Environmental

Science
(AS 104)

Earth’s Sphere

and the Biogeochemical Cycle:

Earth’S Sphere and the Biogeochemical Cycle:

Everything in Earth's system can be placed into one of four major subsystems:
land, water, living things, or air. These four subsystems are called "spheres."
Specifically, they are the "lithosphere" (land), "hydrosphere" (water), "biosphere"
(living things), and "atmosphere" (air). Each of these four spheres can be further
divided into sub-spheres. To keep things simple in this module, there will be no
distinction among the sub-spheres of any of the four major spheres.

Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's
crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid
land near the center of the planet. *The surface of the lithosphere is
very uneven (see image at right). There are high mountain ranges like
the Rockies and Andes (shown in red), huge plains or flat areas like
those in Texas, Iowa, and Brazil (shown in green), and deep valleys along the
ocean floor (shown in blue).

The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are
physically and chemically different. If someone were to cut through Earth to its
center, these layers would be revealed like the layers of an onion (see image
above). The outermost layer of the lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in
nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of
oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron, and
magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron. At the center of
Earth is a solid inner core of nickel and iron.

*Note: The word "lithosphere" can take on different meanings depending on the
speaker and the audience. For example, many geologists--scientists who study the
geologic formations of Earth--reserve the word "lithosphere" to mean only the cold,
hard surface of Earth, not the entire inside of the planet. For the purpose of this
module, however, there will be no distinction among the various layers of land. The
word "lithosphere" will be used in reference to all land in Earth's
system.

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the
planet. **It ranges from 10 to 20 kilometers in thickness. The
hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface downward several
kilometers into the lithosphere and upward about 12 kilometers into the
atmosphere.

A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water
flows as precipitation from the atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and
streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's surface. Most of
Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen.
Ninety-seven percent of Earth's water is salty. The salty water collects in deep
valleys along Earth's surface. These large collections of salty water are referred to
as oceans. The image above depicts the different temperatures one would find on
oceans' surfaces. Water near the poles is very cold (shown in dark purple), while
water near the equator is very warm (shown in light blue). The differences in
temperature cause water to change physical states. Extremely low temperatures
like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid such as a polar
icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg. Extremely high temperatures like those found at
the equator cause water to evaporate into a gas.

**Note: Some scientists place frozen water--glaciers, icecaps, and icebergs--in its
own sphere called the "cryosphere." For the purpose of this module, however,
frozen water will be included as part of the hydrosphere. The word "hydrosphere"
will be used in reference to all water in Earth's system.

Biosphere
The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. ***This sphere
includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals of Earth.

Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based

on the physical surroundings of an area. These communities are
referred to as biomes. Deserts, grasslands, and tropical rainforests are three of the
many types of biomes that exist within the biosphere.

It is impossible to detect from space each individual organism within the biosphere.
However, biomes can be seen from space. For example, the image above
distinguishes between lands covered with plants (shown in shades of green) and
those that are not (shown in brown).

***Note: Some scientists place humans in their own sphere called the
"anthrosphere." For the purpose of this module, however, humans will be included
as part of the biosphere. The word "biosphere" will be used in reference to all living
things in Earth's system.

Atmosphere
The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. ****It extends from less
than 1 m below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's
surface. The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the
biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits heat. When
air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs. As air
in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result
can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

****Note: The atmosphere is made up of many layers that differ in chemical

composition and temperature. For the purpose of this module, however, we will not
differentiate among the layers of the atmosphere. The word "atmosphere" will be
used in reference to all of the layers.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Cycle

The oxygen cycle and the carbon dioxide cycle (carbon cycle) are two of the

biogeochemical cycles on Earth that make life possible. They act separately but are

dependent on each other because the carbon cycle gives off oxygen for the oxygen

cycle to use, and in turn, the oxygen cycle emits carbon dioxide (CO 2) which goes

back into the carbon cycle. Plants are the main vehicle by which the oxygen and

carbon cycles are connected. Respiration, combustion and decomposition are three

other ways that CO2 and/or oxygen is released back into the atmosphere.

Another biogeochemical cycle, the hydrogen cycle, connects some of the pathways

in nature that are involved in the carbon and oxygen cycles.

The Oxygen Cycle

Photosynthesis is the driver of the oxygen cycle. In this process, plants transform

CO2 and water into sugars to use in their metabolism, help them to grow and to

provide food for other organisms. The atmosphere, the total content of biological

matter on the planet and the Earth’s crust are the three main reservoirs of oxygen.

About 20% of the Earth’s atmosphere is composed of molecular oxygen. Some

atmospheric oxygen is in the form of ozone (CO3) which makes up the ozone layer

and absorbs much of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, protecting the planet surface.

Scientists think that early in the Earth’s history, oxygen was first released into the

atmosphere by the action of ultraviolet light on water vapor.

The Carbon Cycle

Life on Earth is based on carbon. The carbon reservoirs are the atmosphere, the

biosphere, the oceans, sediments (including fossil fuels) and the mantle and crust
of the planet. Carbon dioxide and methane are the two principal forms of carbon in

the atmosphere. Plants take in CO2 and water to create sugars like glucose through

the process of photosynthesis. The plants then release oxygen and water vapor as

byproducts. The oxygen goes back into the oxygen cycle and the water vapor

enters the water cycle. Without plants, CO2 would build up to dangerous levels in

the atmosphere and add to the greenhouse effect. About 500 gigatons of carbon

are stored in the plants and animals that live on the surface of the planet and the

soil holds about 1,500 gigatons.

Like the carbon that is used during photosynthesis, the carbon in the oceans,

sediments, mantle and crust of the planet has been moving through the carbon

cycle for hundreds of millions of years. Carbon can be cycled through the various

processes over the course of days, weeks, months or years. It can take tens of

millions of years for carbon stored in the ocean floor to be released, if it is ever

released at all. Volcanic eruptions are one way that carbon-containing molecules

from deep within the planet are released to the surface. The combination of burning

fossil fuels (releasing CO2) and deforestation (reducing photosynthesis and carbon

storage) caused by humans is disrupting the carbon cycle in a negative way.

Respiration, Combustion and Decomposition

Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which animals take in sugars and oxygen and

emit CO2, water and energy. Insects, fish, birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians

all respire in some fashion by using specialized systems and pathways that have

evolved over millions of years of natural selection.

Combustion

CO2 is released into the atmosphere by natural combustion in several ways

including volcanic eruptions and forest fires. As was mentioned earlier, the

combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities has had an alarming impact on

the Earths carbon cycle. This is evidenced by the increase in carbon release due to

human activity from 1 billion tons in 1940 to over 6 billion tons by the year 2000,

and continues to increase to this day. There is a limit to the amount of carbon that

the oceans and plants can take up, so the rest remains in the atmosphere and

increases the greenhouse effect, causing climate change.

Decomposition

When a plant or animal dies, the carbon and oxygen and other components like

water, calcium, nitrogen, etc. are returned to the soil and air through the process of

decomposition. Fungi, bacteria and some insects (called decomposers) are

responsible for decomposition, and most require oxygen to carry out the process.

The image shows the interrelationship

between the carbon, oxygen and

hydrogen cycles in plants.