distance.

Walchshausl et al (2006) describe the development of a multi-sensor recognition system capable

of detecting vehicles, objects and pedestrians. The system consisted of a far-infrared imaging
device, a laser scanner and several radar sensors, integrated into a BMW passenger car. They
state that the reason for developing a multi-sensor approach was that robust collision mitigation
requires a perception performance of unprecedented reliability and that “current off-the-shelf
single sensor approaches can hardly fulfil the challenging demands”.

Pankaj Jat (2015) proposed an Advanced Brake Assistance System The goal or idea of the
project is to develop the system to support the driver is emphasized in critical braking situation.
This system is been designed with the algorithm required in order to detect and differentiate in
emergency and normal situation. Advanced brake assistance system interprets a quick push of
brake pedal in emergency condition. The main components in the advanced braking assistance
system are optical sensor or proximity sensor, brake pedal, micro controller (unit processor),
master cylinder, secondary cylinder, pulley, rod, wheel, motor and disk brake. When the brake
pedal is pressed it gives an analog output voltage or signal. This voltage or the signal value is
given to unit processor (micro controller). Proximity sensor is used to detect the speed with
which the brake pedal is pressed. Proximity sensor values are given as input to unit processo can
increase the braking force by pushing the piston by motor in emergency conditions, or by
energizing the motor to pull the hand brake. In emergency condition we need high braking force
so, the motor pulls the hand brake cable for few seconds this helps to stop the vehicle and also
create high braking power.
Review Advanced Brake Assistance System Pankaj Jat 1 , Pritesh Koshti 2 ,
Prof.Vipin.V.Gawande 3| Vol. 5 | Iss.2| Feb. 2015 | 21|)
Most of the above researchers are studied improving braking efficiency by using a control
system of automatic braking system works using the conventional pneumatic brake system and
obstacle sensing devices to prevent technique of accident and also reducing the hazard from the
accident by only considering the distance between the vehicle and obstacle or vehicle to vehicle
but this is not enough to stop the vehicle at exact stopping distance on emergency time ,speed
and weight of the vehicle must be considered . And the other researcher is tried to increase
braking efficiency by solenoid valve system to drum brake with a cylinder. But still now the
braking distance of heavy commercial vehicles is not decreasing. Hence braking system needs to
enhance for efficient braking. Braking with an additional automatically operated engine brake
and aerodynamic brake by using automatically operated convertible wind deflector as auxiliary
brake assistance system .

Literature review on Electromagnetic brakes

Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the energy
requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of friction. Due to its specific
installation location, electromagnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to avoid
problems that friction brakes face .Typically, electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the
torque transmission line (propeller shaft) of vehicles. The propeller shaft is divided and fitted
with a sliding universal joint and is connected to the coupling flange on the brake. The brake is
fitted into the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti-vibration mounting. Electromagnetic
Braking System is used which is efficient way of braking with high power to torque ratio and
also provide less amount of friction. ( Varun Kumar et.el 2018)

Stephen Z. Oldakowski, Bedford, Ohio (2002): provide a magnetic brake which provides
braking or locking capability and is remotely controlled by electric power. The magnetic brake
comprises a rotatable shaft and a brake disc mounted on the shaft. A non-rotating core housing
assembly located around the shaft includes a permanent magnet and a bipolar solenoid. A
magnetic armature adjacent to the core housing assembly is capable of movement toward the
core housing assembly and toward and into engagement with a brake disc to prevent rotation of
the shaft. A spring urges the armature away from the core housing assembly and into
engagement with the brake disc. The brake does not use any electric power to maintain the brake
in the set mode with the rotating shaft fully locked or in the released mode with the rotating shaft
fully released. The permanent magnet is of sufficient strength to hold the armature against urging
of the spring until an opposite polarity is supplied by the solenoid.

Rhythm Dhoot. et. ul (2016).provide Design and Theoretical Study of Electromagnetic Brake
System the objective of this invention is to design & study of electromagnetic brake system. The
behavior of two different materials to be used as brake disc which are aluminum & copper was
studied. For the research experiments also aimed to see the effects of increasing the current
induced into electromagnet which produces drag force that will slow down the motion. As a
result Electromagnetic brakes have higher performance than conventional brakes in high speeds
but it cannot be used at low speeds. Hence it must be used as an auxiliary brake during high
speeds. Aluminum and Copper have the most suitable properties for Rotor Material. And with
decrease in Air Gap there is increase in Magnetic flux passing through the rotor resulting in
increased Braking Torque and hence reduced Braking time.

SevvelP, et.al (2014),provide Innovative Electro Magnetic Brake System to show Electro
Magnetic Brake System better than for other brake system. In this project the advantage of using
the electromagnetic braking system in automobile is studied. These brakes can be incorporated in
heavy vehicles as an auxiliary brake. The electromagnetic brakes can be used in commercial
vehicles by controlling the current supplied to produce the magnetic flux. In this research an
Electromagnetic Braking system uses Magnetic force to engage the brake but the power required
for braking is transmitted manually, when electricity is applied to the coil a magnetic field is
developed across the armature because of the current flowing across the coil and causes armature
to get attracted towards the coil. As a result it develops a torque and eventually the vehicle comes
to rest.. As a result these electromagnetic brake systems will reduce maintenance cost and
eliminate the problem Of brake fluid vaporization and freezing.

Abhijeet N. Naikwadi. et.nl (2017), proposed Design and Analysis of Electromagnetic Disc
Brake for Automobile the objective of this paper is invention to design and analysis of
electromagnet disc brake for reducing maintenance cost, working temperature and braking effort.
This paper describes a new type of electromagnetic disc brake for retarding the motion of a
vehicle. In this study, a comprehensive design procedure for electromagnetic disc brake is
presented to ensure maximum efficiency along with effective brake. As a result this project
reduced maintenance cost (grease, braking fluid, master cylinder, line splitter, pipe seals, and
calipers), reduced braking effort and also reduced working temperature due to minimum wear
and tear.

Akshyakumar S. Puttewar, et.al (2014), Enhancement of Brake System in Automobile Using

Electromagnetic Braking: this research objective is enhancement a combination of
electromechanical concepts. The objective of this braking system is helps in effective braking
and helps in avoiding the accidents and reducing the frequency of accidents to a minimum.
Furthermore the electromagnetic brakes prevent the danger that can arise from the prolonged use
of brake beyond their capability to dissipate heat. Electromagnetic brake is as new revolutionary
concept. It is found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative power and decelerate the
speed of an automobile. As a result the performances of electromagnetic brakes make them much
more competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipment’s compared with other
retarders

Naresh Balram Bhandari, et.al (2017), Design and Fabrication of Electro-Magnetic Disc Braking
System: the objective of this research is design of electro-magnetic disc braking system to
increasing braking efficiency. This invention describes An Electromagnetic braking system uses
the magnetic force to operate brakes and the power to be supplied electrically by the regulator
switch. When electrical supply give to the electromagnet than the electromagnet produced highly
effective magnetic field and these magnetic power used to be braking purpose. The paper is
discussed Dynamic calculation of electromagnetic system assisted for different masses and
respect to the wheel RPM which shows the effect in braking control. Electromagnetic braking is
a non-contact type of braking system. As a result this brake system is to be more reliable than the
existing braking system.

Vinodkumar S. et.al (2017), Improvement of Braking Efficiency in Vehicle by using Fusion

Braking Systems: the objective of this research is to improve braking efficiency of heavy vehicle
brake system by using disc brake with permanent magnet. This paper is mainly related to
improve the braking of the vehicles mostly higher segment vehicles with large amounts of engine
power. This system uses disc brakes with addition of ferrite magnets. As a result the stopping
power of the vehicle increases, this way the vehicle stops at a lesser distance at a lesser amount
of time which makes the journey comfortable and smooth with confidence braking. This system
is mainly for high performance cars or bikes such that the braking is smooth and stable at higher
speeds. The main working of the project is to improve the brake efficiency by inducing magnetic
field on disc brake using permanent ferrite magnet.

Varun Kumar (2018) proposed A Role of Electromagnetic Braking System in an Automobile.in

this study they conclude that Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary
retardation equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on automobile and heavy vehicles
to support main brake system as auxiliary brake .The frictions brakes can be used less frequently
and therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The brake linings would last
considerably longer before requiring maintenance and the potentially brake fade. Problem could
be avoided. This enhanced braking system not only helps in effective braking but also helps in
avoiding the accidents and reducing the frequency of accidents to a minimum. Furthermore the
electromagnetic brakes prevent the danger that can arise from the prolonged use of brake beyond
their capability to dissipate heat.
Krunal Pntjuputi, ct.nl (2017), proposed Electromagnetic braking System the objective of this
project is study of electromagnetic braking system for a high braking efficiency: This paper is
studies a new technology of braking system. In this study developed brake which mainly
working principle is one rotating metal disc in between the two magnets to apply the brake to
induced electric current in circuit to induced magnetic field in armature to attract the magnet to
the rotating metal disc and stopped the rotation in several time while applied brake. the electric
power applied the magnetic coil to the magnetic field in armature coil and attracts the
electromagnet aluminum disc. As a result this invention prevents the direct impingement of air
on the retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle and Potential hazard of tire deterioration and
bursts due to friction is eliminated. And also there is no need to change brake oils regularly and
there is no oil leakage. [8]

 literature review about aerodynamic wind deflector

Ramesh D K a. (2015) conduct research on Aerodynamic analysis and optimization of wind
deflector in a Commercial load transport vehicle. They stated that in the field of commercial
goods transport, trucks have an important place. One of the main problems faced by truck
manufacturers is the Air resistance associated with the highway running. Since trucks have a
large frontal area and the presence of a trailer also leads to the truck experiencing significant
resistance which has to be overcome. This can be reduced through the use of wind deflectors. A
well-designed wind deflector can reduce wind resistance to a certain extent. Optimizing the angle
of the wind deflector also causes reduced drag force acting on the vehicle, thereby reducing the
fuel intake. Here the initial drag of 2050 N is reduced to 1688.453 N using a 1.75 m wind
deflector at 45 degree angle resulting in the reduction of drag by 17.6%. To save energy and to
protect the global environment, fuel consumption reduction is a primary concern of automotive
development
Aerodynamic analysis and optimization of wind deflector in a Commercial load transport
vehicle.
Ramesh D K a , Rajesha R b , Snehashree K B b , Shashanka A Bhat b ,Manogna N R b

Harun Chowdhury et al (2017) conducted a research on Effect of various deflectors on drag

reduction for trucks. The main objective of this paper is to quantify the amount of drag generated
by the wind deflectors used in Asian subcontinental truck especially in Bangladesh and Pakistan
in a wind tunnel environment and to compare the results with a baseline truck without any
external modification. The results shows that the deflectors used in most Bangladeshi and
Pakistani trucks manufactured locally are not aerodynamically efficient as they can increase the
overall aerodynamic drag up to 58%. By replacing these deflectors with an acronymic one can
reduce the fuel consumption by 13%. The intricate external designs of the truck deflectors also
contribute to wind noise and dirt deposition. But also reduce significant amount of greenhouse
gas emission. These countries can be economically benefited to a huge amount by a little
modification of these large numbers of similar existing trucks.
Effect of various deflectors on drag reduction for trucks Harun Chowdhurya,*, Bavin
Loganathana, Israt Mustarya, Hazim Moriab, Firoz Alama, Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah 41912, KSA
Harun Chowdhury et al. / Energy Procedia 110 ( 2017 ) 561 – 566
Haggag, S. and Mansouri, carried out research about Aerodynamic Forces Impact on Vehicle
Braking Longitudinal Dynamics with a Sliding Mode Controller. They stated that the control of
automotive braking systems performance and wheel slip is a challenging problem due to the
nonlinear of the braking process. In this paper, a new longitudinal rolling/braking lumped-
vehicle model that takes vehicle aerodynamic forces in consideration is presented. An anti- lock
sliding-mode controller is designed to provide wheel slip control during vehicle motion. This
type of controller is chosen due to its expected robustness against varying road friction
coefficient. The controllers provide an optimal braking torque control which minimize the
braking distance by maintaining a desired slip ratio corresponding to the road condition. Based
on this optimal braking control method, the impact of the vehicle aerodynamic forces (lift and
drag) are investigated and presented.

Haggag, S. and Mansouri, A., "Aerodynamic Forces Impact on Vehicle Braking Longitudinal
Dynamics with a Sliding Mode Controller," SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-0460, 2016,
doi:10.4271/2016-01-0460.

 summary of the literature reviews

Handling and braking response in commercial vehicles

Objective evaluation of handling and braking response in heavy commercial vehicles is based on
various driving maneuvers including steady-state skid-pad cornering, abrupt steering-angle
change (vehicle reaction to “tugging” the steering wheel through a specified angle) and braking
during cornering.
Braking torque
When the brakes are applied, the brake shoes press against the brake drums (in the case of drum
brakes) or the brake pads press against the disks (in the case of disk brakes). This generates
frictional forces, the level of which can be controlled by the driver by the pressure applied to the
brake pedal. The product of the frictional forces and the distance at which they act from the axis
of rotation of the wheel is the braking torque M B .
Friction force
Coefficient of friction
When braking torque is applied to a wheel, a braking force F B is generated between the tire and
the road surface that is proportional to the braking torque under stationary conditions (no wheel
acceleration). The braking force transmitted to the road (frictional force F R ) is proportional to
the vertical tire force F N :
Friction force
Coefficient of Friction=
normal load

F
µ=
R

F R = μ HF · F N
The factor μ HF is the coefficient of friction. It defines the frictional properties of the various
possible material pairings between tire and road surface and the environmental conditions to
which they are exposed. The coefficient of friction is thus a measure of the braking force that can
be transmitted. It is dependent on the nature of the road surface, the condition of the tires, the
vehicle’s road speed, and the weather conditions.The coefficient of friction ultimately determines
the degree to which the braking torque is actually effective. For motor-vehicle tires, the
coefficient of friction is at its highest on clean and dry road surface; it is at its lowest on ice.
Fluids (e.g. water) or dirt between the tire and the road surface reduce the coefficient of friction.

Effect of brake slip on coefficient of friction

When a vehicle is pulling away or accelerating just as when braking or decelerating the
transmission of forces from tire to road depends on the degree of adhesion between the two. The
friction of a tire basically has a constant relationship to the level of adhesion under braking or
acceleration. Most braking operations involve minimal levels of slip and take place within the
stable zone so that an increase in the degree of slip simultaneously produces an increase in the
usable adhesion. In the unstable zone, an increase in the amount of slip generally produces a
reduction in the level of adhesion. When braking in such situations, the wheel can lock up within
a fraction of a second, and under acceleration the excess power-trans- mission torque rapidly
increases the wheel’s speed of rotation causing it to spin.
Tyre-road friction

 Brake force (and hence torque) cannot increase unbounded

 limited by tyre road friction
  depends on tyre& road surface and road condition
o dry clean road 0.8<μ<1
o icy surfaces 0.05≤μ≤0.1
 wet surfaces contaminated by dirt 0.2≤μ≤0.65
The most important factors that affect the friction coefficient are:
 Road surface,
 Tyre factors,
 Weather conditions,
 Vehicle speed

Brake Balance
The braking of a vehicle occurs at ground level, so affective braking force acts on the ground.
Vehicle weight and kinetic energy of the vehicle act through center of gravity, which are above
ground level. This causes the vehicle to pitch forward as the brakes are applied. As a result of
this action some of the vehicle weight is effectively transferred from the rear wheels to the front
wheels. Consequently, the front brakes must absorb more kinetic energy than the rear brakes.
The maximum transfer of weight amounts to

μh
Wt= W
b

When deceleration of the vehicle is considered then the weight transfer becomes,

μh f
W t= ,
b g

Where:

wt= weight transferred, N

µ= coefficient of friction
 h= height of C.G. from the ground, m

W= vehicle gross weight, N

b= wheel base, m

f= deceleration of the vehicle, m/s2

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

Work Done in Braking

The kinetic energy possessed by a moving vehicle depends on the weight and speed of the
vehicle. This energy must be partially or totally dissipated when the vehicle is slowed down or
brought to a standstill. The brake converts the kinetic energy possessed by the vehicle at any one
time into heat energy by means of friction.

The kinetic energy possessed by the vehicle is given by the equation,

Ke = (1/2) mv2
Where: Ke= kinetic energy of vehicle
m=Mass of vehicle, kg
v=speed of vehicle, m/s.
The work done in bringing the vehicle to rest is given by:
Wd = FS
Where: wd= work done, J
S= distance travelled, m
When braking a moving vehicle to a standstill, the work done by the brake drums must equal the
initial energy possessed by the vehicle so that
KE=WD or
FS = (1/2) MU2
MU 2
Therefore the average brake force, F= ,N
2S

Braking Efficiency
The force applied during braking of a vehicle opposes the motion of the wheels, as a result
reduces the vehicle speed or brings it to a standstill. Therefore the braking force is the force of
resistance applied to stop a vehicle or reduce its speed. The braking efficiency of a vehicle is
defined as the braking force produced as a percentage of the total weight of the vehicle.
braking force
Braking Efficiency, ƞ= ×100.
Weight of vehicle

The braking efficiency is generally less than 100% because of insufficient road adhesion, the
vehicle is on a down gradient or ineffective brake system. The brake efficiency is similar to the
coefficient of friction, which is the ratio of the frictional force to the normal load between the
rubbing surfaces
Friction Force
Coefficient of friction=
Normal Load

F
Or µ=
R

F
Therefore, ƞ= =µ
R

Where:

µ= Coefficient of friction F=Friction Force, N

ƞ=brake efficiency R=normal load, N

Thus a braking efficiency of 100% is equal to a coefficient of friction of one.

F
I,e. ƞ (100%) = = µ=1
R

The brake efficiency can be derived from the kinetic energy possessed by the vehicle and the
work done in bringing the vehicle to standstill.

Let: F=braking force, N S=stopping distance, m

µ= Coefficient of friction ƞ=brake efficiency

W=vehicle weight, N

U=initial braking speed, m/s

M=mass of vehicle, kg
Then equating work and kinetic energy,

FS= (1/2) MU2

w
But M=
g

WU 2
Hence FS=
2g

WU 2
Or S=
2 Fg

F
But =µ=ƞ
W

U2
Thus, stopping distance,S= ×100
2 gƞ

U2
Therefore, braking efficiency,S= ×100
2 gS

This weight is added to the static weight on the front wheels and subtracted from the static
weight on the rear wheels. The front wheel static weight is normally 55% of the vehicle weight.
Front brakes are designed to absorb this extra brake effort by selecting shoe-drum or shoe-disc
combination type, brake size, lining coefficient of friction, wheel cylinder size and differential
hydraulic actuating pressures. With full braking it is desirable to have the front brakes lock up
slightly ahead of the rear brakes. This causes the car to go straight ahead and to not spin out.

Stopping distance
Total stopping distance includes
 Perception Distance: How far the vehicle travels when the need to brake occurs and the
driver recognizes that need.
 Reaction Distance: How far the vehicle travels as the driver reacts and applies the brake
 Brake Lag Distance: How far the vehicle travels from the time the brakes are applied and
the vehicle begins to slow down.
 Braking Distance: How far the vehicle travels from the brakes starting to slow the vehicle
and the vehicle coming to a complete stop

41 | P a g e
 K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch Professional
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_1, © Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden 2014

Calculating stopping distances

Stopping vehicles as quickly as possible in an emergency is important but many factors affect
this. The driver’s reactions and the road and vehicle conditions play a part, as well as mass and
speed. It is important to be able to:

 estimate how the stopping distance for a vehicle varies with different speeds
 calculate the work done in bringing a moving vehicle to rest

The diagram shows some typical stopping distances for an average car in normal conditions.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize
Thinking distance
Thinking distance is the distance a vehicle travels during the time it takes for the driver to
perceive a hazard, recognize that action needs to be taken and decide what the necessary action
is, before applying pressure to the brakes. Thinking distance varies from driver to driver, and can
be influenced by a number of factors, including driver fatigue, distraction and visual impairment.
(brake road safety charity 2019 https://www.brake.org.uk/)

It is important to note that the thinking distance is proportional to the starting speed. This is
because the reaction time is taken as a constant, and

42 | P a g e
Distance = speed × time.

The braking distance is dependent on a number of factors including

 Vehicle speed: at a constant rate of deceleration, braking distance increases quadratically
relative to speed.
 Vehicle load: extra weight makes braking distances longer.
 Road conditions: wet roads offer less adhesion between road surface and tires and
therefore result in longer braking distances.
 Tire condition: insufficient tread depth increases braking distances, particularly on wet
road surfaces.
 Condition of brakes: oil on the brake pads/ shoes, for example, reduces the friction
between the pads/shoes and the disk/drum. The lower braking force thus available results
in longer braking distances.
 Fading: The braking power also diminishes due to the brake components overheating.

(Modern Automotive technology text book)

The greatest rates of acceleration or deceleration are reached at the point when the motive or
braking force is at the highest level possible without the tires starting to lose grip (maximum
traction).The rates actually achievable under real conditions, however, are always slightly lower
because the vehicle’s wheels are not all at the point of maximum adhesion at precisely the same
moment. K. Reif (Ed.), Brakes, Brake Control and Driver Assistance Systems, Bosch
Professional

43 | P a g e
Automotive Information, DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03978-3_1, © Springer Fachmedien
Wiesbaden 2014

Calculating braking distances

There are two method of calculating braking distance

1. fixed braking force braking distance calculation

2. Danish Road Standards braking distance calculation

1. fixed braking force braking distance calculation

However, the braking distance increases four times each time the starting speed doubles. This
is because the work done in bringing a car to rest means removing all of its kinetic energy.

Work done = kinetic energy = braking force × distance

So for a fixed maximum braking force, the braking distance is proportional to the square of the
velocity.

2. Danish Road Standards braking force calculation

A general method for determining braking distance at different speeds, which is representative
for the composition of cars, drivers and friction, requires knowledge of the significance of the
individual factors for overall braking distance. The present Danish Road Standards and
Guidelines contain a method for calculating braking distance at different speeds which is
essentially based on early American findings. Stopping sight distance is an important design
parameter which influences e.g. geometric design, road safety, construction cost. The stopping

44 | P a g e
distance consists of the reaction distance and the braking distance. The recommended braking
distances in the Danish Road Standards and Guidelines are in the main based on earlier
American findings.

Table Coefficients of friction and braking distance from the Danish Road Standards and
Guidelines and braking distances from AASHTO Green Book

.(determination of braking distance and driver behaviour based on braking trials article · january 2014
poul greibe)
 discussion about sensing system

Components of obstacle sensing unit

Ultrasonic Sensor

45 | P a g e
An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that measures the distance of a target object by
emitting ultrasonic sound waves, and converts the reflected sound into an electrical signal.
Ultrasonic waves travel faster than the speed of audible sound (i.e. the sound that humans can
hear). Ultrasonic sensors have two main components: the transmitter (which emits the sound
using piezoelectric crystals) and the receiver (which encounters the sound after it has travelled to
and from the target). (Donald P. Massa Choosing an Ultrasonic Sensor 2020
https://www.fierceelectronics.com/)
Ultrasonic refers to inaudible sound waves above frequency of 20,000 hertz. The normal
frequency range for human hearing is roughly 20 to 20,000 hertz. Ultrasonic sound waves are
sound waves that are above the range of human hearing and thus, have a frequency above about
20,000 hertz. The ultrasonic transducer produces ultrasonic signals. These signals are propagated
through a sensing medium and the same transducer can be used to detect returning signals. There
are two parts in an ultrasonic sensor transmitter and receiver.

Nielsen TJ, Lambert MJ. Physics and instrumentation. In: Ma OJ, Mateer JR., eds., Emergency
Ultrasound. McGraw-Hill, New York,2003:45-66

Figure 3.2 ultrasonic sensor (implementation of a Speed Control System Using ArduinoApril
2019 Begum Korunur Engiz and Rakan hussein Bashir)

Working principle ultrasonic sensor

Ultrasonic signals are like audible sound waves, except the frequencies are much higher. The
ultrasonic transducers have piezoelectric crystals which resonate to a desired frequency and
convert electric energy into acoustic energy and vice versa. An output signal is produced to

46 | P a g e
perform some kind of indicating or control function. A minimum distance from the sensor is
required to provide a time delay so that the "echoes" can be interpreted. Variables which can
affect the operation of ultrasonic sensing include, target surface angle, reflective surface
roughness or changes in temperature or humidity. The targets can have any kind of reflective
form even round objects. The transmitter transmits the ultrasonic waves towards the object to be
detected. The receiver receives the echo from the target and determines its distance. Hence it is
known as distance sensor. There are many applications of ultrasonic sensor such as doors, level
control, anti-collision emergency brake etc. By recording the elapsed time between the sound
wave being generated and the sound wave bouncing back, it is possible to calculate the distance
between the sonar sensor and the object.

Mubina Toa, Akeem White head SLAA907C–September 2019–Revised March 2020

Ultrasonic Sensing Basics
Speed of Sound

The speed of sound is defined as the dynamic propagation of sound waves. This depends on the
characteristics of the medium through which the propagation takes place. Speed of sound is used
for describing the speed of sound waves in an elastic medium. The formula for speed of sound is
given with respect to gases. It is the square root of the product of the coefficient of adiabatic
expansion and pressure of the gas divided by the density of the medium. The mathematical
representation is given as:

Where,

47 | P a g e
  v is the speed of sound
 γ is the coefficient of adiabatic expansion
 P is the pressure of the gas
 ρ is the density of the medium

Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound

 Density of the medium for sound waves to travel, there is a requirement of medium and
density of the medium is considered to be one of the factors on which the speed of sound
depends. When the medium is dense, the molecules in the medium are closely packed
which means that the sound travels faster. Therefore, the speed of sound increases as the
density of the medium increases.

 Temperature of the medium The temperature of the medium and the sound waves are
directly proportional to each other. Therefore, as the temperature increases, the speed of
sound increases.

Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of sound is an essential parameter used in a variety of field in Physics. The speed of
sound refers to the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave propagating through a
medium. The speed of sound in air at 20 oC is 343.2 m/s which translates to 1,236 km/h. ( NASA
Glenn Research Center)
So In order to calculate the distance between the sensor and the object, the sensor measures the
time it takes between the emissions of the sound by the transmitter to its contact with the
receiver. The formula for this calculation is

speed of sound × timetaken

distance=
2
344 m ×time taken
distance=
2
0.034 cm ×time taken
distance=
2

48 | P a g e
Target Angle and Beam Spread of ultrasonic sensor

This term refers to the "tilt response" limitations of a given sensor. Since ultrasonic sound waves
reflect off the target object, target angles indicate acceptable amounts of tilt for a given sensor.
This term is defined as the area in which a round wand will be sensed if passed through the target
area. This is the maximum spreading of the ultrasonic sound as it leaves the transducer.
(technical guide for ultrasonic sensor).

Effect of Environmental factors on Ultrasonic sensor

There are many factors present in the environment which can affect the working of ultrasonic
sensor. The four medium parameters which can influence the speed of sound are temperature,
relative humidity, change in pressure and change in concentration of CO2 (Nicolau et al., 2009).
Temperature
The velocity of sound in air is 13,044 inches/s at 0 o C; it is directly proportional to air
temperature. As the ambient air temperature increases, the speed of sound also increases.
Therefore if a fixed target produces an echo after a certain time delay, and if the temperature
drops, the measured time for the echo to return increases, even though the target has not moved.
This happens because the speed of sound decreases, returning an echo more slowly than at the
previous, warmer temperature. If varying ambient temperatures are expected in a specific
application, compensation in the system for the change in sound speed is recommended.
Atmospheric pressure
Normal changes in atmospheric pressure will have little effect on measurement accuracy.
Reliable operation will deteriorates however, in areas of unusually low air pressure, approaching
a vacuum. For a given altitude the pressure variation is very negligible (Dean, 1979). So the
influence of change in atmospheric pressure (P) is neglected.
Humidity
Humidity does not significantly affect the operation of an ultrasonic measuring system. Changes
in humidity do have a slight effect, however, on the absorption of sound. oxygen molecules of air

49 | P a g e
are replaced by lighter molecules of water vapor as a result, molecular weight of air gets
decreased (Bohn, 1988). The presence of water molecule affects the specific heat ratio

References
 Bohn, D.A., 1988. Environmental effects on the speed of sound.
 J.Audio Eng. Soc. 36 (4), 223—231.Dean, E.A., 1979. Atmospheric Effects on the Speed of
Sound.Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory, Texas, Technical reportDAAG29-76-D-010,
 August.Dong, Min S., Jin, Kim K., Hang, Shin H., Yong, Yun H., 2010. Non-contact
respiration rate measurement system using an ultrasonicproximity sensor. IEEE Sens. J. 10,
1732—1739.
 Nicolau, V., Miholca, C., Andrei, M., 2009. Fuzzy rules of soundspeed influence on
ultrasonic sensing in outdoor environments.In: Soft Comput. Appl. 2009. SOFA’09. 3rd Int.
Work, pp.145—150.
Ultrasonic Sensor’s Target Considerations

Ultrasonic sensors can detect a variety of materials, regardless of shape, transparency, or color.
The only requirement for ultrasonic sensing is that the target material is a solid or liquid. This
enables contactless detection of Metal, Plastic, Glass, Wood, Rocks, Sand, Oil, Water other hard,
non-sound absorbent materials. These materials are able to reflect sound back towards the sensor
through the air. Certain objects can be more difficult to detect, like angled surfaces that direct the
echo away from the sensor, or permeable targets like sponge, foam, and soft clothing. These
absorb more reflected ultrasonic energy. For detecting a target, the ultrasonic sensor takes into
consideration the various properties of the target they are ( Ultrasonic Sensing Basics
SLAA907C–September 2019–Revised March 2020 )
Composition
Nearly all targets reflect ultrasonic sound and therefore produce an echo that can be detected.
Some textured materials produce a weaker echo, reducing the maximum effective sensing range.

50 | P a g e
The reflectivity of an object is often a function of frequency. Lower frequencies can have
reduced reflections from some porous targets, while higher frequencies reflect well from most
target materials. Precise performance specifications can often be determined only through
experimentation.
Shape
A target of virtually any shape can be detected ultrasonically if sufficient echo returns to the
sensor. Targets that are smooth, flat, and perpendicular to the sensor's beam produce stronger
echoes than irregularly shaped targets. A larger target relative to sound wavelength will produce
a stronger echo than a smaller target until the target is larger than approximately 10 wavelengths
across. Therefore, smaller targets are better detected with higher frequency sound.
\
Target Orientation
To produce the strongest echoes, the sensor's beam should be pointed toward the target. If a
smooth, flat target is inclined off perpendicular, some of the echo is deflected away from the
sensor and the strength of the echo is reduced. Targets that are smaller than the spot diameter of
the transducer beam can usually be inclined more than larger targets. Sensors with larger beam
angles will generally produce stronger echoes from flat targets that are not perpendicular to the
axis of the sound beam. Sound waves striking a target with a coarse, irregular surface will diffuse
and reflect in many directions. Some of the reflected energy may return to the sensor as a weak
but measurable echo. As always, target suitability must be evaluated for each application.

(Texas Instruments, PGA460 Ultrasonic Module Hardware and Software Optimization

application report (SLAA732) ti.com/ultrasonic.)
Infrared sensor (speed sensor

51 | P a g e
An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measure only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called a
passive IR sensor. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal
radiation. ( https://www.elprocus.com/infrared-ir-sensor-circuit-and-working/)

Working Principle of Infrared sensor

The working principle of an infrared sensor is similar to the object detection sensor. This sensor
includes an IR LED & an IR Photodiode, so by combining these two can be formed as a photo-
coupler otherwise opto-coupler. The physics laws used in this sensor are planks radiation,
Stephan Boltzmann & weins displacement.

IR LED is one kind of transmitter that emits IR radiations. This LED looks similar to a standard
LED and the radiation which is generated by this is not visible to the human eye. Infrared
receivers mainly detect the radiation using an infrared transmitter. These infrared receivers are
available in photodiodes form. IR Photodiodes are dissimilar as compared with usual
photodiodes because they detect simply IR radiation. Different kinds of infrared receivers mainly
exist depending on the voltage, wavelength, package, etc.

Once it is used as the combination of an IR transmitter & receiver, then the receiver’s
wavelength must equal the transmitter. Here, the transmitter is IR LED whereas the receiver is
IR photodiode. The infrared photodiode is responsive to the infrared light that is generated
through an infrared LED. The resistance of photo-diode & the change in output voltage is in
proportion to the infrared light obtained. This is the IR sensor’s fundamental working principle.

52 | P a g e
(https://create.arduino.cc/projecthub.Arduino with IR Sensor .Arduino project hub 2019 )

Once the infrared transmitter generates emission, then it arrives at the object & some of the
emission will reflect back toward the infrared receiver. The sensor output can be decided by the
IR receiver depending on the intensity of the response.

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor modules in an electronic device.
This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect obstacles and
it is one of the common applications in real-time. This circuit comprises the following
components

 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair

 Resistors of the range of kilo-ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).

IR Sensor for speed measurement

Tachometer is a device used to measure the speed of the any rotating object. The measurement is
done in revolution per minute or RPM. In olden days tachometers were completely mechanical,
but tachometers have changed due to development of modern technology. This paper mainly
focuses on developing a contactless digital tachometer. It is built using microcontroller, an
infrared system and LCD module. The infrared system senses the interruption in the beam of
rays caused by rotating object and generates pulses which will be sent to the microcontroller and
these pulses will be counted; this count will be displayed on the LCD in revolution per minute

53 | P a g e
i.e. RPM. The system is economical and has wide applications in automobile industry and
medical field.

Contact-Less Tachometer International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181 Published by, www.ijert.org NCESC - 2018 Conference Proceedings Cariappa
P K Shwetha A Pooja D Sudharani B T Geetha M N Shwetha A Dept. of Electronics and
Communication

Arduino

Arduino is an open source platform that is used to program hardware using software. An Arduino
board consists of a micro-controller and other electronic components that can be programmed
using Arduino programming language to do different tasks. Micro-controller is a type of IC
(integrated circuit) and it includes processor, memory and input/output peripherals on single
chip. The micro-controllers used by Arduino are mostly from ATMEL. Arduino was born at the
Ivrea Interaction Design and since then it is used in thousands of projects and applications.
Unlike other micro-controllers, the code is easy to upload in it. It doesn’t require a separate
hardware to upload the code in it. The code can be uploaded by just using a USB cable. The code
will be saved on the Arduino and will run until you will upload a new code.(Ardiuno hardware
and software company)

54 | P a g e
Figure 3.4Arduino Uno Layouts

1- USBPlugArduino Board can be powered by USB cable coming from your computer. Using
this USB connection, we will upload our codes in the Arduino.

2- BarrelJackArduino Board can also be powered from wall power supply by connecting it to the
barrel jack. For power supply users, the recommended voltage for mostly Arduino boards is
between 6 to 12 Volts. The maximum voltage to use is 20 Volts.

3- VoltageRegulator It controls the amount of voltage going into the Arduino Board to sustain
the voltage used by micro-controller and other components. It will cut off the extra voltage that
might harm any component on the board. It has limitations and cannot control voltages greater
than 20 Volts.

4- Crystal Oscillator It provides a clock signal to the micro-controller which helps micro-
controller to calculate time. The frequency of this crystal oscillator is 16 MHz which means that
it can make 16 million cycles per second.

5- ResetButton: It will restart you Arduino program.

6- Digital I/O Pins These pins are either used as input pins or as output pins. Arduino Uno has 14
digital pins from 0 to 13. Out of these 14 digital pins, 6 pins can also provide PWM (Pulse Width

55 | P a g e
Modulation) output. The PWM pins have tilde sign (~) before the pin numbers. The PWM pins
on the Arduino Uno are 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. The pins 0, 1 are RX and TX pins and these are
used to receive and transmit the TTL serial data.

7- ICSP (In Circuit Serial Programming) Pins: It is one of the several way to program Arduino
board. Normally, a boot-loader is used to program and Arduino but if it is missing or damaged,
ICSP can be used instead.

8- Micro-controller You can say it as the brain of the Arduino. Micro controller is a type of IC
(integrated circuit) and it includes processor, memory and input/output peripherals on single
chip. Different Arduino Boards have different micro controllers. The Arduino Uno has
ATmega328P micro controller.

9- AnalogPins These pins can read the signals from analog sensor such as LDR and convert them
into digital. There are 6 analog pins on Arduino from A0 to A6.

10- Power Pins

 Vin: This pin is sometimes also labelled as “9V”. It can be used to power the Arduino
and if you are giving power to the Arduino through the barrel jack, this can be used to
access voltage.

 GND: Ground pins are used to ground the circuit. There are 3 ground pins on the Arduino
Uno.

 5V: It supplies output of 5V.

 3V: It supplies output of 5V.

 Reset Pin: You can also use this pin to restart the Arduino by connecting a button at this
pin.

 IOREF: This pin gives the output voltage corresponding to the I/O of that board. In case
of Arduino Uno, this pin gives 5V.

56 | P a g e
11- ATmega16U2 Chip: This chip on your Arduino act as a bridge between the computer’s USB
port and the main processor’s serial port. This helps us to upload the code from computer into the
Arduino.

12- AREF: This is the external analog reference pin and we can use this to use it instead of the
standard 5V reference as the upper limit for the analog input pins. For example, if you are getting
a signal of 0-3.3 volt then you can get the full scale of ADC by connecting AREF to 3.3V signal.

13- TX RX LED’s: These are transmitter and receiver LED’s. They will blink whenever we will
upload program or the Arduino will receive or transmit data.

14- PowerLED This should light up whenever you will give power to your Arduino.

Brand name Arduniouno

Height 25mm
Width 5.5 cm
Weight 91 Grams 91 Grams
Dimensions 8x5.5x2.5 cm 8x5.5x2.5 cm

RAM size 8kb 8kb

Voltage 5v 5v

Digital pins 14

Table 3.1 Technical Specification of Arduino Uno

LCD Display

It is a liquid crystal display. A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is an electronically modulated optical

device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit
light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.
LCDs consume much less power than LED and gas-display displays because they work on the
principle of blocking light rather than emitting it. Since their interface serial/parallel pins are
defined so it’s easy to interface them with many microcontrollers. All character lcd's performs
the same functions (display characters numbers special characters, ascii characters etc.).

57 | P a g e
 Figure 3.5 16x2 LCD display

All character lcd'shaveThe parallel interface consists of the following pins: Eight(8) data pins
D0-D7The states of these pins (high or low) are the bits that you're writing to a register when
you write, or the values you're reading when you read.

 Vcc (Apply +5 volt here)

 Gnd (Ground this pin)
 Rc (Register select)
 Rw (read - write)
 V0 (set lcd contrast)
 En (Enable)
 Backlight (Bklt+ and BKlt-) pins:Turn on/off the LED backlight

Relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch; Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-
power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

Non-polarized relay
The coil in these relays doesn’t have any polarities and its operation remains unchanged even if
the polarity of the input signal is altered. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a
58 | P a g e
circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal.

Figure 2.4 relay switch

A Relay is a device that helps microcontrollers (or microcontroller based boards) like Arduino to
switch on or off different household appliances like motors, lights, water heaters, television and
fans etc. Today, Arduino is being used for a wide range of applications like controlling LEDs,
monitoring temperature, logging data and turning on motors etc. Another important task that can
be accomplished by the Arduino is controlling a 5V Relay to operate high voltage AC appliances
and devices.

Discussion about Actuating system

Discussion about conventional Air brake system for heavy duty vehicle

Conventional Air brake system

Air brakes are used in trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers. George Westinghouse first
developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5, 1872.

59 | P a g e
Originally designed and built for use on railroad train application, air brakes remain the
exclusive systems in widespread use. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his
air pressured brake invention, which led to various forms of the automatic brake and the
subsequent use on heavier road vehicles.
Compressed air brake system
Compressed air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses (Note the difference
between pneumatic brakes and pneumatic/hydraulic). The system consists of service brakes,
parking brakes, a control pedal, an engine-driven air compressor and a compressed air storage
tank. For the parking brake, there is a disc or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be
held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure. Air pressure must be produced to release these
"spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes (the ones used while driving for slowing or
stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing the air under pressure (approx 100-
125psi) to the brake chamber, causing the brake to reduce wheel rotation speed. Most types of
truck air brakes are drum units, though there is an increasing trend towards the use of disc brakes
in this application. The air compressor air draws filtered air from the atmosphere and forces it
into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 PSI. Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the
driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including
warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air
pressure in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus actuating the
(spring brake) parking braking hardware. An air pressure failure at any point would apply full
spring brake pressure immediately.
In the Florida CDL Handbook [1] ,

Air brakes are used on heavy vehicles for a number of reasons(commercial vehicle Air brake)
• Air brake systems use a much greater force to apply the brakes than hydraulic braking systems
do. This greater force is needed to cope with the heavy loads of commercial vehicles.
• Air brake systems are more tolerant to small leaks. The smallest leak in a hydraulic system
could result in brake failure. An air brake system includes a compressor to generate more
compressed air as needed.
• Air brakes are used on heavy vehicles because they have proven they are capable of stopping
these vehicles safely.
Design and function of Air brake system

60 | P a g e
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply
system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to
additional air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance
servo, etc.).

(Commercial vehicle air brake)

Supply system
The air compressor is driven off of the engine either by crankshaft pulley via a belt or directly off
of the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine lubrication and cooling
systems. Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryer which
removes moisture and oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and a
smaller purge reservoir. As an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped
with an anti-freeze device and oil separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also
called a wet tank) from which it is then distributed via a four way protection valve into the front
and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply
distribution point. The system also includes various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety
valves.
Compressor
The first requirement of an air brake system is a means of compressing air and storing it in
reservoirs (tanks) so that it is available for instant use. The source of the compressed air is the
compressor, which takes in air from the atmosphere and compresses (pressurizes) it. The
compressed air is then pumped through an airline to a supply reservoir.
61 | P a g e
Since the compressor pumps air, it needs a supply of clean air to work properly. Air from the
atmosphere supplies both the truck engine and the compressor. An air filter is used to keep this
supply clean. The air filter should be checked regularly to make sure it is not clogged, as this
would restrict air flow.
Governor
Governor is one of the main component in air brake system.it needs to be a way to stop
compressing air once a certain air pressure has been reached. And, if the air pressure in the tanks
drops below a certain level (such as after a series of brake applications), there needs to be a way
to start compressing air again. This is the job of the governor. When sufficient pressure has been
built up, the governor causes the com pressor to go into an “unloading” stage.(commercial
vehicle air brake )

62 | P a g e
(Modern automotive technology book)
Reservoirs
Steel tanks (known as reservoirs) are used to store the compressed air from the compressor.

A safety valve will be installed on the first reservoir to protect the reservoirs from being over-
pressurized and bursting if the governor was to fail to unload the compressor. The safety valve
consists of a spring loaded ball to al low reservoir air to exhaust into the atmosphere. The valve’s
pressure set ting is determined by the force of the spring.
Control system
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit
and the trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel
circuits which receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of
an air leak. The service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates
both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring
force in the spring brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The
supply line receives air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park brake relay valve
and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve.

63 | P a g e
[1] "Florida CDL Handbook 2009" (http:/ / www. lowestpricetrafficschool. com/ handbooks/
cdl/ en/ 5/ 1). . Retrieved 2009-10-27.
[2] "Florida CDL Handbook 2009" (http:/ / www. lowestpricetrafficschool. com/ handbooks/
cdl/ en/ 5/ 1). . Retrieved 2009-10-27.

Air Brake Chamber

Air brake chamber operates wheel brakes of motor vehicles and trailers by converting pneumatic
force into mechanical force. The diagram shows the most common device used to apply truck air
brakes the air brake chamber. It con verts the force of compressed air into a strong mechanical
force through the pushrod and slack adjuster. The air brake chamber consists of a flexible
diaphragm clamped between two steel housings. The diaphragm construction is similar to a tire
sidewall, consisting of a reinforced fabric core with a rubber coating
Other main parts are the pushrod and plate assembly, and a return spring.

Foundation brakes: S-cam type

The brake assembly at each wheel is generally called the foundation brake. The assembly
consists of the brake parts around the wheel that are operated by the air brake system, including
the brake chamber. The most popular type of foundation brake is the “S” cam drum brake.

64 | P a g e
.
This diagram shows the main components used in the S-cam drum foundation brake. The air
brake chamber pushrod is connected to a lever arm called a slack adjuster. The slack adjuster is
attached to a camshaft with an S-shaped head called an S-cam. Air pressure applied to the
chamber causes the pushrod to move forward, causing the slack adjuster to rotate the S-cam.
This causes the brake linings to press against the brake drum, causing friction, which causes the
wheel to decelerate, stopping the vehicle.The slack adjuster is also the means of adjusting the
brakes to compensate for brake lining and brake drum wear. Brake adjustment is important
Brake shoe return springs are used to keep the brake linings away from the drum when the air
pressure is released from the air chamber.

Working principle of air brake system

The vehicle’s compressor takes in filtered air — either at atmospheric pressure from the outside
or already at an increased pressure from an engine turbocharger — and compresses it. The
compressed air is delivered to the air dryer where water and a small amount of oil is removed.
The air then travels into the air reservoirs (“air tanks”). It is typically delivered to a rear brake
system reservoir and a front brake system reservoir, as well as any attached trailer reservoirs. For
each system, the air pressurizes the reservoir and the air hoses all the way to the next control
valve, where the air pressure remains, ready to use. When the driver applies the foot brake, a
plunger within the foot brake valve moves, opening channels within the valve that allow the air
pressure waiting there to pass through and be delivered to the rear and front brake systems. The
pressure quickly increases in the brake chambers and applies force to the push rod, transferring

65 | P a g e
the force to the air disc brake (or via a slack adjuster, to a foundation drum brake). Frictional
forces slow the wheels and the vehicle comes to a stop. When the brakes are released, the air in
the brake chambers is quickly released, enabling the vehicle to drive away.

Discussion about electromagnetic brake system

Electromagnet

An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as electromagnets. An
electromagnet works on the magnetic effect of current. It has been found that if a soft iron rod
called core is placed inside a solenoid, then the strength of the magnetic field becomes very large
because the iron ore is magnetized by induction An electromagnet is a device in which a
magnetic field is produced by an electric current.  By Mary Bellis Updated February 23, 2019
William Sturgeon and the Invention of the Electromagnet https://www.thoughtco.com/who-
invented-the-electromagnet-1991678

British electrical engineer William Sturgeon, a former soldier who began to dabble in the
sciences at the age 37, invented the electromagnet in 1825. Sturgeon’s device came a mere five
years after a Danish scientist discovered that electricity emitted magnetic waves. Sturgeon
harnessed this idea and conclusively demonstrated that the stronger the electric current, the
stronger the magnetic force. 

66 | P a g e
 An early electromagnet experiment. (Oxford Science Archive/Print Collector/Getty
Images)

The first electromagnet he built was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with a
loosely wound coil of several turns. When a current was passed through the coil the
electromagnet became magnetized, and when the current was stopped, the coil was de-
magnetized. Sturgeon displayed its power by lifting nine pounds with a seven-ounce piece of
iron wrapped with wires through which the current of a single cell battery was sent.  Sturgeon
could regulate his electromagnet that is, the magnetic field could be adjusted by adjusting the
electrical current. This was the beginning of using electrical energy for making useful and
controllable machines and laid the foundations for large-scale electronic communications. 

Factors affecting strength of an Electromagnet

The strength of an electromagnet is:
 Directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil.
 Directly proportional to the current flowing in the coil.
 Inversely proportional to the length of air gap between the poles.
In general, an electromagnet is often considered better than a permanent magnet because it can
produce very strong magnetic fields and its strength can be controlled by varying the number of
turns in its coil or by changing the current flowing through the coil.
Magnetic Effect of Current
The term "Magnetic effect of current" means that "a current flowing in a wire produces a
magnetic field around it". The magnetic effect of current was discovered by Oersted in 1820.
Oersted found that a wire carrying a current was able to deflect a magnetic needle

67 | P a g e
 Fig. 2 Magnetic Field Lines

[2]. Gagarin, G., Kroger, U. and Saunweber, E., ‘‘Eddy-current magnetic track brakes for high-
speed trains,’’ Joint ASME/IEEE/AAR Railroad Conference, pp. 95–99, 1987.
[7]Heald, M.A., ‘‘Magnetic braking: improved theory,’’ American Journal of Physics, Vol.
56,No. 6, pp. 521–522, 1988. 108, 1988.
Working principle of electromagnetic brake
Electromagnets can be constructed in various shapes, including the linear solenoid and horseshoe
geometries. . In both cases, when an electric current flows through the insulated wire coiled
around the central core, it induces a magnetic field with lines resembling those generated by a
bar magnet. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the current, the number of turns,
and the magnetic permeability of the core material. By using a ferromagnetic core, the field
strength can be increased by several orders of magnitude, depending on the purity of the iron
material. When subjected to a magnetic field, ferromagnetic materials, such as iron or nickel, get
magnetized and act like magnets themselves.

o discussion about aerodynamic wind deflector

o aerodynamic effect on heavy duty vehicle

68 | P a g e
Aerodynamic drag, also called wind resistance is a retarding force exerted on a vehicle by the air
through which it moves. As a truck moves forward it breaks up the flow of air, creating an area
of low pressure behind the body or trailer (the wake) [8]. The high- pressure air surrounding the
wake then moves into the low pressure area, exerting a force that pulls the vehicle backwards.
Low pressure areas created in the gap between the tractor and the trailer, and underneath the
truck, similarly contribute to aerodynamic drag. The amount of energy required to overcome
aerodynamic drag is affected by the effective frontal surface area of the vehicle, the shape of the
vehicle and the speed at which the vehicle is travelling [7, 8].
Aerodynamics of tractor trailer is affected by the shape of the tractor cab, the transition between
the back of the cab and the front of the trailer, the gap distance between the tractor and trailer,
the underbody of the truck, and the rear edge of the trailer. Principles which reduce the effort of
aerodynamic drag are : the cab should be shaped as aerodynamically as possible, and there
should be a smooth transition between the top of the cab and the top of the trailer (either through
height matching or connections that create a smooth line between the two),the gap distance
between the tractor and trailer should be minimized, by positioning the two as close together as
possible or blocking the air flow into the gap, air should be blocked from travelling under the
truck, or the underbody of the truck should be made as aerodynamic (smooth) as possible, the
rear end of the trailer should be rounded or extended in a way that creates a more aerodynamic
shape.
[7]. U.S Department of energy December 2006 “Technology Roadmap for the 21st
century truck program, a government research partnership” 21CTP-0003.
[8]. https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/drageq.html - Concepts related to
Aerodynamic drag and the drag relation.

Using drag force as brake of the vehicle

The air brake consists of a physical structure on the exterior of a vehicle that will increase the
vehicle's drag coefficient, and therefore slow it down. Air brakes of this sort are ineffective at
normal road vehicle speeds, and therefore are reserved for vehicles which need to quickly
decelerate from high speeds, such as race and high performance sports cars. The Bugatti
Veyron's hydraulic rear spoiler/air brake in the wing position.The Bugatti Veyron, the fastest
production car in the world, [3] features a rear spoiler which, at speeds above 200 km/h (120

69 | P a g e
mph), also acts as an air brake, snapping to a 55° angle in 0.4 seconds once the brake pedal is
pressed, providing an additional 0.68 g (6.66 m/s2) of deceleration (equivalent to the stopping
power of an ordinary hatchback). [4] Top Fuel Dragsters and other drag racing cars that routinely
reach speeds greater than 150 miles per hour use a physical air brake via a parachute(s) after the
completion of a race.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bugatti_veyron2.jpg License: Public

Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Trevorhirst at en.wikipedia
In 1994, NASCAR introduced roof flaps to the cars, which are designed to keep cars from
becoming airborne and possibly flipping. Following Rusty Wallace's crash at Talladega, Penske
Racing designed the original roof flaps.[5] NASCAR team owner Jack Roush helped improve on
the design of the roof flaps, in conjunction with Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University,
Daytona, Florida, USA.[6] During a spin, the car rotates it eventually reaches an angle where the
oncoming air reacts with the profile of the vehicle in the same manner as a wing. If the speed is
high enough, air flowing over this aerofoil shape will create sufficient lift to force the car to
become airborne. To prevent this, NASCAR developed a set of flaps that are recessed into
pockets on the roof of the car. As a car is turned around and reaches an angle where significant
lift occurs, the low pressure above the flaps causes them to deploy. The first flap, oriented 140
degrees from the centerline of the car, typically deploys first. After flap deployment, higher
pressure air is forced through an air tube which connects to a second flap, deploying it. This
second flap ensures that, should the car continue to spin, no further lift will be created as the
vehicle's angle changes. The deployment of these flaps eliminates most of the lift on the vehicle.
The roof flaps generally keep the cars on the ground as they spin, although it is not guaranteed.
[7]

70 | P a g e
o Adams, Eric (2006). "Inside a Street-Legal Land Rocket". Popular Science 269 (6): 73
o (http:/ / www. jayski. com/ past/ 050221. htm) Jayski's Silly Season Site
o Various Contributors (1998). Official NASCAR Trivia. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-107304-
0.
o Howstuffworks.com (http:/ / auto. howstuffworks. com/ nascar-safety1. htm) Explanation of
roof flaps.

o North American Standard Inspection Program, Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance (12
December 2005). Tractor Protection Systems. Retrieved 7 September 2006 from:
Commercial Vehicle Safety Alliance (http:/ / www. cvsa. org/ resourcecenter/ documents/
2005_02_tractor_protection_systems_rev5. pdf#search="emergency brake, air, require")

3/2-Way Pneumatic Valve

The two-position and three-way (3/2-way) pneumatic solenoid valve is equipped with three air
ports on two positions. The two-position here refers to two different working positions (on, off)
of the pneumatic solenoid valve core. It means that the valve core controls different gas passages
when the solenoid valve gains power and losses power. The three-port means that the valve body
of the pneumatic solenoid valve has three ports, namely A, P and T, of which one (P) is for inlet
and two (A & T) are for outlet (one of the outlet is normally-open and the other is normally-
closed).Generally a condition, one port is connected with the air supply. As to the other two
ports, one port is connected with the inlet port of the actuating element and another is connected
with the exhaust port of the actuating element. To the gas circuit or the liquid circuit, the two-
position and three-port solenoid valve has one inlet (connected with the inlet air supply), one
outlet (providing gas for target equipment), one exhaust vent (generally installed with a silencer,
and if noises do not matter, the exhaust vent can also be uninstalled).

71 | P a g e
 Figure 3/2-way pneumatic valve

Circuit function

The 3/2-way pneumatic valve has three connection ports and two states. The three ports are:

 inlet (P, 1),

 outlet (A, 2)
 exhaust (R, 3

Pneumatic cylinder

Single acting cylinders

A single-acting pneumatic cylinder has one port, which allows compressed air to enter and for
the rod to move in one direction only. The high pressure of the compressed air causes the rod to
extend as the cylinder chamber continues to fill. When the compressed air leaves the cylinder
through the same port the rod is returned to its original position. A single acting hydraulic
cylinder is simpler, so there is less to maintain. With only one line the action of the cylinder is
determined entirely by the pressure on that one line. They often have a spring or something
similar to push or retract the piston rod, but they might rely on the force on end to push it back.
Simplicity is always good for equipment that needs to be rugged and reliable.( Hafner-Pneumatik
Krämer KG, Stammheimerstraße 10, D-70806 Kornwestheim, Germany, www.hafner-
pneumatik.com)

72 | P a g e
Most commonly, the rod returns to its original positioning due to an internal spring. As the
pressure lessens, the spring simply pulls the rod back. There are other options with returning the
rod in a single-acting cylinder back to its default position. These are an external spring, the
weight within the system or simply gravity. A single acting cylinder is one where the thrust or
output force is developed in only one direction. The piston is returned by a fitted spring, or by
some other external means such as a weight, mechanical movement, gravity or an external
spring. They have a single port to allow compressed air to enter the cylinder to move the piston
to the desired position.

Figure single acting cylinder(https://medium.com/@vcompmississaug)

The Movement of a cylinder

There are two end-positions of a cylinder positive or minus positions. Therefore we also call the
two chambers inside the cylinder the plus and the minus chamber.

73 | P a g e
 Positive movement Negative movement

The position where the piston rod is out of the cylinder the furthest possible is called the plus
end-position. In order to reach it, the plus chamber needs to be inflated. The minus end-position
is positioned on the opposite side; the minus chamber needs to be inflated. The cylinder cannot
reach an end-position if the opposite chamber is not fully exhausted.

Stable positions of a single acting pneumatic cylinder:Two different types of single-acting

cylinders are available:
Single-acting cylinder with base position Single-acting cylinder with base position
minus (spring between head and piston) plus
(spring between cap and piston)

Single acting pneumatic cylinder actuation force

As described above a single acting pneumatic cylinder converts a compressed air pressure from
the AC air compressor when the solenoid valve opens.

Generally the actuating force of pneumatic cylinder depends up

on

 Pressure applied from air compressor P(psi)

 Bore area of the piston A1
 Bore area of the road A2

So we know that

F
P= ,
A

F=PA where: A is net area affected by the pressure.

When the road is in extension stroke

74 | P a g e
F=PA where: A = πd14/4

d1=bore diameter of the cylinder

F=P (πd14/4)

But in return stroke

The actuation road is returned by the help of spring force

75 | P a g e