Course Title: Anatomy and Physiology With Lab: Learning Module No. 01

wwe
Course Title: Anatomy and

Physiology with Lab
Learning Module No. 01 #01
Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:
PROFESSOR
Name: RAQUEL N. WAGAN, PhD
Academic Department: Department of Teacher Education
Consultation Schedule:
Email Address: raquelnieveswagan16@gmail.com
Contact Number: 0921-499-5797

LEARNING MODULE INFORMATION
I. Course Code SEM 301c
II. Course Title Anatomy and Physiology with Laboratory
III. Module Number 01
IV. Module Title Level of Organization and Life Functions
V. Overview of the Module Human beings are arguably the most complex organisms on
this planet. Imagine billions of microscopic parts, each with
its own identity, working together in an organized manner for
the benefit of the total being. The human body is a single
structure but it is made up of billions of smaller structures of
four major kinds: cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
VI. Module Outcomes As for the outcome of the module, you are expected to do
research, take a quiz in varied types and do enrichment
activities that will develop critical thinking skills. Experimental
reports are also required.
VII. General Instructions
The module covers the lessons for the Preliminary
period of the course. The assessment part found at the end of
the module maybe composed of varied types of questions. It
may take the form of matching type, multiple choice,
compare and contrast, filling the table with the correct data
and/or essay and problem solving.
Answers must be written in a short bond paper. Module
01 should be named, stapled, and properly labeled with the
Lesson No.(topic), Exercise, Assessment, or Enrichment
Activity. Do not write at the back of the bond paper. Please
note that there will be point deductions for not following
instructions.
You are advised to practice honesty as you work with all the
outputs. If found having a totally copied output/same answers
you will be asked to repeat your submittals or get a failing
grade for cheating.
Good luck.

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Lesson 1: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Objectives:
 Compare and contrast anatomy and physiology, including their specializations and
methods of study
 Discuss the fundamental relationship between anatomy and physiology
Human anatomy - is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Some of these structures are
very small and can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope.
Other larger structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed.
- The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means “to cut apart.”
Historical Development
- Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of the body and observing
the wounds of soldiers and other injuries.
- Later, physicians were allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to augment their
knowledge. When a body is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe
their physical attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still used in
medical schools, anatomy courses, and in pathology labs.
- In order to observe structures in living people, however, a number of imaging
techniques have been developed. These techniques allow clinicians to visualize
structures inside the living body such as a cancerous tumor or a fractured bone.
Areas of Specialization
1. Gross anatomy - is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the
aid of magnification (Figure 1a). Macro– means “large,” thus, gross anatomy is also referred
to as macroscopic anatomy.
2. Microscopic anatomy - is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use
of a microscope or other magnification devices.
- Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study of
tissues. As the technology of microscopes has advanced, anatomists have been able to
observe smaller and smaller structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the
heart, to the three-dimensional structures of large molecules in the body
Two general approaches to the study of the body’s structures:
1. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a

specific body region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us

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2. appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves,

blood vessels, and other structures work together to serve a particular body region.
3. Systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—
that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function.
For example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all
of the skeletal muscles of the body.
Human physiology - is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of
the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life. Much of
the study of physiology centers on the body’s tendency toward homeostasis.
- Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things. The
study of physiology certainly includes observation, both with the naked eye and with
microscopes, as well as manipulations and measurements.
- Like anatomists, physiologists typically specialize in a particular branch of physiology.
For example, neurophysiology is the study of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
and how these work together to perform functions as complex and diverse as
vision, movement, and thinking. Physiologists may work from the organ level
(exploring, for example, what different parts of the brain do) to the molecular
level (such as exploring how an electrochemical signal travels along nerves).
- Form is closely related to function in all living things.

For example, the thin flap of your eyelid can snap down to clear away dust
particles and almost instantaneously slide back up to allow you to see again.
At the microscopic level, the arrangement and function of the nerves and
muscles that serve the eyelid allow for its quick action and retreat. At a smaller
level of analysis, the function of these nerves and muscles likewise relies on the
interactions of specific molecules and ions. Even the three-dimensional
structure of certain molecules is essential to their function.
Importance
1. Students - gives an insight into the complex nature of the human body and the countless
different systems that make it up.
2. Background medical knowledge - When studying to become a doctor, nurse or therapist,
or even a dentist, advanced training and learning in those fields require a basic working
knowledge of anatomy and physiology.
3) Health - Understanding the parts of the human body and how they work will promote your
own personal health and those of your family members.
4) Sports Medicine/Coaching - when working with students and athletes, it is important to

know anatomy in order to ensure quick assessment and treatment of injuries, as well as
promoting their prevention.

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5) First Responders - Those who respond to emergencies, are part of search and rescue or
are just citizen bystanders are the ones who will first come into contact with those needing
physical help. Advanced knowledge of anatomy and physiology will make it easier to give
or obtain them proper treatment.
6) Biology/Chemistry/Anthropology - Those going on to study chemistry or biology can get

a background understanding of anatomy that they can then apply to the study of other
species, or to medical and pharmaceutical research that might aid human life.
LESSON 2: The Levels of Organization and Functions of Life

Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the structure of the human body in terms of six levels of organization
2. List the eleven organ systems of the human body.
3. Identify at least one organ and one major function
of each
Discussion:
THE FUNDAMENTAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
-The simplest building blocks of matter: subatomic

particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the
universe is composed of one or more unique pure
substances called elements, familiar examples of
which are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of any of
these pure substances (elements) is an atom.
Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such
as the proton, electron and neutron.
- Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule,

such as the water molecules, proteins, and sugars
found in living things. Molecules are the chemical
building blocks of all body structures.
- A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even

bacteria, which are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular
structure. Each bacterium is a single cell. All living structures of human anatomy
contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or
are initiated by cells.
 A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a

water-based cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units
called organelles. In humans, as in all organisms, cells perform all functions of life.

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 A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes composed of a few related
types) that work together to perform a specific function.
 An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more

tissue types. Each organ performs one or more specific physiological functions.
 An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions
or meet physiological needs of the body.
The Eleven Organ System of the Body
 The organism level is the highest level of organization. An organism is a living being that has
a cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for
life. In multicellular organisms, including humans, all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
of the body work together to maintain the life and health of the organism.
 The 11 Organ Systems
1. Integumentary
2. Skeletal 7. Lymphatic
3. Muscular 8. Respiratory
4. Nervous 9. Digestive
5. Endocrine 10. Excretory/Urinary
6. Cardiovascular 11. Reproductive (Male and Female)

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Lesson 3: Functions of Human Life

1. Explain the importance of organization to the function of the human
organism.
2. Know the positive and negative feedback mechanism of homeostasis.
3. Distinguish between metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism
4. Provide at least two examples of human responsiveness and human
movement
5. Compare and contrast growth, differentiation, and reproduction
Discussion:
LIFE - the interaction of the physical and chemical processes in a complex system which
forms living things and the relationship existing between living things and its environment.
Living things have a variety of common characteristics.
 Organization. Living things exhibit a high level of organization, with multicellular

organisms being subdivided into cells, and cells into organelles, and organelles into
molecules, etc.
- A human body consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct
internal compartments. These compartments keep body cells separated from
external environmental threats and keep the cells moist and nourished. They also
separate internal body fluids from the countless microorganisms that grow on body
surfaces, including the lining of certain tracts, or passageways.
- they rearrange and combine chemical elements for their need
 Adaptation. Living things are suited to their mode of existence, adjustment to its
environment and enable it to survive.
- Homeostasis. Homeostasis is the maintenance

of a constant (yet also dynamic) internal
environment in terms of temperature, pH, water
concentrations, etc. Ex. panting of dogs
- All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least
three interdependent components for the variable
being regulated:
1. Sensor or receptor - detects changes in the internal

or external environment.
- An example is peripheral chemoreceptors,
which detect changes in blood pH.

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2. Integrating center or control center - receives information from the sensors and initiates
the response to maintain homeostasis.
- The most important example is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that controls
everything from body temperature to heart rate, blood pressure, satiety (fullness), and
circadian rhythms (sleep and wake cycles).
3. Effector - is any organ or tissue that receives information from the integrating center and
acts to bring about the changes needed to maintain homeostasis.
- One example is the kidney, which retains water if blood pressure is too low.
 The sensors, integrating center, and effectors are the basic components of
every homeostatic response. Positive and negative feedback are more
complicated mechanisms that enable these three basic components to maintain
homeostasis for more complex physiological processes.
Positive Feedback
- Positive feedback is a mechanism in which an output is enhanced in order to maintain

homeostasis.
- Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to accelerate or enhance the output
created by a stimulus that has already been activated. Positive feedback mechanisms are
designed to push levels out of normal ranges. To achieve this, a series of events initiates a
cascading process that builds to increase the effect of the stimulus. This process can be
beneficial but is rarely used because it may become uncontrollable.
- A positive feedback example is blood platelet accumulation and aggregation, which in
turn causes blood clotting in response to an injury of the blood vessels.

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Negative Feedback
Negative feedback mechanisms reduce output or

activity to return an organ or system to its normal
range of functioning.
- Regulation of blood pressure is an example of

negative feedback. Blood vessels have sensors
called baroreceptors that detect if blood pressure
is too high or too low and send a signal to the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus then sends a
message to the heart, blood vessels, and kidneys,
which act as effectors in blood pressure
regulation. If blood pressure is too high, the heart
rate decreases as the blood vessels increase in
diameter (vasodilation), while the kidneys retain
less water. These changes would cause the blood
pressure to return to its normal range. The process
reverses when blood pressure decreases, causing
blood vessels to constrict and the kidney to
increase water retention.

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 Reproduction and heredity. Ability of the organism to create another one of the
same kind, the formation of a new organism from parent organisms.
- In humans, reproduction is carried out by the male and female reproductive
systems. Because death will come to all complex organisms, without
reproduction, the line of organisms would end.
- Since all cells come from existing cells, they must have some way of reproducing,
whether that involves asexual (no recombination of genetic material) or sexual
(recombination of genetic material).
- Most living things use the chemical DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as the physical
carrier of inheritance and the genetic information. Some organisms, such as
retroviruses (of which HIV is a member), use RNA (ribonucleic acid) as the carrier.
 Growth and development. Even single-celled organisms grow. When first formed by
cell division, they are small, and must grow and develop into mature cells.
Development is all of the changes the body goes through in life. Development includes
the processes of differentiation, growth, and renewal.
Growth is the increase in body size. Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow by
increasing the number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material
around cells (such as mineral deposits in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing
the size of existing cells.
- Multicellular organisms pass through a more complicated process of differentiation and

organogenesis (because they have so many more cells to develop).
- exhibit internal growth or intussipation; they grow by development of new parts

between or within older ones and may replace parts during life
- each individual has definite life cycle - birth, growth, maturity, life span and death
 Metabolism (Energy acquisition and release)
The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nordestroyed—
it can only change form. As an organism, its basic function is to consume (ingest) energy
and molecules in the foods you eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, sustain
your body functions, and build and maintain your body structures. There are two types of
reactions that accomplish this: anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger,
more complex substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex
chemicals it needs by combining small molecules derived from food.

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Catabolism is the process by which larger more

complex substances are broken down into smaller
simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The
complex molecules found in foods are broken down
so the body can use their parts to assemble the
structures and substances needed for life.
Anabolic reactions are building reactions, and they consume

energy. Catabolic reactions break materials down and release
energy. Metabolism includes both anabolic and catabolic
reactions. Every cell in your body makes use of a chemical
compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to store and release
energy. The cell stores energy in the synthesis (anabolism) of ATP,
then moves the ATP molecules to the location where energy is
needed to fuel cellular activities. Then the ATP is broken down
(catabolism) and a controlled amount of energy is released, which
is used by the cell to perform a particular job.
 Responsiveness/Irritability - Detection and response to stimuli (both internal and

external).
Stimulus - anything that causes a response
2 kinds of irritability:
A. External factors
1. Taxes - movement of certain animals to stimuli. Ex. chemotaxis
2. Tropism - response of plants over a number of hours or days if the stimulus
persists for a long time
ex. light - phototropism
soil – geotropism
B. Internal factors
- Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased body
temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels
in the skin in order to decrease body temperature
 Interactions. Living things interact with their environment as well as each other.
Organisms obtain raw materials and energy from the environment or another
organism. The various types of symbioses (organismal interactions with each other) are
examples of this.
 Movement. Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but
also the motion of individual organs and even individual cells.

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Lesson 4: Requirements for Human Life
1. Discuss the role of oxygen and nutrients in maintaining human survival
2. Explain why extreme heat and extreme cold threaten human survival
3. Explain how the pressure exerted by gases and fluids influences human survival
4. Discuss the role of homeostasis in healthy functioning
5. Contrast negative and positive feedback, giving one physiologic example of each
mechanism
Discussion:
Requirements for Life
1. Oxygen
- Atmospheric air is only about 20 percent oxygen, but that oxygen is a key
component of the chemical reactions that keep the body alive, including the
reactions that produce ATP.
- Brain cells are especially sensitive to lack of oxygen because of their requirement
for a high-and-steady production of ATP. Brain damage is likely within five minutes
without oxygen, and death is likely within ten minutes.
2. Nutrients
Nutrient - a substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival.
- The three basic classes of nutrients are water, the energy-yielding and body-
building nutrients, and the micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
WATER - The most critical nutrient
- Depending on the environmental temperature and our state of health, we may
be able to survive for only a few days without water.
- The body’s functional chemicals are dissolved and transported in water, and the
chemical reactions of life take place in water.
- water is the largest component of cells, blood, and the fluid between cells, and
water makes up about 70 percent of an adult’s body mass.
- Water also helps regulate our internal temperature and cushions, protects, and
lubricates joints and many other body structures.
ENERGY-YIELDING and BODY-BUILDING NUTRIENTS - are primarily carbohydrates and

lipids, while proteins mainly supply the amino acids that are the building blocks of the
body itself.
- Sources are in plant and animal foods and beverages, and the digestive system
breaks them down into molecules small enough to be absorbed. The breakdown
-

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products of carbohydrates and lipids can then be used in the metabolic processes
that convert them to ATP.
MACRO and MICRO NUTRIENTS - Water and the energy-yielding nutrients are also
referred to as macronutrients because the body needs them in large amounts.
Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals.
- These elements and compounds participate in many essential chemical reactions
and processes, such nerve impulses, and some, such as calcium, also contribute
to the body’s structure. Micronutrients are stored in the body’s tissues. Some other
micronutrients, such as vitamin C and most of the B vitamins, are water-soluble and
cannot be stored, so you need to consume them every day or two.
3. Narrow Range of Temperature

- Sometimes, athletes die of heat stroke, or hikers who die of exposure to cold. Such
deaths occur because the chemical reactions upon which the body depends can
only take place within a narrow range of body temperature, from just below to just
above 37°C (98.6°F). When body temperature rises well above or drops well below
normal, certain proteins (enzymes) that facilitate chemical reactions lose their
normal structure and their ability to function and the chemical reactions of
metabolism cannot proceed.
Body Regulators of Temperature
a. Sweating - As sweat evaporates from skin, it removes some thermal energy from
the body, cooling it. Adequate water (from the extracellular fluid in the body) is
necessary to produce sweat, so adequate fluid intake is essential to balance
that loss during the sweat response. The sweat response is much less effective in
a humid environment because the air is already saturated with water. Thus, the
sweat on the skin’s surface is not able to evaporate, and internal body
temperature can get dangerously high.
b. Shivering - which is random muscle movement that generates heat. Another

response is increased breakdown of stored energy to generate heat. When that
energy reserve is depleted, however, and the core temperature begins to drop
significantly, red blood cells will lose their ability to give up oxygen, denying the
brain of this critical component of ATP production. This lack of oxygen can cause
confusion, lethargy, and eventually loss of consciousness and death. The body
responds to cold by reducing blood circulation to the extremities, the hands and
feet, in order to prevent blood from cooling there and so that the body’s core can
stay warm. Even when core body temperature remains stable, however, tissues
exposed to severe cold, especially the fingers and toes, can develop frostbite
when blood flow to the extremities has been much reduced. This form of tissue

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damage can be permanent and lead to gangrene, requiring amputation of the

affected region.
4. Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure

- Pressure - is a force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another
substance.
- Atmospheric pressure - is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily
nitrogen and oxygen) in the Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is
constantly pressing down on your body. This pressure keeps gases within your body,
such as the gaseous nitrogen in body fluids, dissolved.
- The dynamic pressure of body fluids is also important to human survival. For
example, blood pressure, which is the pressure exerted by blood as it flows within
blood vessels, must be great enough to enable blood to reach all body tissues,
and yet low enough to ensure that the delicate blood vessels can withstand the
friction and force of the pulsating flow of pressurized blood
Assessment
Write the letter of the correct answer in a short bond paper. (ONLY THE LETTER)
1. Which of the following is the LARGEST and MOST complex level of organization
in the body?
A. Cell C. Organ
B. Tissue D. Organ System
2. How does an organ system differ from an organ?
A. A system is more complex and contains several organs
B. A system is not made up of cells like an organ is.
C. A system is only found in very large organisms.
D. A system is just one part of an organ.
3. Which sequence BEST describes the levels of organization from simplest to most
complex?
A. Organism, Organ, Tissue, Cell
B. Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ System
C. Cell, Organ, Tissue, Organ System
D. Organism, Cell, Organ System, Organ
4. The cells in a multicellular organism are specialized to perform a particular function.
A group of related cells that work together make up _____ is a/an
A. organism. C. organ,
B. organ system. D. tissue.
5. Miggy has learned that the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves work together.
They combine to form the
A. cell. B. tissue. C. organ. D. organ system.

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6. Gross anatomy includes all of the following except

A. anatomy. C. regional anatomy.
B. cellular anatomy. D. macroscopic anatomy.
7. Epithelium is an example of which of the following levels of organization?
A. Tissue C. Organ
B. Cellular D. Organ system
8. Which of the following is a survival need?
A. Growing C. Movement
B. Reproduction D. Breathing oxygen
9. Why do we need oxygen?

A. To make food. C. Photosynthesis
B. To convert food to usable energy. D. Blood circulation
10. Why do humans need to have proper atmospheric pressure?
A. It can directly affect oxygen intake.
B. It can affect directly body temperature.
C. It can directly affect the urinary system.
D. It can directly affect reproduction of offspring
11. Which of the following is not a necessary human life function?
A. Regeneration C. Movement
B. Reproduction D. Growth
12. What is an example of a macroscopic boundary?
A. Cell wall C. Cell membrane
B. Skin D. Bones
13. What is an example of a microscope boundary?
A. Mitochondrium C. Cell membrane
B. Skin D. Bone
14. Which is not an example of movement that was created human body processes?
A. Blood circulation C. Diffusion of chemicals
B. Contracting muscles D. Tears rolling down face
15. Which of the following is not an example of responsiveness?
A. Pupils dilating C. Sweating
B. Sleeping D. Heart rate increasing
16. Which of the following characteristics of living things best explains why birds fly south
for the winter?
A. Living things respond to their environment.
B. Living things maintain internal balance.
C. Living things are made up of units called cells.
D. Living things are based on a universal genetic code.
17. Which of the following characteristics of living things best explains why humans sweat
when they get hot?
A. Growth and development C. Using energy
B. Maintaining a stable internal environment D. Ability to reproduce

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18. Which of the following characteristics of living things best explains why your legs and
arms get longer and stronger as you get older?
C. Living things are made up of units called cells.
D. Living things grow and develop
19. Both a fast-moving stream and a dog respond to the environment and grow and
develop. A stream is not considered living because they do not have which of the
following characteristics?
A. The ability to move C. The ability to grow and develop
B. Being made of cells D. The ability to evolve
20. When the level of sugar in the blood is too high, the excess sugar is stored in the
muscle to be used later as needed. Which characteristic of life is described here?
A. Ability to evolve. C. Response to environment
B. Maintaining an internal balance D. Use of energy
21. In all of our cells there is a blueprint of life called DNA. Which characteristic does this
fact best describe?
C. Living things are based on a universal genetic code.
D. Living things grow and develop
22. Before a big soccer game Charlie always eats and metabolizes a big dinner. Which
characteristic of life does this fact best describe?
A. Living things respond to their environment
B. Living things grow and develop
C. Living things reproduce
D. Living things use energy
23. Fire can technically reproduce. However, it is not considered a living thing because...
A. Fire does not use energy C. Fire does not respond to its environment
B. Fire does not contain DNA D. Fire does not grow
24. Which is NOT an example of plants demonstrating the characteristics of life?
A. A plant has stimuli that causes it to grow towards the sunlight
B. Plants are forced to make adaptations depending on its environment
C. There are stages of growth that plants go through depending on favorable
conditions
D. The leaves on a plant move in reaction to the wind
25. Which of the following statements is FALSE?
A. Growth requires that an organism takes material from the environment.
B. Organisms have patterns for building their structures.
C. The material taken from the environment need not be transformed before it is used
to create new tissues.
D. Organisms respond to stimuli in different forms.

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Enrichment
1. What do you think would happen if a living thing stopped doing a life function? Does it
automatically mean the organism would die?
2. Tabulate the differences among hypothermia, hyperthermia and controlled
hypothermia. Follow the table given below:
Definition Source Process Importance/Example
Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
Controlled
hypothermia
3. How do atmospheric pressure affects the following:
a. the blood vessels and cause cells to break apart
b. the ability to breathe
References
Anatomy and Physiology I | Simple Book Production - Lumen ...courses.lumenlearning.com
› suny-ap1 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/overview-of-anatomy-
and-physiology/
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology | Boundless Anatomy ...

courses.lumenlearning.com › boundless-ap › chapter
Homeostasis and Feedback Loops/ Anatomy and Physiology 1

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/homeostasis/
Lesson 5: Anatomical Terminology

1. Demonstrate the anatomical position
2. Describe the human body using directional and regional terms
3. Identify three planes most commonly used in the study of anatomy
4. Distinguish between the posterior (dorsal) and the anterior (ventral) body cavities,
identifying their subdivisions and representative organs found in each
5. Describe serous membrane and explain its function
Anatomical terms - are made up of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. The root of a term often
refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or suffix often describes the root.
- For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix “hyper-” means “high” or
“over,” and the root word “tension” refers to pressure, so the word “hypertension”
refers to abnormally high blood pressure.

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Anatomical position – is the standardized way in viewing the body wherein the body is
standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs
are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward as illustrated below.
 A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine.

Prone describes a face-down orientation
Supine describes a face up orientation.

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Regional Terms
The human body’s numerous regions have specific terms to help increase precision. Notice
that the term “brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and “antebrachium” or
“forearm” is used rather than “lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is correct, and “leg”
or “crus” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle.
Directional Terms
 Anterior (or ventral) - describes the front or direction toward the front of the body.
 Posterior (or dorsal) - describes the back or direction toward the back of the body.
 Superior (or cranial) - describes a position above or higher than another part of the
body proper.
 Inferior (or caudal) - describes a position below or lower than another part of the
body proper; near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the
spinal column).
 Lateral - describes the side or direction toward the side of the body.
 Medial - describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body.
 Proximal - describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or
the trunk of the body.
 Distal - describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or
the trunk of the body.

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 Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body.

 Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body.
Body Planes
- The three planes most commonly used in

anatomical and medical imaging are the
sagittal, frontal (or coronal), and
transverse plane.
 Sagittal plane is the plane that divides the
body or an organ vertically into right and left
sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down
the middle of the body, it is called the
midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the
body into unequal right and left sides, it is
called a parasagittal plane or less commonly
a longitudinal section.
 Frontal plane is the plane that divides the

body or an organ into an anterior (front)
portion and a posterior (rear) portion. The
frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin
for “crown.”)
 Transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into
upper and lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as
cross sections.
Body Cavities and Serous Membranes
 The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and
other structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and
the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments. These cavities
contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for
significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions.
The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract
without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
 The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their
subdivisions.
 The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities.

21
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities
The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into smaller
cavities.
A. Posterior (dorsal) cavity

- cranial cavity houses the brain
- spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the
spinal cord
 Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted
structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous.
 The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and
vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the
brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal)
cavity.
B. Anterior (ventral) cavity
the ventral body cavity is subdivided into:
- superior thoracic cavity is separated from the rest of the ventral cavity by the
muscular diaphragm. The heart and lungs, located in the thoracic cavity, are
protected by the bony rib cage.
- The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is the abdominopelvic cavity. Although there
is no further physical separation of this part of the ventral cavity, some describe
the abdominopelvic cavity in terms of a superior abdominal cavity, the area that
houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and other organs, and an inferior pelvic
cavity, which is partially enclosed by the bony pelvis and contains the
reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum.

22
Abdominal Regions and Quadrant

There are (a) nine abdominal regions and (b) four abdominal quadrants in the peritoneal cavity
Umbilical region: The centermost region, which includes the umbilicus.
Epigastric region: Immediately superior to the umbilical region; overlies most of the stomach.
Hypogastric (pubic) region: Immediately inferior to the umbilical region; encompasses the
pubic area.
Iliac regions: Lateral to the hypogastric region and overlying the superior parts of the hip
bones.
Lumbar regions: Between the ribs and the flaring portions of the hip bones; lateral to the
umbilical region.
Hypochondriac regions: Flanking the epigastric region laterally and overlying the lower ribs.
Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity
A serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the
walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The parietal layers of the
membranes line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral
layer of the membrane covers the organs (the viscera). Between the parietal and visceral
layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity.

23
Serous membrane - lines the pericardial cavity and reflects back to cover the heart—much
the same way that an underinflated balloon would form two layers surrounding a fist.
There are three serous cavities and their associated membranes.
 pleura is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural cavity
 pericardium is the serous membrane that surrounds the heart in the pericardial
cavity
 peritoneum is the serous membrane that surrounds several organs in the
abdominopelvic cavity.
 The serous fluid produced by the serous membranes reduces friction between the
walls of the cavities and the internal organs when they move, such as when the
lungs inflate or the heart beats.
 Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the thin, slippery serous fluid that
prevents friction when an organ slides past the walls of a cavity.
 In the pleural cavities, pleural fluid prevents friction between the lungs and the
walls of the cavity.
 In the pericardial sac, pericardial fluid prevents friction between the heart and
the walls of the pericardial sac.
 In the peritoneal cavity, peritoneal fluid prevents friction between abdominal
and pelvic organs and the wall of the cavity.
 The serous membranes therefore provide additional protection to the viscera they
enclose by reducing friction that could lead to inflammation of the organs.
Assessment: Write in a separate bond paper the answers to the questions. (LETTERS
ONLY)
1. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. The heart is medial to the lungs. C. The heart is lateral to the lungs.
B. The heart is deep to the lungs. D. The heart is superior to the lungs.

24
2. In humans the directional term posterior is synonymous with the term

A. dorsal. C. inferior.
B. superior. D. ventral.
3. Which of the following planes divides the body into two equal lateral halves?
A. transverse C. midsagittal
B. parasagittal D. coronal
4. The two major body cavities are the
A. dorsal and abdominopelvic cavities. C. ventral and abdominopelvic cavities.
B. dorsal and ventral cavities. D. ventral and cranial cavities.
5. The parietal pleura lines
A. joint cavities. C. the walls of the pericardial cavity.
B. the lungs. D. the walls of the thoracic cavity.
6. Structures found within the mediastinum includes the
A. lungs. C. liver.
B. appendix. D. stomach.
7. Structures found within the right iliac region include
A. trachea. C. appendix.
B. liver. D. stomach.
8. Which statement is false regarding the anatomical position?
A. The palms face the front.
B. The thumbs point away from the body.
C. The head is turned to the left side.
D. The posture is standing erect.
9. The nose is superior to the navel.
A. True B. False
10. The word anterior means
A. At or toward the front of the body.
B. Away from the insertion point of a structure.
C. At the back or rear of the body.
D. Toward the middle of the body.
11. The wrist is distal to the elbow.
A. True B. False
12, The skin is _________ to the skeletal bones.
A. superior C. superficial
B. proximal D. inferior
13. The elbow is _________between the wrist and shoulder.
A. medial C. distal
B. intermediate D. lateral
14. A plane that separates the body or structure into upper and lower parts is called
A. sagittal plane. C. oblique plane.
B. transverse plane. D. frontal plane.
15. A plane that separates the body into a front (anterior) and back (posterior) part is
called
A. sagittal plane. B. transverse plane. C. oblique plane. D. frontal plane

25
16. A plane that separates the body into parts that are neither perfectly vertical nor
horizontal is called
A. oblique plane. C. coronal plane.
B. transverse plane. D. frontal plane.
17. Which option below provides the best summary of the four types of body planes?
A. Two are vertical, one is horizontal, and one is any odd angle.
B. Two are horizontal, one is vertical, and one is any odd angle.
C. All planes are horizontal.
D. All planes are vertical.
18. Which structure below is not found in the thoracic cavity?
A. Pleural cavity C. Mediastinum
B. Pericardial cavity D. Peritoneal cavity
19. Which landmark separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity?
A. The peritoneum C. The liver
B. The diaphragm D. The bladder
20. The three membranes found in the dorsal cavity that cover the spinal cord and brain
are collectively called what?
A. Peritoneal membranes C. Serous membranes
B. Meninges D. None of the above
21. In a serous membrane, what is the name of the membrane portion that touches and
surrounds the organ?
A. Visceral serosa C. Serous fluid
B. Parietal serosa D. Meninges
22. What is the name of the serous membrane that surrounds the left lung?
A. Pleural cavity C. Pericardium
B. Pleura D. Peritoneum
23. Which cavity is not found in the ventral cavity?
A. Vertebral C. Abdominopelvic
B. Thoracic D. Pelvic
24. Which cavity houses the liver?
A. Pericardial cavity C. Abdominal cavity
B. Ventral cavity D. Answers b and c
25. What is not found in the pelvic cavity?
A. Reproductive organs
B. The stomach
C. Parts of the large intestine (sigmoid colon and rectum)
D. The bladder

26
Enrichment
Using the diagram of the torso, color code each section as follows (label specific left and
right where applicable):
Umbilical Region - Green Epigastric Region - Red

Lumbar Region - Blue Iliac Region - Orange
Hypochondriac Region - Yellow Hypogastric Region - Brown
NAME: _______________________ SECTION: _________
B. Fill in the appropriate word choice. Use the words inside the parenthesis to answer the
blank in each number.
1. ( superior or inferior)
a. Abdomen region is ____________________ to the pectoral region.
b. Oral region is ____________________ to the nose.

27
c. The tail bone is ____________________ to the cervical region.

2. ( anterior/ventral or posterior/dorsal)
d. Nose_____________________ vs. ear_______________________
e. Knuckles _______________ vs. palm_____________________
f. Heel____________________ vs. toes ______________________
3. (medial or lateral)
g. Radius bone_________________ vs. ulna bone____________
h. Middle toe___________________ vs. big toe_______________
i. Orbital region_______________ vs. ear___________________
4. (proximal or distal)
j. Fingers are ___________________to the carpal region
k. The clavicle is __________________ to the shoulder
l. The Lower leg is __________________ to the thigh
References
Anatomy and Physiology I | Simple Book Production - Lumen ...courses.lumenlearning.com

› suny-ap1
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/overview-of-anatomy-and-
physiology/
Body Planes & Directions ACTIVITIES

thescienceofpayne.weebly.com › uploads › activities
LINKS
1. Anatomical Terms - Drawn & Defined (Updated)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvHWnJwBkmo
2. Anatomical Position and Directional Terms - Anatomy and Physiology

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyaPCwMMOig
3. Body Planes and Sections: Frontal, Sagittal, Oblique, Transverse | Anatomy and
Physiology
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0EjklfLrEW8
4. Body Cavities and Membranes (Dorsal, Ventral)- Anatomy and Physiology

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4GLMjSj4k9U
5. Four Abdominal Quadrants and Nine Abdominal Regions - Anatomy and Physiology
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELRzBa-eAAk&feature=emb_title

28
Lesson 6: Cell, Tissues and Membranes

1. Describe the structure and function of the cell, tissues and membranes
including its regulation of materials.
2. Describe the functions of the various cytoplasmic organelles.
3. Explain the structure and types of tissues and membranes.
Discussion:
CELL
- (cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all
known living organisms.
- A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called
the "building blocks of life".
Basic Properties of the Cell
1. Life is the most basic property of the cell
Cells can grow and reproduce in culture for extended periods
- Hela cells are cultured tumor cells isolated from a cancer patient (Henrietta
Lacks) by George Gey in 1951.
- Cultured cells are an essential tool for cell biologists
2. Cells are highly complex and organized
- Cellular processes are highly regulated
- Cells from different species share similar structure, composition and metabolic
features that have
been conserved throughout evolution.
3. Cells possess a genetic program and the means to use it
- Genes encode information to build each cell and the organism
- Genes encode information for cellular reproduction, activity and structure
4. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves
- Cells reproduce, and daughter cells receives a complete set of genetic
instructions
- Totipotency – is the ability of living vegetative cell of plant
5. Cells acquire and utilize energy
- Photosynthesis provides fuel for all living organisms
- Animal cells derive energy from the products of photosynthesis, mainly in the
form of glucose
- Cell can convert glucose into ATP – a substance with readily available energy
6. Cells acquire and utilize energy
- Cells carry out a variety of chemical reactions
- Cells engage in mechanical activities

29
- Cells are able to respond to stimuli

7. Cells are capable of self regulation
- Cells evolve
Chemical and molecular environment
- The study of the cell is done on a molecular level; however, most of the processes
within the cell are made up of a mixture of small organic molecules, inorganic ions,
hormones, and water.
- Approximately 75-85% of the cell’s volume is due to water making it an
indispensable solvent as a result of its polarity and structure. These molecules within
the cell, which operate as substrates, provide a suitable environment for the cell to
carry out metabolic reactions and signaling.
- The cell shape varies among the different types of organisms, and is thus then
classified into two categories: eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
Eukaryotic cells - which are made up of animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa
cells
- the shapes are generally round and spherical
Prokaryotic cells – which are composed of bacteria and archaea
- the shapes are: spherical (cocci), rods (bacillus), curved (vibrio), and spirals
(spirochetes).
- The main constituents of the general molecular composition of the cell includes:
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids which are either free flowing or membrane
bound, along with different internal compartments known as organelles.
- This environment of the cell is made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
which allows for the exchange of the above-mentioned molecules and ions.
- The hydrophilic regions of the cell are mainly on the inside and outside of the cell,
while the hydrophobic regions are within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell
membrane.
- The cell membrane consists of lipids and proteins which accounts for its
hydrophobicity as a result of being non-polar substances.
- Therefore, in order for these molecules to participate in reactions, within the cell,
they need to be able to cross this membrane layer to get into the cell. They
accomplish this process of gaining access to the cell via: osmotic pressure, diffusion,
concentration gradients, and membrane channels. Inside of the cell are extensive
internal sub-cellular membrane-bounded compartments called organelles.
Cell Theory - is a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells. These cells are the
basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With
continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology
advanced enough to discover cells.
Historical highlights:
1. Conrad Gesner – worked on the structure of a group of protists called FORAMINIFERA
- used some form of magnifying lens to draw detailed sketches of the organisms

30
2. Francis and Zaccharias Janssen – manufactured eyeglasses in Holland, constructed the

first compound
microscopes with magnifying powers between 10X to 30X
- used to examine small whole organisms like fleas and other insects
3. Galileo Galilei – constructed his own microscope about the same times as those of the
Janssen’s and
were employed for several extensive studies on the arrangements of the facets in
the compound eyes of insects.
4. Marcelo Malphighi – used the microscope to examine and describe thin slices of animal
tissues from organs
such as the brain, liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and tongue.
- published his work on the development of the chick embryo
- suggested that plant tissues were composed of structural units which he called
utricles.
5. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – built numerous microscopes with magnifications
approaching 300X
- first to describe microscopic organisms in rainwater collected from tubes inserted
into the soil during rainfall
- first to describe sperm cells of various animals and observe the movement of blood
cells in the web capillaries of the frogs and those of rabbit ear.
6. Robert Hooke – examined a thin slice cut from a piece of dried cork – gave the term cell
to the honeycomb structure observed which were actually empty space left behind after
the living portion of the cells had disintegrated. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert
Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology.
7. Henri Milne-Edwards concluded that animal tissue could be reduced down to

individual globules, but insisted that they all have the same size and shape, which was later
proven otherwise.
8. Francoise Raspail established one of the concepts of cell theory: that all cells arise from
exiting cells. This concept was built-upon in the 1830s by Barthelemy Dumortier who
witnessed binary fission under the microscope, in which a single-cell splits into two
daughter cells.
9. Nehemial Grew – published accounts of his microscopic examinations of sections of

flowers, roots and stems of plants
- recognized the cellular nature of plant tissue
10. Henri Joachim Dutrochet – wrote that all animal and plant tissues were aggregates of
globular cells.
11. Robert Brown – discovered the nucleus of the cell

- credited with the physical phenomenon referred to as Brownian movement.

31
12. Johannes Purkinje – coined the term protoplasm to describe the content of the cells.
13. Schleiden and Schwann – credited for their first formal statement of a general cell
theory
Schleiden – first to describe the nucleoli, discovered the plant cell
Schwann – discovered the animal cell
- worked with connective tissues such as bone and cartilage led him to
modify the evolving cell theory to include the notion that living things are composed
of both cells and their products.
Rudolf Virchow - contributed to the theory.
- Cell theory has become the foundation of biology and is the most widely accepted
explanation of the function of cells.
- It took another hundred years after those first cell observations for the ubiquitous nature
of cells to be fully recognized.
The concept of Cell Theory holds that:

- All living things are made up of at least one cell
- The cell is the most fundamental unit of life
- Cells can only arise from existing cells
Modern Version of the Cell Theory

- Energy flow occurs within cells.
- Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
- All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
Modern Interpretation of the Cell Theory

The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
1. All known living things are made up of one or more cells
2. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
3. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
4. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
5. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
6. Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in
the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.
7. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar
species
Types of Cell
1. Prokaryotic Cell – very small, relatively simple cells having only a single cell
membrane, usually surrounded by a rigid cell wall
- contain no nucleus and no membranous organelles such as mitochondria or
endoplasmic reticulum

32
- contain only one chromosome which consists of a single molecule of double helical
DNA densely coiled to form the nuclear zone or nucleoid body.
It includes:
1. eubacteria
2. blue-green algae
3. spirochetes
4. rickettsiae
5. mycoplasma
2. Eukaryotic Cell – contain sub cellular structures enclosed by a membrane that

separates them from the surrounding cytoplasm
- contain many organelles and have cytoskeletons which serve as an internal
framework for organizing organelles and ribosomes.
PROKARYOTIC CELL ORGANELLES – STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
ORGANELLES DESCRIPTION FUNCTIONS

1. Cell Wall A rigid framework of - limits growth
polysaccharide chains cross linked - protection against injury
with short peptide chains - prevents swelling and
bursting under hypotonic
conditions
- imparts immunochemical
compatibility
2. Capsule Amorphous envelope of - protection against
polysaccharides found outside the antibacterial agents
cell walls of many bacteria - believed to play a role in
cell- cell
Interaction

33
3. Plasma Membrane Lipid bilayer embedded with proteins

- may form enfolding which contain - regulates the substances which
enzymes for respiration (mesosome) or enter and leave the cell
photosynthesis(photosynthetic
lamellae)
4. Flagella Thin, rigid, curved rods made of -confer motility
proteins protruding from the cell and
found in many bacteria
5. Pili Rod-like protein structures protruding - bacterial attachment to host
from the cell (shorter and thinner than cell surface or substratum
flagella) - allow attachment to other
bacteria for DNA exchange
during bacterial
conjugation
6. Nuclear Zone or Single large molecule of double - contains the genetic material
Nucleoid stranded circular DNA tightly folded
and packed
7. Ribosomes Dense particles scattered in - site of protein synthesis
cytoplasm composed of a large (50S)
subunit and a small (30S)
Subunit
- subunits assemble together to form
the 70S complex
- each subunit contains RNA and
protein
8. Storage granules Consist of nitrogen stores or sugar - can be utilized as immediate
polymers found in some bacteria fuel substances to provide energy
9. Cytosol Soluble portion of the cytoplasm - provides a medium where the

where enzymes are dissolved, various metabolic processes
metabolic inter-mediates and occur
inorganic salts are found
EUKARYOTIC CELL ORGANELLES – STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

1. Plant cell wall Thick rigid material composed of - provides mechanical support
cellulose microfibrils cemented - protects the cell from swelling
together by an embedding matrix of and
hemicellulose, bursting under hypotonic
pectin and extension conditions

34
2. Plasmodesmata Openings in plant cell walls, which act - allows free circulation of fluids,
as bridges of cytoplasmic materials solutes and macromolecules
- establishes continuity between
adjacent cells
3. Cell coat Found at the periphery of some cells - important in cell adhesion and
- composed of mucopolysaccharides, cell to cell recognition
glycolipids and glycoproteins
4. Plasma Membrane Lipid bilayer, interspersed with partially -transport of small and large
or completely embedded proteins and molecules
with carbohydrates linked either to
lipids or to proteins
5. Nucleus Nuclear envelope-double membrane - contains the genetic material
separated by a space of about 20-40
nm and perforated by pores
Chromatin-complex of DNA and histone

Proteins, which makes up chromosomes
Nucleolus- spherical RNA-rich region

In the nucleus of non-dividing cells
6. Ribosomes Large subunit (60S)+ small subunit(40S) = - site of protein synthesis
80S complexes
- free and attached ribosomes
7. Endoplasmic reticulum extensive membranous network of - synthesis, modification and
tubules and sacs (cisternae) with transport of secretory and
internal lumen called the cisternal membrane proteins
space
- participates in the synthesis of
Rough ER- its cytoplasmic surface is lipids, phospholipids and steroids
studded with ribosomes
- detoxifies drugs and poisons
Smooth ER – its cytoplasmic surface - stores calcium ions necessary for
lacks ribosomes muscle contraction
8. Golgi Apparatus has distinct polarity - alters some phospholipids
- cis face(forming face) – closely - modifies oligosaccharides of
associated with transitional ER glycoproteins
- receives products by accep ting
transport vesicles from ER
trans face(maturing face) – pinches off - manufactures certain

vesicles from the Golgi and transport macromolecules
vesicles from ER - sorts products for secretion

9. Microbodies heterogeneous group of small, vesicle
like, single-membraned organelles
containing enzymes for oxidation
Peroxisomes- contain flavin oxidase - function for oxidation of substrates

and catalases
- facilitates conversion of fats into
carbohydrates

35
Glyoxisomes- found only in plants;

contain enzymes for glyoxylate cycle
aside from Peroxisomal enzymes
10. Lysosomes Single membrane enclosed bag of - for digestion of all major classes of
hydrolytic enzymes (e.g. lipases, macromolecules; programmed cell
carbohydrases, proteases, nuclease) destruction
11. Plant vacuole enclosed by a single membrane calle - stores organic compounds,
tonoplast inorganic ions, dangerous
- space filling as the cells grow, metabolic by- products, poisonous
occupies as much as 80% of the total and unpalatable compounds
plant cell volume
12. Mitochondria dynamic structure that move, - produces energy in the form of
change shape and divide enclosed ATP
by a double membrane:
outer membrane – highly permeable
to small solutes
inner membrane- has many enfolding
called cristae which contains
embedded enzymes that are
involved in cellular
respiration
intermembrane space – narrow
region
between the inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes
matrix – compartment enclosed by
the inner mitochondrial membrane
contains enzymes that catalyze many
steps of cellular respiration
13. Plastids a group of plant membrane-bound
organelles
kinds:
Amyloplasts- colorless plastids found - stores starch
in roots and tubers
Chromoplasts- plastids containing -responsible for the color of fruits,
pigments other than chlorophyll flowers and autumn leaves
Chloroplasts- plastids containing

chlorophyll
Parts:
a. outer and inner membrane
b. intermembrane space- a narrow
space
between the outer and inner
membrane
c. thylakoid – flattened membranous

sacs inside the chloroplast where
chlorophyll are localized - site of photosynthesis light -
 grana – stacks of thylakoids dependent reaction occur
- where the light independent
 stroma – viscous fluid outside reactions of photosynthesis occur
the thylakoids
14. Cytosol comprises about 55% of the cell - most cytosolic proteins are
volume; approx 20% by weight enzymes for cellular metabolism
protein with a gel like consistency

36
15. Cytoskeleton a network of fibers throughout the - gives mechanical support to the
cytoplasm cell and helps maintain its shape
Components:
Microfilaments- composed of protein - enables the cell to change shape
actin in an adaptive manner
Intermediate filaments- consist of 5 -associated with motility by

proteins Interacting with specialized Proteins,
motor molecules
Microtubules - straight hollow fibers - plays regulatory role by mecha -
and constructed from globular nically transmitting signals from cell
proteins called tubulin surface to its interior
16. Centrioles consist of cylinders lying at right - involved in spindle fiber formation
angles to one another, made of during cell division
microtubules
17. Cilia and Flagella locomotor organelles found in - propels many unicellular
eukaryotes that are formed from a eukaryotic organisms through water
specialized arrangement of - may function to draw fluid across
microtubules the surface of stationary cells
Assessment
1. All cells contain which of the following structures?
A. Endoplasmic reticulum C. Nucleus
B. Plasma membrane D. Mitochondria
2. The control center or brain of the cell is the
A. nucleus. C. cell membrane.
B. mitochondria. D. endoplasmic reticulum.
3. Plant cells have all of the following except for the
A. cell wall. C. chloroplast.
B. nucleus. D. centrioles.
4. What has the Rough ER attached to it?
A. Nucleolus C. Ribosomes
B. Golgi apparatus D. Chromosomes
5. The thin, flexible barrier around a cell is called the
A. Plasma membrane C. Nuclear envelope
B. Cell wall D. Cytoplasm
6. The main function of the cell wall is to

A. support and protect the cell. C. help the cell move.
B. store DNA. D. direct the activities of the cell.
7. Which of the following is the function of the cytoskeleton?
A. Helps a cell keep its shape. C. Surrounds the cell.
B. Contains DNA. D. Helps make proteins.
8. Prokaryotes lack
A. DNA or the genetic material. C. a nucleus.
B. a cell membrane. D. cytoplasm.

37
9. Which organelle would not be found in animals cells?

A. Smooth ER C. Mitochondria
B. Chloroplast D. Ribosome
10. A Eukaryotic cell contains
A. only ribosomes. C. DNA floating in cytoplasm.
B. membrane bound organelles. D. just cytoplasm.
11. Which organelle is the "packing center" for the cell?
A. Endoplasmic reticulum C. Lysosome
B. Nucleus D. Golgi apparatus
12. Which of the following is a saclike structure that stores water?
A. Golgi apparatus C. Vacuole
B. Nucleus D. Endoplasmic reticulum
13. Which of the following is the "powerhouse" of the cell that breaks down food into
energy that the cell needs?
A. Mitochondria C. Endoplasmic reticulum
B. Vacuole D. Chloroplast
14. Who discovered "cells" and named them?
A. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek C. Lynn Margulis
B. Robert Hooke D. Rudolph Virchow
15. Which of the following is not found in all cells?
A. Genetic material C. Vacuoles
B. Cell membrane D. Cytoplasm
16. Which of the following is the site for protein synthesis?
A. Cell membrane C. Ribosomes
B. Nucleus D. Lysosomes
17. Which of the following is not part of the cell theory?
A. All living things are made of cells.
B. Cells come from existing cells.
C. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all living things.
D. All cells contain the same organelles.
18. Who proposed that some cell organelles were once a type of bacteria that were free-
living?
A. Schwann C. Schleiden
B. Leeuwenhoek D. Margulis
19. What is the small dark structure in the nucleus that produces ribosomes?
A. Rough ER C. Smooth ER
B. Nucleolus D. Chromatin
20. This is the jelly-like substance found in all cells.
A. Centrioles C. Chromosomes
B. Cytoskeleton D. Cytoplasm
21. These are the folds found inside the mitochondria that give more surface area for
energy-releasing processes to take place:
A. Chromosomes C. Crista
B. Cilia D. Cytoskeleton

38
22. This is a sac-like structure that contains digestive enzymes. It may digest waste materials
or even dead cells.
A. ER C. Vacuole
B. Lysosome D. Vesicle
23. Which of the following is NOT a premise of cell theory?
I. All cells arise from other cells.
II. All living cells require water for survival.
III. All living things are only composed of cells.
A. I only C. I and II
B. II only D. II and III
24. Cell theory states:
I. All living cells must have a cell wall.
II. All living cells require glucose for survival.
III. The basic unit of life is a cell.
A. I only C. III only
B. II only D. I and III
25. In a histology lab a scientist observes the following features under the microscope.
Which of these observations supports cell theory?
I. Cardiac cells are joined by gap junctions and contain three nuclei.
II. Mature platelet cells do not contain a nucleus, but do contain
mitochondria.
III. Spermatogonia undergoing mitosis.
IV. The bulk of tissue samples from endocrine glands contain cells as their
main building blocks.
A. II only C. I and III
B. II and IV D. III and IV
Enrichment
1. What is cancer? Discuss the manner of growth and its effects on other cells.
2. How does the immune system prevent cancers from growing and spreading?

39
Tissues
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane bound organs or

organelles. The nucleus directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from
generation to generation. The mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are
manufactured by ribosome, which are bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float
free in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus modifies, packages, and distributes proteins while
lysosome store enzymes for digesting food. The entire cell is wrapped in a lipid membrane
that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of the cytoplasm.
Division of cell in multicellular animals:
1. SOMATIC - body cells

4 major groups:
a. epithelial
b. connective
c. muscular
d. nervous
2. GERM - sex cells, something to do with reproduction and continuance of the specie
SOMATIC CELLS:
Embryonic tissues:
- Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are embryonic tissues
that give rise to all of the tissues, organs, and organ systems in
the body.
- Ectoderm forms the outer layer of skin
and nervous system.
- Mesoderm forms the muscles,
connective tissues, skeleton, kidneys, and
circulatory and reproductive organs.
- Endoderm forms the lining of the gut,
respiratory tract, and urinary bladder. It
also forms the glands
associated with the gut and respiratory
tract.
- Cells are joined to each other by proteins. The point of connection between two
cells is called a junction.
- Junctions bind cells together. Some kinds of junctions prevent the passage of
molecules between cells. Other kinds of junctions allow molecules to pass from one
cell to another.

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I. Epithelial
- Epithelial tissue is made of closely-packed cells arranged in flat sheets. Epithelia
form the surface of the skin, line the various cavities and tubes of the body, and
cover the internal organs.
- Epithelial tissue covers external surfaces and internal cavities and organs. Glands
are also composed of epithelial tissue.
- Epithelia forms boundaries. Most substances that move into or out of the body
must pass through epithelial tissue.
- One surface of the tissue is free and the other adheres to a basement membrane.
- The apical surface of epithelial cells may have tiny projections called microvilli.
These function to increase surface area. For example, microvilli on intestinal cells
increase the surface area available for absorption.
- Eipthelial cells may have cilia. They function

to move mucus and trapped particles upward
toward the mouth where it will be swallowed,
thus keeping the trachea clear of foreign
particles
Subsets of Epithelia
1. Epithelia that form the interface between the internal and external environments
- Skin as well as the lining of the mouth and nasal cavity. These are derived from ectoderm.
- Inner lining of the GI tract, lungs, urinary bladder, exocrine glands, vagina and more.
These are derived from endoderm.
- The apical surface of these epithelial cells is exposed to the "external environment", the
lumen of the organ or the air.
2. Mesothelia. These are derived from mesoderm.
o pleura — the outer covering of the lungs and the inner lining of the thoracic
(chest) cavity.

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o peritoneum — the outer covering of all the abdominal organs and the inner
lining of the abdominal cavity.
o pericardium — the outer lining of the heart.
3. Endothelia. The inner lining of the heart, all blood and lymphatic vessels — derived from
mesoderm.
The basolateral surface of all epithelia is exposed to the internal environment (ECF). The
entire sheet of epithelial cells is attached to a layer of extracellular matrix that is called the
basement membrane or, better, the basal lamina.
Function of Epithelial Tissue
 Protection
The epithelium of the skin protects the underlying tissues from
o mechanical damage
o ultraviolet light
o dehydration
o invasion by bacteria
 Epithelial tissue forms the skin of many animals.
 Terrestrial vertebrates have keratin in their skin cells making them
resistant to water loss.
 Ciliated epithelium lines the respiratory tract. Numerous cilia on these
cells sweep impurities toward the throat.
 Absorption - is an important function of epithelial tissue. For example, the gut
is lined with epithelial tissue and it functions to absorb nutrients from food. The
lungs are also lined with epithelial tissue and it functions to absorb oxygen.
 Secretion
 Glandular epithelium secretes chemicals.
The columnar epithelium of the intestine
o secretes digestive enzymes into the intestine;
o absorbs the products of digestion from it.
o An epithelium also lines our air passages and the alveoli of the lungs. It
secretes mucus which keeps it from drying out and traps inhaled dust
particles. Most of its cells have cilia on their apical surface that propel the
mucus with its load of foreign matter back up to the throat.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the extracellular space.

Exocrine glands often secrete through DUCTS; they secrete mucus, saliva,wax,
milk, etc.

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EPITHELIAL CELLS
Characteristics:
- cells are compactly placed, bonded by intercellular cement for strength and supported
below on a basement membrane.
A. Accdg to shape
1. Squamous - thin and rectangular in appearance, single layered
2. Cuboidal - square and flattened
3. Columnar - taller and wide, with their long sides adjacent
B. Accdg to arrangement
- If the epithelial cells are arranged in one single layer, the epithelium (plural, epithelia) is
considered to be
simple; if they are arranged in two or more layers, it is stratified.
- Combining these two forms of classification (number of layers and shape of the cells) leads
to the following examples of epithelium:
1. simple and stratified squamous
simple squamous
Human skin Frog's skin

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- Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of flat cells. It is found in the walls of small
blood vessels (capillaries) and in the air sacs of the lungs (alveoli). Because it is thin, it
permits diffusion of substances from one side to the other. For example, materials
candiffuse out of the capillaries. In the lungs, oxygen can diffuse across the alveoli and into
the blood.
- The skin of a frog is used for gas exchange. The outer layer of skin is simple squamous
epithelium. The thin, flattened cells promote rapid diffusion of gasses between the air and
the blood vessels underneath the epithelium.
- Stratified squamous epithelium provides protection against abrasion and pathogens to

underlying tissues. It is commonly found on surfaces subject to abrasion, such as mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, vagina, anus, and outer skin.
stratified squamous
- The deeper layer (close to the basement membrane) of the stratified squamous
epithelium is composed of cuboidal cells that are actively dividing by mitosis. Newly
produced cells are pushed upward toward the surface of the tissue and are gradually
transformed into flat, squamous cells. These cells are continually sloughed off. Thus, the
organization of the stratified squamous epithelium ensures that abrasion affects the oldest
(outermost) cells, while protecting the underlying tissues.

44
2. simple and stratified cuboidal
- The kidney is composed of thousands of microscopic tubular structures called nephrons,

which function in the formation of urine. The most common types of epithelia present within
the nephron are: simple cuboidal and simple squamous. The specific function of the simple
cuboidal epithelium is secretion and absorption. This type of epithelium is also found in thyroid
gland, salivary glands as well as ducts of glands, such as ducts of sweat glands, for example.
- The flat shape of the simple squamous epithelium allows substances to either easily diffuse
through the cells or to be filtered through them. In addition to the kidney, simple squamous
epithelium is also found in other locations of the body. For example, it lines internal surfaces of
the ventral body cavities, blood vessels, heart, and alveoli of the lungs.
- simple cuboidal epithelium is found in the walls of the nephron tubules. This type of
epithelium, appears as a single row of cube-shaped cells. Simple squamous epithelium is
found around glomeruli (singular, glomerulus). This type of epithelium appears as a single row
of this, flat cells.
simple cuboidal cells nephron - kidney showing cuboidal cells

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3. simple and stratified columnar
- This type of epithelium appears as a single layer of tall, column-shaped cells with oblong
nuclei. The primary function of this type of epithelium is absorption of nutrients, secretion of
digestive juices as well as secretion of mucus by goblet cells.
- The surface area of the small intestine is increased by outward finger-like extensions and
inward indentations, known respectively as villi and crypts. Both of these structures are lined
with simple columnar epithelium. In addition to villi and crypts, find goblet cells, which appear
as white, oval cells found among the columnar cell.
simple columnar
Simple columnar cells in the inner side of the small intestine
4. pseudostratified
- Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium lines the nasal cavities, trachea, and bronchi. Its function
is to protect
these structures, secrete mucus by goblet cells, and move mucus by cilia.
- This type of epithelium consists of a single row of cells. Most of these cells have a columnar
shape, while
other, shorter cells, which are more cuboidal. The term “pseudostratified” literally means
“falsely stratified”. In other words, the epithelium looks as if it has multiple layers but it only has
one layer. This is due to the fact that the cells are of differing heights.
- These are goblet cells that secrete mucus into the respiratory tree. The function of mucus is
to trap foreign
material.

46
microscopic view of the

trachea
C. Accdg to accessorial structures
1. Ciliated - bears on its exposed surface numerous hair like extensions known as cilia
2. Flagellated - with whiplike structure called flagella
FUNCTIONS:
1. Protection - external injury, infection and moisture loss
2. Secretion
Kinds:
a. Exocrine - release their products directly to an external or internal surface
Ex. sweat glands, mammary glands, digestive, enzymes produced in the acinar
cells
c. Endocrine - secrete their products to the environment through the blood
and lymph vessels (glands for secreting hormones)
Ex. insulin produced by the islet of Langerhans triggered neural messages
d. Mixed Glands - secrete their products to the surface while some secrete
through blood and lymph
3. Sensory - specialized to receive certain kinds of external stimuli
Ex. epidermis - nerve endings- detects pain
4. Absorption

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II. Muscular Tissue

 Muscle tissue contracts in response to stimulation. It cannot lengthen by itself
but is lengthened by the contraction of other muscles.
 Muscle tissue is used for locomotion, food movement in gut, and heat
production.
Three kinds of muscle are found in vertebrates:
Three types of muscle tissue are distinguished on the basis of structural, functional and
locational differences:
a) skeletal or striated muscle is made of long fibers whose contraction provides the force
of locomotion and other voluntary body movements.
b) Smooth muscle lines the walls of the hollow structures of the body, such as the intestine,
urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Its contraction, which is involuntary, reduces the
size of these hollow organs.
c) cardiac muscle - Muscle cells are highly specialized for contractions, if the muscles are
attached to a movable part of the skeleton, if the muscle is located in the wall of a hollow
organ, its contractions may cause the contents of the organ to move.
e.g. peristaltic movement of material through the digestive tract
Skeletal (Striated) Muscle

 Skeletal muscles form the "flesh"; sometimes referred to as the "red meat" of an animal's
body. They are attached to, and result in, the movement of the bones of the skeleton.
 As the contraction of the skeletal muscles is under conscious control, they are also
called voluntary muscles.
 A typical skeletal muscle cell is a highly modified, giant, multi-nucleate cell (fibre).
Each fibre is cylindrical in shape with blunt, rounded ends. The flattened nuclei are
located mainly at the periphery of the cell, just inside the sarcolemma. The "cross-
striped" (or striated) appearance of light and dark banding results from the
arrangement of myofibrils, small protein contractile units embedded in the sarcoplasm.

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Smooth Muscle
- Smooth muscle is abundant throughout the

internal organs of the body especially in
regions such as the digestive tract. As its
contraction is not under conscious nervous
control, it is referred to as involuntary muscle.
- Smooth muscle fibres are spindle-shaped

structures with a prominent centrally located
nucleus. In comparison with skeletal muscle
fibres, they are much shorter in length and they do not exhibit striations. The cells occur as
individual fibres within organs or as groups of fibres closely interlaced in sheets or bands.
- It surrounds the gut and moves food through the digestive tract.
- It surrounds the blood vessels where it controls the distribution of blood. There is not
enough blood in the body to fill all of the blood vessels so some must be contracted
while others are filled. For example, after meals, the blood vessels of the gut are
opened while many of those in the skeletal muscles contract.
- The ends of the cells are tapered.
Cardiac Muscle
- Cardiac muscle is a highly specialized tissue restricted to the wall of the heart. It is also
an involuntary type of muscle, as its contraction is not consciously controlled.
- Unlike smooth or striated fibres, cardiac fibres tend to form long chains of cells which
branch and intertwine. This arrangement results in the peculiar "wringing" action of the
heart. The junction of one cell with another in a particular chain is known as an intercalated
disc and appears as a heavy dark line running across the fibre.

49
- Each cell has a

somewhat cylindrical
shape with one centrally-
located, oval
nucleus. Cross-striations
are apparent but they are
not as regular nor as
prominent as those of
skeletal muscle.
microscopic view of the cardiac muscle
III. Connective Tissue

- The cells of connective tissue are separated by non-living material.
- Connective tissue binds and supports body parts, protects, fills spaces, stores fat
(for energy), and transports materials.
Classification of Connective Tissue
I. Connective Tissue Proper -- encompasses all organs and body cavities connecting one part
with another and, equally important, separating one group of cells from another. This is a very
large and diverse group of tissues and includes adipose tissue (fat), areolar (loose) tissue, and
dense regular tissue, among others.
Structure of Loose and Dense Connective Tissue

- Loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue contain three kinds of fibers.
1. Collagen fibers provide strength and flexibility.
- Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal bodies. Commonly occur
in tendons and around muscles and nerves.
2. Elastic fibers provide elasticity. When stretched, they return to their original shape.
- they bind the skin to the underlying muscles attached many other tissues
and organs to one another.
- present in the lungs, wall of the larger blood vessels

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3. Reticular fibers are small and branched. They provide a support framework for
organs such as the liver and lymph nodes.
Cells comprising the loose and dense connective tissues:

1. Fixed Cells - do not move about
Fibroblasts - synthesis collagen from tropocollagen
Adipose Cells - stores fat, cells are rounded with thin layers of cytoplasm and
nucleus is at one side
2. Wandering Cells - concerned with shorter term events involved in tissue reaction
to injury
Macrophages - specialized for phagocytizing foreign materials, bacteria, and
cleaning up debris
Mononuclear - lymphocytes, monocytes
Plasma cells - synthesize antibodies important in immune reactions
Mast cells - secrete histamine and heparin
Mesenchymal cells - remain undifferentiated
A. Loose Connective Tissue

- Loose connective tissue includes areolar, adipose, and reticular connective tissue.
- It is distributed throughout the body. It serves as a packing and binding material for
most of our organs. Sheets of loose connective tissue that bind muscles and other
structures together are called fascia. Collagen, elastin, and other proteins are found
in the matrix of loose connective tissue.
Areolar Connective Tissue

- The fibroblasts (cells) of areolar connective tissue
are separated by a nonliving, jellylike matrix. The
tissue contains collagen fibers for flexibility and
strength, and numerous elastic fibers that enable it
to be stretched.
- Areolar connective tissue is found in the skin and in most internal organs of
vertebrates, where it allows the organs to expand; it also forms a protective covering
for muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.

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Adipose tissue - has reduced matrix material and

contains enlarged fibroblasts (cells) that store fat.
Adipose tissue functions to store energy, insulate,
and provide padding, especially in the skin and
around the kidneys and heart.
Adipose tissue is "fat". There are two kinds found in mammals:

1. white adipose tissue (WAT) in which the cells, called adipocytes, have become almost
filled with oil. The oil is confined within a single membrane-enclosed droplet. Virtually all of
the "fat" in adult humans is white adipose tissue.
2. brown adipose tissue (BAT) in which the adipocytes contain many small droplets of oil as
well as many mitochondria.
- New adipocytes in white adipose tissue are formed throughout life from a pool of
precursor cells. These are needed to replace those that die (after an average life span of
10 years). Whether the total number of these adipocytes increases in humans becoming
fatter as adults is still uncertain. If not, why do so many of us get fatter as we age? Because
of the increased size of individual adipocytes as they become filled with oil.
- The adipocytes of white adipose tissue secrete several hormones, including leptin and
adiponectin.
Reticular Connective Tissue
- Reticular connective tissue contains an abundance of reticular fibers. It provides a

supporting framework for organs such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver.
B. Dense (Fibrous) Connective Tissue
- The collagen fibers of dense connective tissue

are more closely packed than those of loose
connective tissue.
- Regular dense connective tissue contains collagen fibers oriented in one direction
to provide strength in that direction. It is found in tendons and ligaments.

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a. Tendons connect muscle to bone; the matrix is

principally Type I collagen, and the fibers are all
oriented parallel to each other. Tendons are strong
but not elastic.
b. ligaments connect bone to bone. They contain

both collagen and also the protein elastin. Elastin
permits ligaments to be stretched
- Irregular dense connective tissue (not shown)

contains collagen fibers oriented in many different directions. It is found in the deep
layers of the skin (dermis) and the tough capsules that surround many of the organs
such as the kidneys, adrenal glands, nerves, bones, and the covering of muscles. It
provides support and strength.
II. Specialized Connective Tissues -- this group includes cartilage, bone, and blood. Cartilage
and bone form the skeletal framework of the body while blood is the vascular (transport)
tissue of animals.
- Gives strength, support, and protection to the soft parts of the body.
Types:
1. cartilage. Example: the outer ear
2. bone. The matrix of bone contains collagen fibers and mineral deposits. The most
abundant mineral is calcium phosphate, although magnesium, carbonate, and
fluoride ions are also present.
Cartilage
- The cells of cartilage are embedded in a protein-containing matrix that is strong
but flexible.
- It contains collagen and elastic fibers.
Hyaline Cartilage

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- It is resilient; it does not stretch and can resist compression. It is also flexible but
maintains its shape.
- It is found in the ends of bones where it prevents friction within the joints. In the
nose, external ear, and the walls of the trachea it functions to support the softer
tissues.
- The intervertebral disks function as shock pads.
- The fetal skeleton of vertebrate animals is composed of cartilage before bone
forms.
- The skeleton of cartilaginous fish is composed of cartilage.
- has the capacity for rapid growth while maintaining a considerable degree of
stiffness makes it a particularly favorable skeletal material for the embryo.
Kinds of cartilage:
1. Hyaline - bluish white, translucent and homogeneous
- has significant proportion of very fine collagen fibers embedded in the
abundant matrix
- covers joint surfaces and rib ends and is present in the nose and in the
embryos of all vertebrates and in adult sharks and rays.
- may become impregnated with calcareous salts but as such does not
become bone
2. Elastic - contains some yellow fibers

- present in the external ears of mammals and in the Eustachian tube (air
pipe)
3. Fibrocartilage - most resistant type, largely fibers with fewer cells and less matrix

54
- occurs in the pads between the vertebrae of mammals, pubic symphysis,

and about joints that are subject to severe strains
Bone
- Bone forms when calcium salts (calcium hydroxyapatite, calcium carbonate) are
deposited around protein fibers. The calcium salts provide rigidity while the fibers
provide elasticity and strength.
- develop either as replacement for previously existing cartilage or follows
embryonic mesenchymal cells
- Bones are composed of:
a. Spongy bone - a central, honeycomb network
that provides strength without adding excessive
weight.
b. Compact bone - composed of many units
called osteons. Osteons consist of a central canal
surrounded by closely packed concentric layers
called lamellae. Each osteonic canal houses
blood vessels and nerves.
c. Periosteum - protects the bone and houses the
nerves and blood vessels responsible for detecting
pain and supplying the bone with nutrients.
Functions:
1. suited for supportive and protective functions in the skeleton
2. provides for the internal support of the body and for attachment of the muscles and
tendons essential for locomotion
3. protects the vital organs of the cranial and thoracic portions
4. encloses the blood forming elements of the bone marrow
5. plays an important metabolic role as a mobilizable store of calcium which can be
drawn upon as needed in the homeostatic regulation of the concentration of calcium in
the blood and other fluids of the body.
Parts of the Bone:

1. Bone matrix - calcified interstitial substances
2. Lacunae - lenticular cavities filled with
osteocytes
3. Canaliculae - branching tubular passages
radiating in all directions from the lacunae
- provides avenues for exchange of metabolites
between cells and the nearest perivascular spac

55
Blood
- Blood is a connective tissue. Like other kinds of connective tissues, it contains cells
that are separated by a non-living material. In this case, the nonliving material is the
plasma.
Parts of the Blood

1. Red Blood Cell (erythrocyte) - biconcave disc which is greenish yellow in color due to
hemoglobin it gives a reddish color
- can be separated from the corpuscles by hemolysis leaving the corpuscles colorless
called stroma or ghost
- function as carrier of oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) used in the different processes occurring in
cells.
- its shape and flexible plasma membrane allow the erythrocyte to penetrate the smallest
of capillaries
2. White Blood Cell (leucocyte) - colorless cells
with a true nucleus and cytoplasm, more or less
amoeboid
Types:
A. Agranular WBC - granules are absent in the
cytoplasm
1. Lymphocyte - specialized white blood cells
whose function is to identify and destroy invading
organisms such as bacteria and viruses.
- some T lymphocytes directly destroy invading
organisms, whereas others regulate the immune
system by directing immune responses.
2. Monocytes - cells have a larger cytoplasm with the nucleus oval or kidney shaped
B. Granular WBC - granules are present in the cytoplasm

1. Acidophilic - nucleus with two oval lobes connected by a thin chromatin threads
2. Basophilic - nucleus elongated and often bent in the form of an S with constriction
3. Heterophilic or Neutrophilic - possesses a lobulated nucleus which stains with both acid
and basic dyes.
Functions of WBC:
1. Phagocytosis - exhibited by heterophilic granulocytes when they eat up foreign bodies
like bacteria, they are therefore important in the immune reactions of the body.
2. Chemotaxis - causes migration of the leucocytes into the tissue toward the site of the
local injury.
3. Active movement - explains why leucocytes are found everywhere in connective tissues

56
3. Platelets (thrombocyte) - small, colorless corpuscles whose shapes vary from

round, oval to biconcave disc
- functions for blood clotting:

a. compounds which they absorb stimulate contraction of injured vessels to prevent
loss of blood
b. their agglutination at the site of injury (adhesiveness)
c. participation in the formation of thromboplastin which is important in the process
Blood clotting process:

1. platelets come in contact with damaged cells - injury
2. platelets form a clump, adhering to each other and to the blood vessel wall
- platelets produce thromboplastin which converts the plasmaprotein prothrombin
into thrombin with the participation of calcium ions
3. they secrete chemicals that alter a blood-borne protein, fibrinogen, so that it forms fibrin,
that forms a mesh of fibers at the damage site.
4. a fluid called serum is squeezed out and hardened preventing the flow of blood
- a clot forms when platelets,RBC, and WBC become trapped in the fibers
IV. Nerve Tissue Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and transmits impulses from one body
part to another
Nerve tissue is composed of
 nerve cells called neurons
 glial cells.
A. Neurons
- Neurons are specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses.
A typical neuron consists of
 cell body - which contains the nucleus and perikaryon surrounding the cytoplasm
 dendrites — extending from the cell body, transmits stimuli to the cell body
 axon - carries impulses away from the body, the nerve impulse is conducted along
the axon.

57
 Schwann's sheath - important role in the regeneration of damaged nerve fibers

 Node of Ranvier - mark the end of one Schwann's cell and another begins
The tips of axons meet:

 other neurons at junctions called synapses - messages are transmitted usually by
chemical mediators from one cell to another in one direction only.
 muscles (called neuromuscular junctions)
 glands
3 kinds of neuron:
1. Sensory
2. Motor
3. Interneurons or associative
Glial cells surround neurons. Once thought

to be simply support for neurons, they turn
out to serve several important functions.
There are three types:

1. Schwann cells. These produce the myelin
sheath that surrounds many axons in the
peripheral nervous system.
2. Oligodendrocytes. These produce the myelin sheath that surrounds many axons in the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
3. Astrocytes. These — often star-shaped — cells are clustered around synapses and the
nodes of Ranvier where they perform a variety of functions:
o stimulating the formation of new synapses;
o modulating the activity of
o supplying neurons with materials (e.g. glucose and lactate) as well as some
signaling molecules;
o regulating the flow of blood to their region of the brain. It is primarily the
metabolic activity of astrocytes that is being measured in brain imaging by
positron-emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI).
 In addition, the central nervous system contains many microglia — mobile

cells (macrophages) that respond to damage (e.g., from an infection) by
o engulfing cell debris
o secreting inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and
interleukin-1 (IL-1)
- Microglia are also active in the healthy brain, at least in young mice, where they engulf
synapses thus reducing the number of synapses in the developing brain.

58
Functions of the Nervous Tissue:

1. ability to enable communication
2. depends upon special signaling properties of the nerve cells and their long processes
3. based upon 2 fundamental attributes of protoplasm
a. capacity to react to various physical and chemical agents (irritability)
b. ability to transmit the resulting excitation from one locality to another
(conductivity)
Transmission of Nerve Impulse

1. axon carries the electrical impulse away from the neuron
2. impulse jumps over the synapse to the dendrite
3. neuron's axon carries the impulse to the next synapse and then to the dendrite of the
next neuron
4. message or nerve impulse is carried from cell to cell throughout the body
5. neurons act in relay to connect an organ to the brain
Nerve Impulse and Muscle Contraction

1. an impulse will travel along the axon of a motor neuron
2. the axon secretes a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine or Ach)
3. Ach diffuses across the synapse of neuron and transmits the impulse to the muscle cells
4. when Ach touches special receptor molecules in the muscle cell membrane, the muscle
cell begins to contract

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Membranes
Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and
cover organs within the cavities in hollow organs. They can be categorized into epithelial
and connective tissue membrane.
Epithelial Membranes
Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial tissue and the connective tissue to which it is
attached.
The two main types of epithelial membranes are the mucous membranes and serous
membranes.
a. Mucous Membranes
- Mucous membranes are epithelial membranes that consist of epithelial tissue that is
attached to an underlying loose connective tissue.
- These membranes, sometimes called mucosae, line the body cavities that open to
the outside. The entire digestive tract is lined with mucous membranes. Other
examples include the respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts.
b. Serous Membranes
- Serous membranes line body cavities that do not open directly to the outside, and
they cover the organs located in those cavities.
- Serous membranes are covered by a thin layer of serous fluid that is secreted by the
epithelium. Serous fluid lubricates the membrane and reduces friction and abrasion
when organs in the thoracic or abdominopelvic cavity move against each other or
the cavity wall.
- Serous membranes have special names given according to their location. For
example, the serous membrane that lines the thoracic cavity and covers the lungs is
called pleura.
Tissue Membranes
Connective tissue membranes contain only connective tissue.
- Synovial membranes and meninges belong to this category.
a. Synovial Membranes
- Synovial membranes are connective tissue membranes that line the cavities of the
freely movable joints such as the shoulder, elbow, and knee.
- they line cavities that do not open to the outside.
- they do not have a layer of epithelium.
- Synovial membranes secrete synovial fluid into the joint cavity, and this lubricates
the cartilage on the ends of the bones so that they can move freely and without
friction.
b. Meninges
- The connective tissue covering on the brain and spinal cord, within the dorsal cavity,
are called meninges. They provide protection for these vital structures.

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Summary
Cells, the smallest structures capable of maintaining life and reproducing, compose all
living things, from single-celled plants to multibillion-celled animals. The human body,
which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single, newly fertilized cell.
Almost all human cells are microscopic in size. To give you an idea how small a cell is,
one average-sized adult body, according to one estimate, consists of 100 trillion cells!
• Basically, a cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and between
the two, the cytoplasm. The cell nucleus contains genetic material and regulates
activities of the cell. It determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic
structure of that cell.
• All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the
cytoplasm of a cell.
• Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a
unit. Primary types of body tissues include epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
tissues.
• Epithelial tissues form the covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow
organs, and are the major tissue in glands.
• Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs
and the body as a whole, store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and
help repair tissue damage.
• Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract
in order to produce movement of body parts.
• Nervous tissue is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
• Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and
cover organs within the cavities in hollow organs.
• Two main categories of body membranes are epithelial and connective tissue
membranes. Sub-categories include mucous membranes, serous membranes, synovial
membranes, and meninges.
Assessment
1. A tissue is
A. the most complex organizational unit of the body.
B. a thin sheet of cells embedded in a matrix.
C. a group of similar cells that perform a common function.
D. a membrane that lines body cavities.
2. How can epithelial tissue be described?
A. Forms glands C. Forms membranes
B. Contains mostly extracellular matrix D. Both A and C

61
3. Which of the following epithelial functions is a primary activity of glandular epithelium?

A. Protection C. Sensation
B. Secretion D. Excretion
4. The mature cells of bone are called
A. fibroblasts. C. osteocytes.
B. osteoclasts. D. osteoblasts.
5. Which of the following is not a characteristic of skeletal muscles?
A. one nucleus per cell C. Having striations
B. Being attached to bone D. Having voluntary or “willed” muscles
6. Being able to readily diffuse material through itself, such as occurs in alveoli, is a
characteristic of which type of epithelial tissue?
A. Stratified columnar C. Simple columnar
B. Stratified squamous D. Simple squamous
7. Glands that have no ducts but release their products directly into tissue fluid and blood
are called
A. endocrine. B. exocrine. C. holocrine. D. apocrine.
8. The most widespread and abundant tissue in the body is
A. epithelial. B. connective. C. muscle. D. nervous
9. It uses electrical signals to carry out its functions is the ____ tissue.
A. epithelial B. connective C. muscle D. nervous
10. Cell of this tissue may absorb and/or secrete substances is the
A. epithelial. B. connective. C. muscle. D. nervous.
11. Its cells shorten to exert force is the
A. epithelial. B. connective. C. muscle. D. nervous.
12. Which type of muscle controls digestion?
A. Involuntary muscle C. Voluntary muscle
B. Skeletal muscle D. Cardiac muscle
13. Epithelium that appears layered due to the varying levels at which nuclei are found in
cells, but in reality is not layered, is
A. transitional epithelium. C. stratified squamous epithelium.
B. pseudostratified columnar epithelium. D. stratified columnar
epithelium.
14. The outer layer of the skin is composed of
A. transitional epithelium. C. stratified squamous epithelium.
B. pseudostratified columnar epithelium. D. stratified columnar epithelium.
15. Choosing from the following list of connective tissues, which one consists of cells in a
fluid
matrix?
A. Loose connective tissue B. Bone C. Blood D. Adipose tissue
16. The cells that directly and specifically secrete mucus are called _____ cells.
A. epithelial B. goblet C. endocrine D. exocrine
17. Antigens are present in
A. cell surface. B. cell cytoplasm. C. nuclear membrane. D. plasma.

62
18. ATPase enzyme needed for muscle contraction is located in

A. cctinin. B. Troponin.. C. Myosin. D. Actin.
19. Basement membrane is derived from
A. ectoderm. C. epidermis.
B. endoderm. D. epidermis and connectile tissue.
20. Blood cells that transport oxygen within the body are the
A. plasma. C. erythrocytes.
B. platelets. D. leukocytes.
21. Bone acts as a reservoir for which of the following elements?
A. Nitrogen B. Carbon C. Ca lcium D. Hydrogen
22. Cancer cells are more easily damaged by radiation than normal cells because
they are
A. starved of nutrition. C. non dividing.
B. different in structure. D. undergo rapid division.
23. Chemically an antibody is
A. nucleoprotein. C. lipid.
B. carbohydrate. D. protein.
24. Which covers cartilage?
A. Pericardium C. Perichondrium
B. Perineurium D. Periosteum
25. Which of the following has slowest growth rate?
A. Connective tissue C. Nervous tissue
B. Epithelial tissue D. None of these
Enrichment (Laboratory)
I. Complete the tables below.
A. Epithelial Tissues
Appearance Function Location

Simple squamous
Simple cuboidal
Simple columnar

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Stratified squamous
(non-keratinized)
Stratified squamous
(keratinized)
B. Muscle Tissues
Appearance Function Conscious Control

Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
C. Connective Tissues
Type (i.e. loose, Appearance Function Location

dense, etc)
Areolar
Adipose
Dense
connective tissue
Hyaline cartilage
Bone
Blood

64

wwe

Physiology with Lab

STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:
PROFESSOR

IV. Module Title The Six Human Body Systems
V. Overview of the Module This module discusses the six (6) human body systems
comprising the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, respiratory,
excretory and digestive. Emphasis will be given on the
components/parts and functions of each. Likewise, a
thorough discussion of the systems process/ how it works will
be highlighted.
The module covers the lessons for the Midterm period of
the course. The assessment part found at the end of the
module maybe composed of varied types of questions. It may
take the form of matching type, multiple choice, compare
and contrast, filling the table with the correct data and/or
essay and problem solving.
instructions.
You are advised to practice honesty as you work with
all the outputs. If found having a totally copied output/same
answers with another classmate, you will be asked to repeat
your submittals or get a failing grade for cheating.
Good luck.

Lesson 1: Integumentary System
Lesson Objectives:
1. Describe the ways in which the integumentary system functions for the body.
2. Describe the integumentary system’s role in producing vitamin D.
3. Identify the source of the blood supply for the integumentary system.
4. Discuss the phases of tissue repair or wound healing.
Discussion:
Structure of the skin

The skin is divided into several layers:
1. The epidermis is composed mainly of keratinocytes.
2. the basement membrane (also known as the dermo-epidermal junction)
3. the dermis
4. the hypodermis, consists largely of fat.
1. Epidermis
- The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, defined as a stratified squamous epithelium,
primarily comprising keratinocytes in progressive stages of differentiation.
- Keratinocytes produce the protein keratin and are the major building blocks (cells) of the
epidermis.
- As the epidermis is avascular (contains no blood vessels), it is entirely dependent on the
underlying dermis for nutrient delivery and waste disposal through the basement membrane.
- The prime function of the epidermis is to act as a physical and biological barrier to the
external environment, preventing penetration by irritants and allergens. At the same time, it
prevents the loss of water and maintains internal homeostasis.

- The epidermis is composed of layers; most body parts have four layers, but those with the
thickest skin have five.
The layers are:
 Stratum corneum (horny layer)
 Stratum lucidum (only found in thick skin – that is, the palms of the hands, the soles of
the feet and the digits)
 Stratum granulosum (granular layer)
 Stratum spinosum (prickle cell layer)
 Stratum basale (germinative layer)
- The epidermis also contains other cell structures. Keratinocytes make up around 95% of the
epidermal cell population – the others being melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkel cells.
Other Epidermal Structures:

a. Keratinocytes
- Keratinocytes are formed by division in the stratum
basale. As they move up through the stratum
spinosum and stratum granulosum, they differentiate
to form a rigid internal structure of keratin,
microfilaments and microtubules (keratinisation).
-The outer layer of the epidermis, the stratum
corneum, is composed of layers of flattened dead
cells (corneocytes) that have lost their nucleus. These cells are then shed
from the skin (desquamation); this complete process takes approximately 28 days.

- Between these corneocytes there is a complex mixture of lipids and proteins; these
intercellular lipids are broken down by enzymes from keratinocytes to produce a lipid mixture
of ceramides (phospholipids), fatty acids and cholesterol. These molecules are arranged in a
highly organized fashion, fusing with each other and the corneocytes to form the skin’s lipid
barrier against water loss and penetration by allergens and irritants (Holden et al, 2002).
 The stratum corneum can be visualised as a brick wall, with the corneocytes forming
the bricks and lamellar lipids forming the mortar.
- As corneocytes contain a water-retaining substance – a natural moisturizing factor – they
attract and hold water. The high water content of the corneocytes causes them to swell,
keeping the stratum corneum pliable and elastic, and preventing the formation of fissures
and cracks.
- This is an important consideration when applying topical medications to the skin. These are
absorbed through the epidermal barrier into the underlying tissues and structures
(percutaneous absorption) and transferred to the systemic circulation.
 The stratum corneum regulates the amount and rate of percutaneous absorption. One
of the most important factors affecting this is skin hydration and environmental humidity.
In healthy skin with normal hydration, medication can only penetrate the stratum
corneum by passing through the tight, relatively dry, lipid barrier between cells. When skin
hydration is increased or the normal skin barrier is impaired as a result of skin disease,
excoriations, erosions, fissuring or prematurity, percutaneous absorption will be increased.
b. Melanocytes
- Melanocytes are found in the stratum basale and are scattered among the keratinocytes
along the basement membrane at a ratio of one melanocyte to 10 basal cells. They produce
the pigment melanin, manufactured from tyrosine, which is an amino acid, packaged into
cellular vesicles called melanosomes, and transported and delivered into the cytoplasm of
the keratinocytes.
- The main function of melanin is to absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation to protect us from its
harmful effects.
- Skin color is determined not by the number of melanocytes, but by the number and size of
the melanosomes. It is influenced by several pigments, including melanin, carotene and
haemoglobin. Melanin is transferred into the keratinocytes via a melanosome; the color of the
skin therefore depends of the amount of melanin produced by melanocytes in the stratum
basale and taken up by keratinocytes.
Melanin occurs in two primary forms:

 Eumelanin – exists as black and brown
 Pheomelanin – provides a red colour
- Skin colour is also influenced by exposure to UV radiation, genetic factors and hormonal
influences.
c. Langerhans cells
- These are antigen (micro-organisms and foreign proteins)-presenting cells found in the
stratum spinosum. They are part of the body’s immune system and are constantly on the

lookout for antigens in their surroundings so they can trap them and present them to T-helper
lymphocytes, thereby activating an immune response.
d. Merkel cells.
- These cells are only present in very small numbers in the stratum basale. They are closely
associated with terminal filaments of cutaneous nerves and seem to have a role in sensation,
especially in areas of the body such as palms, soles and genitalia.
2. Basement membrane zone (dermo-epidermal junction)

This is a narrow, undulating, multi-layered structure lying between the epidermis and dermis,
which supplies cohesion between the two layers.
It is composed of two layers:
Lamina lucida
Lamina densa
- The lamina lucida is the thinner layer and lies directly beneath the stratum
basale.
- The thicker lamina densa is in direct contact with the underlying dermis. It
undulates between the dermis and epidermis and is connected via rete ridges
called dermal papillas, which contain capillary loops supplying the epidermis
with nutrients and oxygen.
This highly irregular junction greatly increases the surface area over which the exchange of
oxygen, nutrients and waste products occurs between the dermis and the epidermis.
2. Dermis
The dermis forms the inner layer of the skin and is much thicker than the epidermis. Situated
between the basement membrane zone and the subcutaneous layer, the primary role of the
dermis is to sustain and support the epidermis.
The main functions of the dermis are:

1. Protection
2. Cushioning the deeper structures from mechanical injury
3. Providing nourishment to the epidermis
4. Playing an important role in wound healing
- The network of interlacing connective tissue, which is its major component, is made up of
collagen, in the main, with some elastin. Scattered within the dermis are several specialized
cells (mast cells and fibroblasts) and structures (blood vessels, lymphatics, sweat glands and
nerves).

- The epidermal appendages also lie within the dermis or subcutaneous layers, but connect
with the surface of the skin.
Layers of dermis. The dermis is made up of two layers:

- The more superficial papillary dermis;
- The deeper reticular dermis.
The papillary dermis is the thinner layer, consisting of loose connective tissue
containing capillaries, elastic fibers and some collagen.
The reticular dermis consists of a thicker layer of dense connective tissue containing
larger blood vessels, closely interlaced elastic fibers and thicker bundles of collagen. It
also contains fibroblasts, mast cells, nerve endings, lymphatics and epidermal
appendages. Surrounding these structures is a viscous gel that:
 Allows nutrients, hormones and waste products to pass through the dermis;
 Provides lubrication between the collagen and elastic fiber networks;
 Gives bulk, allowing the dermis to act as a shock absorber.
Specialized dermal cells and structures.

a. Fibroblast - is the major cell type of the dermis and its main function is to synthesize
collagen, elastin and the viscous gel within the dermis. Collagen – which gives
the skin its toughness and strength – makes up 70% of the dermis and is continually
broken down and replaced; elastin fibers give the skin its elasticity. However, both
are affected by increasing age and exposure to UV radiation, which results in
sagging and stretching of the skin as the person gets older and/or is exposed to
greater amounts of UV radiation.
b. Mast cells contain granules of vasoactive chemicals (the main one being
histamine). They are involved in moderating immune and inflammatory responses
in the skin.
c. Blood vessels in the dermis form a complex network and play an important part
in thermoregulation. These vessels can be divided into two distinct networks:
- Superficial plexus – made up of interconnecting arterioles and venules lying close

to the epidermal border, and wrapping around the structures of the dermis, the
superficial plexus supplies oxygen and nutrients to the cells;
- Deep plexus – found deeper at the border with the subcutaneous layer, its vessels
are more substantial than those in the superficial plexus and connect vertically to
the superficial plexus.

d. The lymphatic drainage of the skin is important, the main function being to
conserve plasma proteins and scavenge foreign material, antigenic substances
and bacteria.
e. Nerve fibers - serve the skin – sensory perception serves a critically important
protective and social/sexual function.
- Free sensory nerve endings are found in the dermis as well as the epidermis
(Merkel cells) and detect pain, itch and temperature.
- There are also specialized receptors – Pacinian corpuscles – that detect pressure
and vibration; and Meissner’s corpuscles, which are touch-sensitive.
- The autonomic nerves supply the blood vessels and sweat glands and arrector
pili muscles (attached to the hair).
4. Hypodermis
The hypodermis is the subcutaneous layer lying below the dermis; it consists largely of fat. It
provides the main structural support for the skin, as well as insulating the body from cold and
aiding shock absorption. It is interlaced with blood vessels and nerves
Functions:
1. Protection
The skin provides an overlaying protective barrier from the environment and pathogens while
contributing to the adaptive immune system.
The skin helps protect our body’s internal structures from physical, chemical, biological,
radiological, and thermal damage as well as damage from starvation and malnutrition.
- Physical and Chemical Damage
The skin is composed of tough skin cells as well as a tough protein called keratin that
guard tissues, organs, and structures underneath the skin against physical damage from
minor cuts, scratches, and abrasions.
Because our skin is tough and largely waterproof, it helps protect internal structures from
chemical irritants such as man-made detergents or even natural irritants like poison ivy.
Otherwise, these dangerous chemicals would seep into our sensitive internal
environment. The waterproof nature of our skin also ensures that important molecules
stay within our body.
- Biological Damage
The skin also contains important cells called Langerhans cells. These cells help our immune
system fight off infectious biological agents, like bacteria that try to get further into our body
through skin that may have been compromised by physical damage.
Sebaceous glands associated with the skin secrete substances that help fight off potentially
dangerous microorganisms as well. These glands also secrete substances that help keep our
skin hydrated, and thus more resistant to bacterial invasion.

Radiological Damage
Our skin also contains melanocytes that produce a pigment called melanin. This protects
the body from radiological damage via the sun’s UV radiation (or that from tanning
beds).
Other Protective Roles
Part of our skin is made up of fat. This fat serves three large purposes:
1. It helps cushion internal structures against any physical blows.
2. It acts as a food source, protecting our body from the effects of starvation.
3. It helps insulate us against cold temperatures.
- Our skin is also closely associated with sweat glands that help protect us from high
temperatures by cooling us off through the process of evaporation. These glands also
help to excrete potentially dangerous substances, like urea, out of the body.
- All sorts of sensory receptors are found within the skin as well. These help move our body
parts away from potential sources of damage, like hot stoves, when they sense danger,
thereby protecting our body from great harm.
- The skin is also important for the synthesis of vitamin D, which is an important vitamin for -
the building of strong and healthy bones. Ergo, the skin protects the body from fractures
if we do not otherwise get enough of this vitamin from food-based sources.
2. Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation — the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within

certain boundaries—even when the surrounding temperature is very different. This process is one
aspect of homeostasis: a dynamic state of stability between an animal’s internal and external
environment.
- The skin assists in homeostasis. It does this by reacting differently to hot and cold
conditions so that the inner body temperature remains more or less constant.
The Skin’s Role in Cooling the Body
The location of the skin is at the barrier of the environment and our internal selves. Its relatively
very large surface area plays an incredibly important role in thermoregulation.
The process of skin-based thermoregulation occurs through several means.
The first way involves the abundance of blood vessels found in the dermis, the middle layer of
the skin. If the body must cool down, the body vasodilates these blood vessels.

Vasodilation refers to the process of expanding the size of the blood vessels. The now enlarged
peripheral vessels of the skin allow for greater amounts of blood to flow near the surface of the
skin. This allows for our body to release a lot of body heat through radiation.
Causes of Vasodilation
Radiation refers to thermal radiation, which is the process of transferring heat through space via
electromagnetic waves.
Convection
If a fluid such as circulating air or water in a pool comes into contact with the skin when we are
very hot, this will allow for heat loss through the process of convection.
- The higher the amount of our body surface exposed to this circulating air (e.g. as little
clothing as possible), the higher the speed of the circulating air (e.g. it’s really windy),
and the smaller the distance between the skin surface and the blood vessels, the greater
the loss of heat from our body via convection.
Conduction
If our skin touches a cold object (like a cold drink), then we will lose heat via the process of
conduction, which is the direct heat transfer of heat from a hotter surface, to a colder surface
touching that hotter surface.
Perspiration
- sweating begins when the body temperature rises above 37 C. Sweat production can be
increased or lowered as necessary.
if we must cool down, sweat production increases. As drops of sweat form on and then
evaporate from our skin surface, they take body heat away with them. - - the greater the skin
surface area and the higher the sweat rate, the greater the rate of cooling via sweating.
- With respect to body heat loss, the processes of radiation and convection are most
effective
when the environmental temperature is below 20 C, while evaporative cooling accounts for the
most heat loss when the environmental temperature is above 20 C, and especially when it’s
hotter than 35 C.
- Increased humidity, however, limits the ability of our body to dissipate heat via perspiration.
The Skin’s Role in Keeping Us Warm

if the body needs to prevent the loss of excess heat, such as on a cool day, it will end up
constricting the blood vessels of our skin. This process is known as vasoconstriction.
- Since the blood vessels are narrower than they were before, less blood flows through the skin
and thus less heat can escape into the environment via radiation, convection, and conduction.
The body will also limit or stop the process of sweating to minimize any evaporative heat loss.

In addition, The arrector pili muscles contract (piloerection) and lift the hair follicles
upright. This makes the hairs stand on end, which acts as an insulating layer, trapping
heat. This is also how goose bumps are caused, since humans don’t have very much
hair and the contracted muscles can easily be seen.
Arrector Pili Muscles
The hairs on the skin lie flat and prevent heat from
being trapped by the layer of still air between the
hairs. This is caused by tiny muscles under the
surface of the skin, called arrector pili muscles.
When these muscles relax their attached hair

follicles are not erect. These flat hairs increase the
flow of air next to the skin and increase heat loss by
convection.
Finally, the fat associated with our skin does help

insulate our body and therefore increases body temperature as a result.
3. Cutaneous Sensation
The somatosensory system is composed of the receptors and processing centers to produce the
sensory modalities, such as touch and pain.
The Somatosensory System - is the system of nerve cells that responds to changes to the external
or internal state of the body, predominately through the sense of touch, but also by the senses
of body position and movement.
- Spread through all major parts of the body, it consists of sensory receptors and sensory neurons
in the periphery (for example, skin, muscle, and organs), along with deeper neurons within the
central nervous system.
Different receptors of the sense of touch

Thermoreceptors (temperature)
Nociceptors (pain)
Mechanoreceptors (pressure)
Transmission of information from the receptors passes via sensory nerves through tracts
in the spinal cord and into the brain. Processing primarily occurs in the primary
somatosensory area in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex.
a. Thermoreceptors
- Mammals have at least two types of sensors: those that detect heat and those that detect
cold.

- sensory receptors trigger an action potential that can provide feedback or lead to
alterations in behavior in order to maintain homoeostasis.
- Two receptors that exhibit the ability to detect changes in temperature include Krause end
bulbs (cold) and Ruffini endings (heat).
b. Nociceptors
- A nociceptor is a sensory nerve cell that responds to damaging or potentially damaging stimuli
by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain. Nociceptors can respond to excessive thermal,
mechanical, or chemical stimulation and often result the generation of an involuntary motor
response
for example: pulling a hand away from a hot surface.
c. Mechanoreceptors
- Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors that respond to pressure and vibration.
- Receptors can either induce a slow response to stimulation, whereby a constant activation is
initiated, or a fast response, whereby activation is only initiated at the beginning and end of
stimulation. The receptive field—the region in which a receptor can sense an effect—can vary
from small to large.
4 key types of Mechanoreceptor
Merkel receptor - is a disk-shaped receptor located near the border between the epidermis
and dermis.
- It demonstrates a slow response and has a small receptive field
- it is useful for detecting steady pressure from small objects, such as when gripping something
with the hand.
Meissner corpuscle - is a stack of flattened cells located in the dermis, near the epidermis. - It
demonstrates a rapid response and has a small receptive field
- it is useful for detecting texture or movement of objects against the skin.
Ruffini cylinder - is located in the dermis and has many branched fibers inside a cylindrical
capsule.
- It demonstrates a slow response and has a large receptive field
- it is good for detecting steady pressure or stretching, such as during the movement of a joint.
Pacinian corpuscle - is a layered, onion-like capsule surrounding a nerve fiber. It is located deep
in the dermis, in the subcutaneous fat.
- It demonstrates a fast response and has a large receptive field
- it is useful for detecting large changes in the environment, such as vibrations.
Together they provide a wide range of mechanical sensitivity that enables fine motor control
4. Metabolic Functions
One of the metabolic functions of the skin is the production of vitamin D3 when
ultraviolet light reacts with 7-dehydrocholesterol. 7-dehydrocholesterol is a cholesterol
precursor that is converted to vitamin D3 in the skin, therefore functioning as
provitamin-D3.

What is Vitamin D?
Vitamin D - refers to a group of fat-soluble steroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption
of calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphate, and zinc.
- In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D3 (also known as
cholecalciferol) and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol). Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol can be
ingested from the diet and from supplements, however very few foods are rich in vitamin D; and
so synthesis within the skin is a key source.
- Vitamin D deficiency is associated with impaired bone development in children, which leads
to the development of rickets and a softening of bones in adults. Deficiency in vitamin D has
been termed a modern disorder associated with both a poorer diet and reduced time spent
outside.
The human skin consists of three major layers: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
- The epidermis forms the outermost layer, providing the initial barrier to the external
environment.
- Beneath this, the dermis comprises two sections, the papillary and reticular layers, and contains
connective tissues, vessels, glands, follicles, hair roots, sensory nerve endings, and muscular
tissue.
- The deepest layer is the hypodermis, which is primarily made up of adipose tissue.
- Vitamin D is produced in the two innermost strata of the epidermis, the stratum basale and
stratum spinosum.
- Vitamin D3 is made in the skin when the 7-dehydrocholesterol reacts with ultraviolet light of
UVB type at wavelengths between 280 and 315 nm, with peak synthesis occurring between 295
and 297 nm.
- Depending on the intensity of UVB rays and the minutes of exposure, an equilibrium can
develop in the skin, and vitamin D degrades as fast as it is generated.
Vitamin D from the diet or that is synthesized by the body is biologically inactive; activation
requires enzymatic conversion in the liver and kidney.
5. Blood Supply to the Epidermis

The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and remove waste from its own cells
and from the stratum basale of the epidermis.
The epidermis does not contain blood vessels; instead, cells in the deepest layers are
nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries that are present in the upper layers of the
dermis. Diffusion provides nourishment and waste removal from the cells of the dermis,
as well as for the cells of the epidermis.

The dermis:
- Corium - is an alternate term for dermis.
- Blood vessels that supply the capillaries of the papillary region are seen running through
the reticular layer.
The dermis - is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and
cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a
basement membrane.
The dermis is structurally divided into two areas:

a. a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the papillary region
b. a deep, thicker area known as the reticular region.
 The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. This is

named for its fingerlike projections called papillae, that extend toward the
epidermis and contain terminal networks of blood capillaries.
 The reticular region lies under the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is
composed of dense, irregular connective tissue. The reticular region receives its
name from the dense concentration of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers
that weave throughout it.
- These protein fibers give the dermis its typical properties of strength, extensibility, and
elasticity. Blood vessels that supply the capillaries of the papillary region run through
the reticular region.
- Control of the blood supply to the dermis forms part of the body’s thermoregulatory
capacity. Increasing blood flow, which makes the skin appear redder, will increase the

loss of radiant heat through the skin, whereas constricting blood flow, making the skin
appear paler, reduces heat loss.
6. Excretion and Absorption
The integumentary system functions in absorption (oxygen and some medications) and
excretion (e.g., perspiration via the eccrine glands).
A major function of the integumentary system is absorption and excretion.
Excretion
There are numerous secretory glands present in the skin which secrete a large range of distinct
fluids.
- Perspiration, or sweating, is the production of fluids
secreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals.
- Two types of sweat glands can be found in humans:

eccrine glands and apocrine glands.
Eccrine glands - are the major sweat glands of the human

body, found in virtually all skin. They produce a clear,
odorless substance consisting primarily of water and NaCl
(note that the odor from sweat is due to bacterial activity
on the secretions of the apocrine glands). NaCl is
reabsorbed in the duct to reduce salt loss.
Eccrine glands are active in thermoregulation and are
stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system. Sweat Glands
Apocrine sweat glands - are inactive until they are stimulated by hormonal changes in
puberty. Apocrine sweat glands are mainly thought to function as olfactory pheromones -
chemicals important in attracting a potential mate. The stimulus for the secretion of apocrine
sweat glands is adrenaline, which is a hormone carried in the blood.
Sebaceous glands - are microscopic glands in the skin that secrete an oily/waxy matter,
called sebum, to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals. In humans, they are
found in greatest abundance on the face and scalp, though they are distributed throughout
all skin sites except the palms and soles. In the eyelids, meibomian sebaceous glands secrete
a special type of sebum into tears.
Absorption
Due to the absorptive capabilities of skin, the cells comprising the outermost 0.25–0.40
mm of the skin can be supplied by external oxygen rather than via the underlying
capillary network. Additionally, certain medications can be administered through the
skin.

- The most common mechanism of administration through the skin is the use of
ointments or an adhesive patch, such as the nicotine patch or iontophoresis.
Iontophoresis, also called electromotive drug administration, is a technique that uses a
small electric charge to deliver a medicine or other chemical through the skin.
Summary
 The skin provides a protective barrier from the external environment and
prevents dehydration.
 Langerhans cells in the skin also contribute to protection as they are part of the
adaptive immune system.
 The integumentary system protects the body’s internal living tissues and organs,
protects against invasion by infectious organism, and protects the body from
dehydration.
 The skin’s immense blood supply helps regulate temperature: dilated vessels
allow for heat loss, while constricted vessels retain heat.
 The skin regulates body temperature with its blood supply.
 The skin assists in homeostasis.
 Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat
loss.
 The somatosensory is the system of nerve cells that responds to changes to the
external or internal state of the body.
 Receptors are spread throughout the body, with large numbers found in the skin.
 Several distinct receptor types form the somatosensory system including
thermoreceptors (heat), nociceptors (pain), and mechanoreceptors (pressure).
 There are four types of mechanoreceptors that respond to different pressure stimui and
provide a wide range of mechanical sensitivity—they are the keys for fine motor control.
 Vitamin D refers to a group of fat-soluble steroids responsible for increasing
intestinal absorption of calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphate, and zinc.
 Foods rich in vitamin D are relatively scarce and so the body synthesises the
majority of vitamin D itself, in the skin.
 Vitamin D deficiency is associated with poor development of bones in children
and a softening of bones in adults.
 Vitamin D3 is made in the skin when 7-dehydrocholesterol reacts with ultraviolet
light. Vitamin D is produced in the two innermost strata of the epidermis.
Cholecalciferol (D3) is produced photochemically in the skin from 7-
dehydrocholesterol.
 Vitamin D is produced in the two innermost strata of the epidermis, the stratum basale
and stratum spinosum.
 The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished
by diffusion from blood capillaries present in the upper layers of the dermis.
 The papillary region of the dermis is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. This is
named for its fingerlike projections called papillae, that extend toward the epidermis
and contain terminal networks of blood capillaries.

 The control of blood vessels within the dermis forms a key part of the body’s
thermoregulatory capacity.
 Eccrine glands, the major sweat glands of the human body, produce a clear, odorless
substance, consisting primarily of water and NaCl. NaCl is reabsorbed in the duct to
reduce salt loss.
 Apocrine sweat glands are found only in certain locations of the body: the axillae
(armpits), areola and nipples of the breast, ear canal, perianal region, and some parts
of the external genitalia.
 The sebaceous glands secrete an oily/waxy matter called sebum to lubricate and
waterproof the skin and hair of mammals. In humans, they are found in greatest
abundance on the face and scalp, though they are distributed throughout all skin sites
except the palms and soles.
Assessment
1. People with albinism have a defect in tyrosinase, an oxidase that helps to control skin
pigment production. In what epidermal layer is tyrosinase active?
A. Stratum lucidum C. Stratum basale
B. Sratum granulosum D. Stratum spinosum
2. How many major regions are in the skin?
A. 5 C. 7
B. 3 D. None of the above
3. Which cells of the epidermis produce fibrous protein keratin?
A. Melanocytes C. Merkel cells
B. Langerhans' Cells D. None of the above
4. Which layer accounts for 3/4 of the epidermal thickness?
A. Corneum B. Basale C. Spinosum D. Lucidium
5. The papillary layer of the dermis consists of areolar connective tissue with collagen and
elastic fibers.
A. True B. False
6. Which type of membrane is comprised of only connective tissue?
A. mucous C. cutaneous
B. synovial D. serous
7. Mesothelium is a term that refers to ____ membranes.
A. serous B. cutaneous C. mucous D. synovial
8. The skin is called the ____membrane.
A. epithelial B. serous C synovial D. cutaneous
9. Which membrane can be composed of the most diverse types of epithelial and
connective tissues?
A. serous B. cutaneous C. mucous D. synovial
10. Which type of membrane is found around the abdominal organs?
A. epithelial B. serous C mucous D. cutaneous
11. The youngest cells would be found in the stratum
A. basale. B. corneum. C. spinosum. D. granulosum.

12. Where is the greatest amount of keratin found?
A. Basale B. Corneum C. Spinosum D. Dermis
13. Calluses are thickened areas that are formed in response to a/an
A. lack of blood flow. C. increase in abnormal mitoses.
B. increase in friction pressure. D. increase in blood flow.
14. What is the major factor that protects skin from the damaging effects of sunlight?
A. moisture in the skin C. the presence of melanin
B. the thickness of the stratum corneum D. active mitosis
15. Cells that surround melanocytes may contain more melanin than the melanocytes
because of the process of
A. mutation. C. cell rupture.
B. having cellular extensions. D. cytocrine secretions.
16. The _____ structures are associated with detecting deep pressure within the skin.
A. Meissner corpuscles C. free nerve endings
B. Pacinian corpuscles D. motor nerve fibers
17. Most of the sensory fibers and structures are located in the ____region.
A. dermis C. epidermis
B. subcutaneous D. stratum basale
18. Meissner corpuscles respond to a stimulus of
A. pressure. B. light touch C. heat. D. cold objects.
19. The presence of _____ is an indication of being in the hypodermis.
A. melanin B. keratin C. adipose D. blood vessels
20. What is the main factor in preserving body heat?
A. the thickness of the epidermis C. skin moisture
B. the presence of adipose D. adequate dermal blood vessels
21. The following relate to sebaceous glands except for
A. producing sebum. C. providing waterproofing.
B. being associated with hair follicles. D. using merocrine methods.
22. It controls and maintains body temperature.
A. skin sweat glands C. the hypothalamus
B. sensory skin receptors D. local skin chemicals
23. The major loss of heat through the skin is by
A. conduction. B. convection. C. radiation. D. evaporation.
24. The greatest source of body heat is through
A. the hypothalamus. C. constriction of blood vessels.
B. prevention of sweating. D. contraction of skeletal muscle.
25. Cyanosis usually is the result of a reduction in
A. melanin. B. hemoglobin. C. oxygen levels. D. the number of blood vessels

Enrichment
1. Describe the mechanism of Piloerection.
2. What is the normal flora of the skin and what is its role in homeostasis?
3. Tabulate at least 5 diseases of the skin in the manner given below:
Disease Cause Area Affected Treatment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lesson 2: Skeletal System
Learning Objectives
1. Explain the purpose of the musculoskeletal system
2. List the components of the appendicular skeleton
3. Describe the blood and nerve supply of bones
4. Outline the process of bone remodeling and repair
Discussion
Functions of the Skeleton

1. Support - The skeleton is the framework of the body, it supports the softer tissues and
provides points of attachment for most skeletal muscles.
2. Protection - The skeleton provides mechanical protection for many of the body's internal
organs, reducing risk of injury to them.
For example, cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae protect the spinal cord, and
the ribcage protects the heart and lungs.
3. Assisting in Movement - Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, therefore when the
associated muscles contract they cause bones to move.
4. Storage of Minerals - Bone tissues store several minerals, including calcium (Ca) and
phosphorus (P).
When required, bone releases minerals into the blood - facilitating the balance of
minerals in the body.
5. Production of Blood Cells - The red bone marrow inside some larger bones (including, for
example, the ....) blood cells are produced.
6. Storage of Chemical Energy - With increasing age some bone marrow changes from 'red
bone marrow' to 'yellow bone marrow'.

- Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, and a few blood cells. It is
an important chemical energy reserve.
Skeleton can also be divided into two groups, the axial and appendicular skeleton.
1. Axial skeleton:
Functions
 to provide protection for the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and vital
organs, such as the heart and lungs.
 provides the support and attachment for your arms and legs. This allows us to do
everyday movements such as walking, running, jumping and carrying.
The axial skeleton consists of the following three parts:

a. skull
b. vertebral column
c. bony thorax (ribs and sternum)
a. The skull (Cranium) consists of 22 separate bones that supports the structures of the
face and forms the brain cavity.
Twenty-one of those bones are fused together by sutures, nearly rigid fibrous joints.
The lower-most bone of the skull is the mandible, or jawbone.
- The human cranium consists of the flat bones of the cranium and includes the facial bones.
- Fourteen facial bones form the lower front part of the cranium. Important facial bones include
the lower jaw or mandible, the upper jaw or maxilla, the zygomatic or cheek bone, and the
nasal bone.
- The immature cranium has separate plates to allow the flexibility needed for a newborn to pass
through the birth canal and pelvis. These plates fuse as the skull matures (except the mandible).

Ossicle The ossicles (also called auditory ossicles) consist of three bones
(malleus, incus, and stapes) that are the smallest in the body. These are
located in the middle ear and serve to transmit sounds from the air to
the fluid-filled labyrinth.
Hyoid Bone
The hyoid bone is a horseshoe-shaped bone situated in

the anterior midline of the neck between the chin and
the thyroid cartilage. It provides attachment to the
muscles of the floor of the mouth, the tongue above,
larynx below, and the epiglottis and pharynx behind.
b. The spine, or vertebral column, is a series of irregularly shaped

bones in the back that connects to the skull. At birth, humans
have 33 or 34 of these bones. But bones fuse as we age, and
the result is 26 separate bones in the spines of adults.
- The vertebral column is made up of lots of individual vertebrae

which are grouped together into five different sections.
Articulating vertebrae: Fused vertebrae:

cervical - seven vertebrae sacrum - five vertebrae
thoracic - twelve vertebrae coccyx - four vertebrae
lumbar - five vertebrae
- There are normally thirty-three vertebrae in the human vertebral column.
 The upper twenty-four articulate and are unfused, the lower nine are fused.
 The fused vertebrae are the five in the sacrum and four in the coccyx.
- The first and second cervical vertebrae are the atlas and axis, respectively, on which the head
rests. The cervical vertebrae make up the junction between the vertebral column and the
cranium, and the bone makes up the junction between the vertebral column and the pelvic
bones.

c. The rib cage is made up of 12 pairs of bones that
encase vital organs in the chest. The bones curve
from the back at the vertebral column to the front
of the body. It functions as protection for the vital
organs of the chest, such as the heart and lungs.
The rounded ends are attached at joints to the
thoracic vertebrae posteriorly and the flattened
ends come together at the sternum anteriorly.
 The upper seven pairs increase in size and
meet with the sternum, or chest bone. They
are called True ribs.
 The remaining five pairs decrease in size and are attached to each other (8-10)
via non-costal cartilage or do not connect. The last two ribs (11-12) are called
floating ribs because they do not attach to the sternum or to other ribs.
2. Appendicular skeleton:
Function
 allow movement to occur through the joints of our arms
and legs. Without the appendicular skeleton we would
be unable to move around and do the activities we do
on a daily basis.
- The appendicular skeleton of vertebrates, including humans,
consists of the bones that support and compose the
appendages (for example, the arms and legs of humans). The
word appendicular means “ appendage”.
- The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements

within the limbs, as well as supporting the pectoral and pelvic
girdles.
- The appendicular skeleton comprises 126 bones and is involved in locomotion and
manipulation of objects in the environment. It is unfused, allowing for greater range of motion.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the following six parts:

a. arms
b. legs e. pelvic girdle
c. hands f. shoulder girdle
d. feet

Divisions of the Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major

regions:
1. The pectoral girdles consist of 4 bones: The left

and right clavicle (2) and the scapula (2).
2. The upper arms and forearms are made up of
6 bones: The left and right humerus (upper
arm, 2), the ulna (2), and the radius (forearm,
2).
3. The hands have 54 bones: The left and right
carpals (wrist, 16), metacarpals (10), proximal
phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8),
and the distal phalanges (10).
4. The pelvis has 2 bones: The left and right hip
bone (2).
5. The thighs and legs have 8 bones: The left and
right femur (thigh, 2), patella (knee, 2), tibia (2)
and fibula (leg, 2).
6. The feet and ankles have 52 bones: The left and right tarsals (ankle, 14), metatarsals (10),
proximal phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8), and distal phalanges (10).
Pectoral Girdle
- The bones of the pectoral girdle consist of two bones

and the upper limb
- The three regions of the upper limb are:

a. arm (humerus)
b. forearm (ulna medially and radius
laterally)
c. bones of the wrist and hands
- The base of the hand contains eight bones
(carpal bones)
- The palm is formed by five bones
(metacarpal bones)
- The fingers and thumb contain a total of 14
bones, called phalanges.

Pelvic Girdle
- The pelvic girdle is formed by a single bone, the hip or coxal bone, and serves as the
attachment point for each lower limb.
Hip bone
- Each hip bone is joined to the axial skeleton

by its attachment to the sacrum of the
vertebral column.
- The hip bones are three sets of bones—ilia,

ischia, and pubes—that fuse together as we
grow older. These form the majority of the
pelvis at the base of the spine as well as the
socket of the hip joint.
- The sacrum—five fused bones
- The spine
- The coccyx, or tailbone
Lower limb
- The lower limb contains 30 bones and is divided into three regions, the thigh, leg, and foot.
These consist of the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and
phalanges.

 The femur is the single bone of the
thigh.
 The patella (kneecap) articulates with
the distal femur.
 The tibia is located on the medial side
of the leg,
 The fibula is the thin bone of the lateral
leg.
- The bones of the foot are divided into
three groups, the tarsal bones, metatarsal
bones, and phalanges of the foot.
BONES
The skeletal system gives the body its basic
framework, providing structure, protection,
and movement. The 206 bones in the body
also produce blood cells, store important
minerals, and release hormones necessary
to life.
Although a skeleton sometimes symbolizes death and creepy, scary things, it is one of the
body’s most life-giving systems. Unlike other living organs, bones are firm and strong, but they
have their own blood, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
There are two types of tissue inside bones:

Compact bone: This hard and dense tissue
makes up the outer layer of most bones
and the main shaft of long bones, such as
those in the arms and legs. Nerves and
blood vessels live inside this tissue.
Spongy bone: This tissue is made up of
smaller plates filled with red bone marrow.
It is found at the ends of long bones, like
the head of the femur, and at the center
of other bones.
Types of bone marrow:
 Red bone marrow forms most of
the blood cells in the body and
helps destroy old blood cells.

 Yellow bone marrow, resides in the central cavities of long bones. It is mostly made up
of fat.
- if the body suffers large amounts of blood loss, it can convert yellow marrow to
red to make more blood cells.
Spongy vs Compact Bones

SPONGY COMPACT
Spongy Bones are also called cancellous Compact bones are also called cortical
bones bones
They are light, spongy and soft in nature They are heavy, tough and compact in
nature
They are made up of trabeculae They are made up of osteons
They fill the inner layer of most bones They fill the outer layer of most bones
Bone-marrow cavity absent Bone-marrow cavity present in the centre
Bone marrow produces red corpuscles Bone marrow stores fat
and white granular corpuscles
It forms the ends or epiphyses of long It forms the shaft or diaphysis of long bones
bones
Bone Cells
The following are the different types of bone cells:
 Osteoblasts-involved in the creation and mineralization of bone
 Osteocytes and osteoclasts: These are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. The
mineralized matrix of bone tissue has an organic component—mainly made of
collagen—and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts.

Bone Types
There are different types of bone. These are:
 Long bones
 Short bones
 Flat bones
 Sesamoid bones
 Irregular bones
Long Bones - A long bone is longer than it is wide. Growth occurs by a lengthening of the
diaphysis located in the center of the long bone.
- Long bones grow primarily by elongation of the
diaphysis (the central shaft), with an epiphysis at
each end of the growing bone. The ends of
epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage
(articular cartilage). At the cessation of growth, the
epiphyses fuse to the diaphysis, thus obliterating the
intermediate area known as the epiphyseal plate
or growth plate.
- The long bones in the body are as follows:

 Legs: The femur, tibia, and fibula.
 Arms: The humerus, radius, and ulna.
 The clavicles or collar bones.
 Metacarpals, metarsals, phalanges.
- The outside of the bone consists of a layer of

connective tissue called the periosteum. The outer

shell of the long bone is compact bone, below which lies a deeper layer of cancellous bone
(spongy bone), as shown in the following figure.
- The interior part of the long bone is called the medullary cavity; the inner core of the bone
cavity is composed of marrow.
Short Bones
Short bones are about as wide as they are long. These

provide support with less movement. Examples of short
bones include the carpal and tarsal bones of the wrist and
feet. They consist of a thin layer of cortical bone with
cancellous interiorly.
Compact bone and spongy bone: The hard outer layer of

bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-called due
to its minimal gaps and spaces. Its porosity is 5–30%. Inside
the interior of the bone is the trabecular bone tissue, an
open cell, porous network that is also called cancellous or
spongy bone.
Flat Bones
Flat bones are broad bones that provide

protection or muscle attachment. They are
composed of two thin layers of compact bone
surrounding a layer of cancellous (spongy) bone.
These bones are expanded into broad, flat plates,
as in the cranium (skull), ilium (pelvis), sternum,
rib cage, sacrum, and scapula.
The flat bones are named:
 Occipital
 Vomer
 Parietal
 Scapula
 Frontal
 Os coxæ (hip bone)
 Nasal

 Sternum
 Lacrimal
 Ribs
Sesamoid Bone
Sesamoid bones are smaller bones that are fixed

in tendons to protect them. An example is the
patella (knee cap) located in the patellar
tendon. Other examples include the small bones
of the metatarsals and the pisiform bones of the
carpus.
Irregular Bone
The irregular bones are named for their nonuniform

shape. Examples include the bones of the vertebrae.
These typically have a thin cortical layer with more
cancellous bone in their tissue.
Supply of
Blood and Nerves to Bone
- The blood and nerve supply to bones are carried in

Haversian canals that run along the long axis of
bones.
- Blood is supplied to mature compact bone

through the Haversian canal. Haversian canals are
formed when individual lamellae form concentric
rings around larger longitudinal canals within the
bone tissue.
- Haversian canals typically run parallel to the

surface and along the long axis of the bone. The
canals and the surrounding lamellae (8–15) are
called a Haversian system or an osteon. A Haversian
canal generally contains one or two capillaries and
nerve fibers.

- The Haversian canals also surround nerve cells throughout the bone and communicate with
osteocytes in lacunae (spaces within the dense bone matrix that contain the living bone cells)
through canaliculi. This unique arrangement is conducive to the storage of mineral salt
deposits that give bone tissue its strength.
- Volkmann’s canals are channels that assist with blood and nerve supply from the
periosteum to the Haversian canal. One or two main diaphyseal nutrient arteries enter the
shaft obliquely through one or two nutrient foramina leading to nutrient canals. Their sites of
entry and angulation are almost constant and characteristically directed away from the growing
epiphysis.
Blood supply to the long bones comes from these three main sources:
 Nutrient artery system
 Metaphyseal-epiphyseal system
 Periosteal system

a. The nutrient artery system - is a high-pressure system that branches from major systemic
arteries. It enters through the cortex via the nutrient foramen and then migrates into
the medullary canal. There it branches into ascending and descending branches that
then further branch out into arterioles and supply the inner 2/3 of bone within
the Haversian system.
b. The metaphyseal-epiphyseal arteries arise from the periarticular plexus, that is found
around the joint area of a long bone.
c. The periosteal artery system is a low-pressure system that supplies the outer 1/3 of
bone and is connected through Haversian and Volkmann canals. These canals are part
of the osteon structure of the cortex.
Bone Growth (Ossification)

Ossification - is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts.
Types:
1. Intramembranous ossification – is the process of bone development from fibrous
membranes.

2. Endochondral ossification – is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage
- Long bones lengthen as chondrocytes divide and secrete hyaline cartilage
- Osteoblast replace cartilage with bone
Appositional growth – is the increase in the diameter of bones by the addition of bone tissue at
the surface of bones
Bone Remodeling

Bone remodeling - is a lifelong process where mature bone tissue is removed from the skeleton
and new bone tissue is formed. These processes also control the reshaping or replacement of
bone following injuries like fractures but also micro-damage, which occurs during normal
activity.
Process:
 Resorption: Bone remodeling begins when osteoclasts resorb bone mineral and matrix.
 Reversal: Mononuclear cells prepare the resorbed surface for osteoblasts, which
generate newly synthesized matrix as they differentiate.
 Matrix mineralization and the differentiation of some osteoblasts into osteocytes
completes the remodeling cycle.
Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption. The action of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical factors that either
promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bone
is made, destroyed, or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signaling to control the
activity of each other.
Role of Growth Factors
Recent research has suggested that certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone
formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been
isolated and classified via bone cultures. These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II,
transforming growth factor beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and
bone morphogenetic proteins.
 Insulin-like growth factors protect cartilage cells, and are associated with the activation
of osteocytes.
 The transforming growth factor beta superfamily includes bone morphogenic proteins
involved in osteogenesis.
 Fibroblast growth factor activates various cells of the bone marrow including
osteoclasts and osteoblasts.

 Platelet-derived growth factor has been found to enhance bone collagen
degradation.
Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone
matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation
of osteoblast precursors. Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of
local bone formation.
Bone Repair
There are four stages in the repair of a broken bone:
1) the formation of hematoma at the break
2) the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus
3) the formation of a bony callus
4) remodeling and addition of compact bone.

Bone Defects
1. Fracture
- A bone fracture, also known as a broken bone, is a common injury.
Types:
a. Open Fracture
- When a broken bone breaks through the skin, it is classified as an open fracture.
The bone is sometimes visible through the wound. Open fractures can become
infected and require surgical cleaning and treatment as soon as possible.
- Open fractures are typically treated through surgery. Treatment begins with
debridement, in which all foreign contaminants and diseased tissue are removed
from the wound. Once the wound is clean, the surgeon implants rods and screws
in the bone to hold it in place while it heals.
b. Closed Fracture
- Closed fractures do not penetrate the skin or carry the same risk of infection as
open fractures. While closed fractures are not usually considered emergencies,
they still require prompt treatment. The damage from these fractures can harm
the surrounding soft tissue, resulting in fracture blisters. A fracture blister can form
within two days of the injury if not treated.
- There are many different treatment options for fractures depending on the severity
of the injury. An imaging test, such as an x-ray, is performed to assess the damage
and plan treatment. Immobilization of the injured area with a cast is the most
common treatment, but surgery to realign the bone may also be required.
c. Displaced Fracture
- A displaced fracture is a broken bone that snaps so far out of place that the two
ends no longer line up straight. This makes it harder to treat the fracture with
immobilization alone, and surgery is usually required.
Subcategories
These include:
 Greenstick fractures – Exclusive to children, greenstick fractures describe bones

that have bent but not completely broken.
 Comminuted fracture – A fracture that shatters into three or more pieces.
 Pathologic fracture – A fracture caused by a disease that weakened the bone, such as
osteoporosis.
 Stress fracture – A small, hairline crack that is hard to spot on an x-ray.

 Transverse fracture – a horizontal fracture in the long segment (shaft) of the bone.
Other common conditions that affect the skeletal system include:

1. Osteoporosis: This is a disease in which the bones become fragile and prone to fracture.
2. Leukemia: This is a cancer of the white blood cells.
3. Osteopenia, osteitis deformans, and osteomalacia: Similar to osteoporosis, these are other
types of bone loss.
4. Scoliosis, kyphosis, and lordosis: These are abnormalities of the spinal curve.
Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of the

spine. The normal shape of a
person's spine includes a curve at the top
of the shoulder and a curve at the lower
back. If your spine is curved from side to
side or in an “S” or “C” shape, you might
have scoliosis.
Lordosis is defined as an excessive

inward curve of the spine. It differs from
the spine's normal curves at the cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar regions, which are,
to a degree, either kyphotic (near the
neck) or lordotic (closer to the low back).
JOINTS, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

JOINTS
- Some define a joint as a point where 2 bones connect. Others suggest it is a point where
bones connect for the purpose of moving body parts.
Three main types of joints. They’re categorized by the movement they allow:
 Synarthroses (immovable). These are fixed or fibrous joints. They’re defined as two or
more bones in close contact that have no movement. The bones of the skull are an
example. The immovable joints between the plates of the skull are known as sutures.



 Amphiarthroses (slightly movable). Also known as cartilaginous joints, these joints are
defined as two or more bones held so tightly together that only limited movement can
take place. The vertebrae of the spine are good examples.
 Diarthroses (freely movable). Also known as synovial joints, these joints have synovial
fluid enabling all parts of the joint to smoothly move against each other. These are the
most prevalent joints in your body. Examples include joints like the knee and shoulder.
Synarthroses (immovable)

Amphiarthroses (slightly movable)
Diarthroses (freely movable)

There are six types of freely movable diarthrosis (synovial) joints:
 Ball and socket joint. Permitting movement in all directions, the ball and socket joint
features the rounded head of one bone sitting in the cup of another bone. Examples
include your shoulder joint and your hip joint.
 Hinge joint. The hinge joint is like a door, opening and closing in one direction, along one
plane. Examples include your elbow joint and your knee joint.
 Condyloid joint. The condyloid joint allows movement, but no rotation. Examples include
your finger joints and your jaw.
 Pivot joint. The pivot joint, also called the rotary joint or trochoid joint, is characterized by
one bone that can swivel in a ring formed from a second bone. Examples are the joints
between your ulna and radius bones that rotate your forearm, and the joint between the
first and second vertebrae in your neck.
 Gliding joint. The gliding joint is also called the plane join. Although it only permits limited
movement, it’s characterized by smooth surfaces that can slip over one another. An
example is the joint in your wrist.
 Saddle joint. Although the saddle joint does not allow rotation, it does enable movement
back and forth and side to side. An example is the joint at the base of your thumb.

Tendons and ligaments
- Tendons and ligaments are fibrous bands of connective tissue. Both play roles in stabilizing the
skeleton and allowing movement.
- Tendons and ligaments commonly sustain injuries, which usually have similar symptoms and
treatments. Both of these types of structure may get weaker with age, and injury may become
more common as people get older.
- Tendons and ligaments are thick bands of tissue comprising collagen. They both help stabilize
body structures and facilitate body movements.
Differences:

Two different types of ligament:
- White ligaments are rich in sturdy collagen fibers, which are not very elastic.
- Yellow ligaments contain more elastic fibers, which allow more movement.
- Ligaments are located at joints, whereas tendons provide the connection between muscle
and bone that allows the muscles to move different parts of the body.
- Ligaments and tendons can stretch or tear relatively easily. The symptoms of tendon and
ligament injuries tend to be very similar.
- Tendon and ligament injuries are common. Several factors can increase the risk of injury,
including:
 overuse, such as through playing sports
 trauma from a fall or blow
 twisting the tendon or ligament into an awkward position
 weakness in the surrounding muscles due to a sedentary lifestyle
Some common injuries include:

Tendon injuries
1. Strain - common sports injury is a strain, which is damage to a tendon or the muscle to which
it connects. The injury can be very painful. Severe strains may take weeks or months to heal.
- Trauma from falling or suddenly twisting a tendon can cause a strain. People who are inactive
may be more vulnerable to strains, especially if they suddenly become active or experience
muscle weakness because of inactivity.
2. Tendinitis happens when a tendon becomes inflamed and irritated. Tendinitis can develop
following trauma, such as a strain, but it is most commonly an overuse injury. People with
tendinitis may notice that the area is painful, swollen, and warm to the touch.
Tendinosis is a type of tear that is similar to a strain, but it usually happens over many months or
years because of overuse or incorrect athletic technique.
3. Subluxation happens when a tendon moves out of place. A person might hear a popping or
snapping sound when it happens and then experience pain and weakness in the affected joint.
Sometimes, the pain will come and go. Subluxation is more likely in people with certain genetic
anatomical differences, but tendons can also snap out of place as a result of an injury.
4. Tendon ruptures can also occur. These injuries may be due to a combination of immediate
trauma and chronic trauma. Ruptures commonly affect the Achilles tendons, biceps, knees,
and quadriceps.
Ligament injuries
1. Sprain occurs when a ligament stretches or tears. It can be a temporary, minor inconvenience
or a debilitating injury that takes months to heal. The knees, ankles, and wrists are highly
vulnerable to sprains from falls, especially if a person lands in an awkward position that stretches
and twists the ligament.
Doctors classify sprains into three categories:

 Grade 1: Mild sprains in which the fibers of the ligament stretch, but the ligament does
not tear.

 Grade 2: Moderate sprains where the ligament partially tears.
 Grade 3: Severe sprains in which the ligament completely tears. This type of sprain renders
the joint completely unstable and often requires surgical treatment.
Other soft tissue injuries
Aside from strains and sprains, people can also bruise the tendons or ligaments, along with the
surrounding tissue.
Bursitis is a type of inflammation that may feel like an injury to the tendon or
ligament. Bursitis happens when bursae— small, gel filled sacs that cushion the bones, tendons,
and muscles near the joints — become inflamed. This inflammation often happens because of
overuse or extreme stress on the joint. Many people experience bursitis alongside tendinitis.
Summary
 The musculoskeletal system ‘s primary functions include supporting the body, allowing
motion, and protecting vital organs.
 The musculoskeletal system is made up of the body’s bones (the skeleton), muscles,
cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that support and bind
tissues and organs together.
 The skeleton serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus.
 The skeleton also contains critical components of the hematopoietic ( blood production)
system and fat storage. These functions occur in red marrow and yellow marrow,
respectively.
 To allow motion, different bones are connected by articulating joints. Cartilage prevents
the bone ends from rubbing directly on to each other while the muscles contract to move
the bones associated with the joint.
 The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and
trunk of a vertebrate animal, including humans.
 The primary divisions of the skeleton system are the head, thorax, and vertebral column.
 The human cranium supports the structures of the face and forms the brain cavity.
 The rib cage functions as protection for the vital organs of the chest such as the heart and
lungs.
 The cervical vertebrae make up the junction between the vertebral column and the
cranium, and the bone makes up the junction between the vertebral column and the
pelvic bones.
 Haversian canals typically run parallel to the surface and along the long axis of the bone
and generally contain one or two capillaries and nerve fibers.
 Volkmann’s canals are channels that assist with blood and nerve supply from the
periosteum to the Haversian canal.
 The vascular supply of long bones depends on several points of inflow.
 Except for a few with double or no foramina (places in bone where capillaries enervate),
90% of long bones have a single nutrient foramen in the middle third of the shaft.

 Young periosteum is more vascular and its vessels communicate more freely with those
of the shaft compared to adult periosteum.
 Bone replacement involves the osteoclasts which break down bone and the osteoblasts
which make new bone.
 Bone turnover rates differ depending on the bone and the area within the bone.
 There are four stages in the repair of a broken bone: 1) the formation of hematoma at
the break, 2) the formation of a fibrocartilaginous callus, 3) the formation of a bony callus,
and 4) remodeling and addition of compact bone.
 Proper bone growth and maintenance requires many vitamins (D, C, and A), minerals
(calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium), and hormones ( parathyroid hormone, growth
hormone, and calcitonin ).
Assessment
1. The appendicular skeleton consists of

A. bones of the arms. D. bones that connect the limbs to the axial
skeleton.
B. the bones of the legs. E. the bones of the hands and feet.
C. all of the above.
2. Which of the following is NOT a part of the axial division of the skeletal system?
A. ribs D. vertebral column
B. auditory ossicles E. pectoral girdle
C. skull
3. The normal loss of bone that occurs with aging is called
A. osteoporosis. D. osteogenesis.
B. osteoinflammation. E. bone cancer.
C. osteopenia.
The following are major steps in the process of Endochondral Ossification

1. Blood vessels invade the perichondrium.
2. 20 ossification center form & epiphysis fill with spongy bone
3. Chondrocytes enlarge and matrix begins to calcify.
4. Osteoblasts form spongy bone within the center shaft at the primary ossification
center.
5. Osteoclasts break down some spongy bone to create a marrow cavity.
4. The correct order for the above events is
A. 1, 3, 5, 4, 2 D. 3, 1, 4, 5, 2
B. 3, 1, 5, 4, 2 E. 1, 5, 3, 4, 2
C. 2, 3, 1, 5, 4
5. Cells that secrete the organic components of the bone matrix are termed
A. osteoblasts. D. stem cells.
B. osteoclasts. E. osteocytes.
C. chondrocytes.

6. Functions of the skeletal system include
A. support. D. protection.
B. blood cell production. E. all of the above.
C. storage.
7. The vertebral column contains __________ cervical vertebrae.
A. 4 B. 5 C. 7 D. 12 E. 31
8. Large, multinucleated cells that can dissolve the bony matrix are termed
A. stem cells. C. chondrocytes.
B. osteoclasts. D. osteocytes.
9. Name the center of your skeleton
A. Pelvic girdle C. patella
B. vertebral column D. femur
10. What makes up the vertebral column?
A. Tendons C. ligaments
B. Vertebrae D. cartilage
11. Which is a movable joint?
A. Pelvis C. Sutures
B. Cranium D. Arms
12. Name the joint that is found in wrists and ankles.
A. Ball and Socket Joint C. Hinge Joint
B. Pivot Joint D. Gliding Joint
13. Name the joint that makes up the elbows, knees, and fingers.
A. Ball and Socket Joint C. Hinge joints
B. Pivot Joint D. Gliding Joint
14. Where is marrow found?
A. In the cartilage C. In compact bone
B. In spongy bone D. In the periosteum
15. What is hard bone?
A. Cartilage C. Tendon
B. Spongy Bone D. Compact Bone
16. A living bone's surface is covered with a tough, tight-fitting membrane called the
A. periosteum. C. cartilage.
B. marrow. D. compact bone.
17. What is the function of marrow?
A. To make protein C. To make red blood cells and store fat.
B. To reduce friction D. To hold bones together
18. What are the ends of bone covered with that helps reduce friction when two bones are
rubbed together?
A. Periosteum C. Ligament
B. Tendon D. Cartilage
19. A tough band of tissue that holds bones together at the joint are called
A. Tendon C. Cartilage
B. Periosteum D. Ligament
20. Name the condition in which the bones become weak and break easily.
A. Osteoarthritis C. Rheumatoid arthritis
B. Osteoporosis D. Arthritis

Enrichment

References
Bone Remodeling - Medicine LibreTexts

med.libretexts.org › ... › 6: Skeletal System
13 Aug 2020
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Ph
ysiology_(Boundless)/6%3A_Skeletal_System/6.4%3A_Bone_Formation/6.4C%3A_Bone_Remodel
ing
Bone | Boundless Biology - Lumen Learning

courses.lumenlearning.com › boundless-biology › chapte
10 Common Types of Bone Fractures - South Shore Orthopedics

www.southshoreorthopedics.com › Blog
26 May 2020 — Bone Fracture Basics. There are several types of bone fractures, and each type
https://pediaa.com/difference-between-tendon-and-ligament/
The Human Skeletal System | Live Science

www.livescience.com › 22537-skeletal-system
By Kim Ann Zimmermann - Live Science Contributor August 08, 2019
https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-compact-and-spongy-bones/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/bone-formation/
Links
The Skeletal System: Crash Course A&P #19
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDGqkMHPDqE
Joints: Crash Course A&P #20

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLxYDoN634c
Types of joints in the human body - Anatomy & Examples in Hindi (PART-1) |Bhushan Science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_c6Fz_ef3TI

Lesson 3: Muscular System
Lesson Objectives:
 Explain the organization of muscle tissue
 Describe the function and structure of skeletal, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle
 Explain how muscles work with tendons to move the body
Discussion
The muscular system is a set of tissues in the body with the ability to change shape. Muscle
cells connect together and eventually to elements of the skeletal system. When the muscle
cells contract, force is created as the muscles pull against the skeleton.
Functions
1. Movement
- The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious
movements such as walking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce more
subtle movements that result in various facial expressions, eye movements, and
respiration.
2. Posture
- Posture, such as sitting and standing, is maintained as a result of muscle contraction.
The skeletal muscles are continuallymaking fine adjustments that hold the body in
stationary positions.
3. Joint Stability
- The tendons of many muscles extend over joints and in this way contribute to joint
stability. This is particularly evident in the knee and shoulder joints, where muscle
tendons are a major factor in stabilizing the joint.
4. Circulation
- Visceral and cardiac muscle tissues surround the blood vessels and lymph vessels that
carry crucial nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the body. Cardiac muscle makes up
the heart and supplies the main force for blood traveling through the body.
- Large arteries and veins have associated muscles which can contract or relax to control
blood pressure. The actions of large skeletal muscles also help pump the blood and lymph
fluid throughout the body. While you exercise and contract large and small muscles, they
push vessels aside, which works like a pump to move fluids around your body.
5. Digestion
- the muscular system also aids in moving food through the digestive system. Most
digestive organs are surrounded by smooth muscle tissue. Although the tissue cannot be
voluntarily contracted like skeletal muscles, it is controlled subconsciously. When food
needs to be moved through the gut, the muscles contract in a synchronized fashion in a
wave through the digestive system. These wave-like muscular contractions are
called peristalsis.

6. Respiration
- Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle.
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. When the diaphragm
contracts, it pushes downward, causing the chest cavity to get bigger. The lungs then fill
with air. When the diaphragm muscle relaxes, it pushes air out of the lungs.
When someone wants to breath more deeply, it requires help from other muscles,
including those in the abdomen, back, and neck.
7. Urination
The urinary system comprises both smooth and skeletal muscles, including those in
the:
 bladder
 kidneys
 penis or vagina
 prostate
 ureters
 urethra
- The muscles and nerves must work together to hold and release urine from the bladder.
- Urinary problems, such as poor bladder control or retention of urine, are caused by
damage to the nerves that carry signals to the muscles.
8. Childbirth
- Smooth muscles in the uterus expand and contract during childbirth. These
movements push the baby through the vagina. Also, the pelvic floor muscles help to
guide the baby’s head down the birth canal.
9. Vision
Six skeletal muscles around the eye control its movements. These muscles work quickly and
precisely, and allow the eye to:
 maintain a stable image
 scan the surrounding area
 track moving objects
If someone experiences damage to their eye muscles, it can impair their vision.
10. Organ protection
Muscles in the torso protect the internal organs at the front, sides, and back of the body.
The bones of the spine and the ribs provide further protection.
Muscles also protect the bones and organs by absorbing shock and reducing friction in
the joints.
11. Temperature regulation
- Almost 85 percent of the heat a person generates in their body comes from contracting
Muscles.
- When body heat falls below optimal levels, the skeletal muscles increase their activity to
make heat. Shivering is one example of this mechanism. Muscles in the blood vessels
also contract to maintain body heat.
Body temperature can be brought back within normal range through the relaxation of
smooth muscle in the blood vessels. This action increases blood flow and releases excess
heat through the skin.

Muscular System Parts
- the muscular system is divided into different types of tissues, which are incorporated into
various organs in the body.

Anatomy of the Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleate.
Sarcolemma. Many oval nuclei can be seen just beneath the plasma membrane, which is
called the sarcolemma in muscle cells.
Myofibrils. The nuclei are pushed aside by long ribbon-like organelles, the myofibrils, which
nearly fill the cytoplasm.
Light and dark bands. Alternating dark and light bands along the length of the
perfectly aligned myofibrils give the muscle cell as a whole its striped appearance.
Sarcomeres. The myofibrils are actually chains of tiny contractile units called sarcomeres,
which are aligned end to end like boxcars in a train along the length of the myofibrils.
 Myofilaments. There are two types of threadlike protein myofilaments within each of
our “boxcar” sarcomeres.
 Thick filaments. The larger, thick filaments, also called myosin filaments, are made
mostly of bundled molecules of the protein myosin, but they also contain ATPase
enzymes, which split ATP to generate the power for muscle contraction.
 Cross bridges. Notice that the midparts of the thick filaments are smooth, but their
ends are studded with thick projections; these projections, or myosin beads, are
called cross bridges when they link the thick and thin filaments together during
contraction.
 Thin filaments. The thin filaments are composed of the contractile protein called actin,
plus some regulatory proteins that play a role in allowing (or preventing) myosin-bead
binding to actin; the thin filaments, also
called actin filaments, are anchored to
the Z disc (a disc-like membrane).
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum. Another very
important muscle fiber organelle is the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specialized
smooth endoplasmic reticulum; the
interconnecting tubules and sacs of the SR
surround each and every myofibril just as the
sleeve of a loosely crocheted sweater
surrounds your arm, and its major role is to
store calcium and to release it on demand.

Muscular Movements
 Origin. One of these points, the origin, is attached to the immovable or less movable
bone.
 Insertion. The insertion is attached to the movable bone, and when the muscle
contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin.
 Flexion. Flexion is a movement, generally in the sagittal plane, that decrease the
angle of the joint and brings two bones closer together; it is a type of hinge joints, but
it is also common at ball-and-socket joints.
 Extension. Extension is the opposite of flexion, so it is a movement that increases the
angle, or the distance, between two bones or parts of the body.
 Rotation. Rotation is movement of a bone around a longitudinal axis; it is a common
movement of ball-and-socket joints.
 Abduction. Abduction is moving the limb away from the midline, or median plane, of
the body.
 Adduction. Adduction is the opposite of abduction, so it is the movement of a limb
toward the body midline.
 Circumduction. Circumduction is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and
adduction commonly seen in ball-and-socket joints; the proximal end is stationary,
and its distal end moves in a circle.
Special Movements
 Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. Lifting the foot so that its superior surface approaches
the shin is called dorsiflexion, whereas depressing the foot is called plantar flexion.
 Inversion and eversion. To invert the foot, turn the sole medially; to evert the foot, turn
the sole laterally.
 Supination and pronation. Supination occurs when the forearm rotates laterally so that
the palm faces anteriorly and the radius and ulna are parallel; pronation occurs when
the forearm rotates medially so that the palm faces posteriorly.Opposition. In the palm
of the hand, the saddle joint between metacarpal 1 and the carpals allows opposition
of the thumb.

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body
- - Muscles are arranged in such a way that whatever one muscle can do; other muscles
can reverse. Because of this, muscles are able to bring about an immense variety of
movements.
 Prime mover. The muscle that has the major responsibility for causing a particular
movement is called the prime mover.
 Antagonists. Muscles that oppose or reverse a movement are antagonists; when a
prime mover is active, its antagonist is stretched and relaxed.
 Synergists. Synergists help prime movers by producing the same movement or by
reducing undesirable movements.
 Fixators. Fixators are specialized synergists; they hold a bone still or stabilize the origin
of a prime mover so all tension can be used to move the insertion bone.

Naming Skeletal Muscles
- muscles come in many shapes and sizes to suit their particular tasks in the body.
 Direction of the muscle fibers. When a muscle’s name includes the term rectus
(straight) its fibers run parallel to that imaginary line; the term oblique as part of a
muscle’s name tells you that the muscle fibers run obliquely (at a slant) to the
imaginary line.
 Relative size of the muscle. Such terms as maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), and
longus (long) are often used in the names of muscles.
 Location of the muscle. Some muscles
are named for the bone with which they
are associated; for example, the
temporalis and frontalis muscles overlie
the temporal and frontal bones of the
skull.
 Number of origins. When the term
biceps, triceps, or quadriceps forms part
of a muscle name, one can assume
that the muscle has two, three, or four
origins.
 Location of the muscle’s origin and
insertion. Occasionally, muscles are
named for their attachment sites.
 Shape of the muscle. Some muscles
have a distinctive shape that helps to
identify them.
 Action of the muscle. When muscles are
named for their actions, terms such as
flexor, extensor, and adductor appear
in their names.
Arrangement of Fascicles
Skeletal muscles consist of fascicles, but fascicle arrangement vary, producing muscles
with different structures and functional properties.
 Circular. The pattern is circular when the fascicles are arranged in concentric rings;
circular muscles are typically found surrounding external body openings which they
close by contracting.
 Convergent. In convergent muscle, the fascicles converge toward a single insertion
tendon; such a muscle is triangular or fan-shaped.

 Parallel. In a parallel arrangement, the
length of the fascicles run parallel to the
long axis of the muscle; these muscles are
straplike; a modification of the parallel
arrangement, called fusiform, results in a
spindle-shaped muscle with an expanded
belly.
 Pennate. In a pennate pattern, short
fascicles attach obliquely to a central
tendon; in the extensor digitorium muscle of
the leg, the fascicles insert into only one side
of the tendon and the muscle is unipennate;
if the fascicles insert into opposite sides of
the tendon or from from several different
sides, the muscle
is bipennate or multipennate.
Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles
Only the most important

muscles are described here
because it is beyond our
scope to describe the
hundreds of skeletal muscles of
the human body.
Head and Neck Muscles

The head muscles are an
interesting group because they
have many specific functions
but are usually grouped into
two large categories- facial
muscles and chewing muscles.
Facial Muscles
There are 5 facial muscles:
 Frontalis. The frontalis, which covers the frontal bone, runs from the cranial
aponeurosis to the skin of the eyebrows, where it inserts; this muscle allows you to
raise your eyebrows and wrinkle your forehead; at the posterior end of the cranial
aponeurosis is the small occipitalis muscle.


 Orbicularis occuli. The orbicularis oculi has fibers that run in circles around the eyes; it
allows you to close your eyes, squint, blink, and wink.
 Orbicularis oris. The orbicularis oris is the circular muscle of the lips; because it closes
the mouth and protrudes the lips, it is often called the “kissing” muscle.
 Buccinator. The fleshy buccinator muscle runs horizontally across the cheek and
inserts into the orbicularis oris.
 Zygomaticus. The zygomaticus extends from the corner of the mouth to the
cheekbone; it is often referred to as the “smiling” muscle because it raises the
corners of the mouth upward.
Chewing Muscles
The buccinator muscle, which is a member of this group, is described with the facial
muscles.
 Masseter. As it runs from the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to the
mandible, the masseter covers the angle of the lower jaw; this muscle closes the jaw
by elevating the mandible.
 Temporalis. The temporalis is a fan-shaped muscle overlying the temporal bone; it
inserts into the mandible and acts as a synergist of the masseter in closing the jaw.
Neck Muscles
For the most part, the neck muscles, which move the head and shoulder girdle, are
small and straplike. Only two neck muscles are considered here.
 Platysma. The platysma is a single, sheetlike muscle that covers the anterolateral
neck; its action is to pull the corners of the mouth inferiorly, producing a downward
sag of the mouth.
 Sternocleidomastoid. The paired sternocleidomastoid muscles are two-headed
muscles, one found on each side of the neck; when both sternocleidomastoid
contract together, they flex your neck.
Trunk Muscles
The trunk muscles include
(1) those that move the vertebral column
(2) anterior thorax muscles, which move the ribs, head, and arms
(3) muscles of the abdominal wall, which help to move the vertebral column
and, most important, form the muscular “natural girdle” of the abdominal body
wall.

Anterior Muscles
The anterior muscles of the trunk include:
 Pectoralis major. The pectoralis major is a large, fan-shaped muscle covering the
upper part of the chest; this muscle forms the anterior wall of the axilla and acts to
adduct and flex the arm.
 Intercostal muscles. The intercostal muscles are deep muscles found between the
ribs; the external intercostals are important in breathing because they help you to
raise the rib cage when you inhale; the internal intercostals, which lie deep to the
external intercostals, depress the rib cage, which helps to move air out of the lungs
when you exhale forcibly.
 Muscles of the abdominal girdle. The anterior abdominal muscles (rectus abdominis,
ecternal and internal obliques, and transversus abdominis) form a “natural girdle”
that reinforces the body trunk; the paired straplike rectus abdominis muscles are the
most superficial muscles of the abdomen; the external oblique muscles are paired
superficial muscles that make up the lateral walls of the abdomen; the internal
oblique muscles are paired muscles deep to the external obliques; and
the transversus abdominis is the deepest muscle of the abdominal wall and has
fibers that run horizontally across the abdomen.

Posterior Muscles
The posterior muscles of the trunk include:
 Trapezius. The trapezius muscles are the most superficial muscles of the posterior
neck and upper trunk; the trapezius muscles extend the head; they also can
elevate, depress, adduct, and stabilize the scapula.
 Latissimus dorsi. The latissimus dorsi muscles are the two large, flat muscles that cover
the lower back; these are very important muscles when the arm must be brought
down in a power stroke.
 Erector spinae. The erector spinae group is the prime mover of back extension; these
muscles not only act as powerful back extensors but also provide resistance that
helps control the action of bending over at the waist.
 Quadratus lumborum. The fleshy quadratus lumborum muscles form part of the
posterior abdominal wall; acting separately, each muscle of the pair flexes the spine
laterally; acting
together, they
extend the lumbar
spine.
Deltoid. The deltoids

are fleshy, triangle-
shaped muscles that
form the rounded
shape of the
shoulders; the
deltoids are the
prime movers of arm
abduction.
Muscles of the
Upper Limb
The upper limb
muscles fall into
three groups. The
first group arise from
the shoulder girdle
and cross the
shoulder joint to
insert into the
humerus. The
second group
causes movement
at the elbow joint.
The third group
includes the muscles
of the forearm.

Muscles of the Humerus that Act on the Forearm
All anterior arm muscles cause elbow flexion. In order of decreasing strength, these are the
brachialis, biceps brachii, and brachioradialis.
Biceps brachii. The biceps brachii is the most familiar muscle of the arm because it
bulges when the elbow is flexed; this muscle is the powerful prime mover for flexion
of the forearm and acts to supinate the forearm.
 Brachialis. The brachialis lies deep to the biceps muscle and is as important as
the biceps in the elbow portion; the brachialis lifts the ulna as as the biceps lift
the radius.
 Brachioradialis. The brachioradialis is a fairly weak muscle that arises on the humerus
and inserts into the distal forearm.
 Triceps brachii. The triceps brachii is the only muscle fleshing out the posterior
humerus; being the powerful prime mover of elbow extension, it is the antagonist of
biceps brachii.
Muscles of the Lower Limb

Muscles that act on the lower limb cause movement at the hip, knee and foot joints.
They are among the largest and strongest muscle in the body and are specialized for
walking and balancing the body.

Muscles Causing Movement at the Hip Joint
Part of the muscles of the lower limb are the muscles at the hip joint.
 Gluteus maximus. The gluteus maximus is a superficial muscle of the hip that forms
most of the flesh of the buttock; it is a powerful hip extensor that acts to bring the
thigh in a straight line with the pelvis.
 Gluteus medius. The gluteus medius runs from the iliac to the femur, beneath the
gluteus maximus for most of its length; the gluteus medius is a hip abductor and is
important in steadying the pelvis during walking.
 Iliopsoas. The iliopsoas is a fused muscle composed of two muscles, the iliacus and
the psoas major; it is a prime mover of hip flexion and also acts to keep the upper
body from falling backward when we are standing erect.
 Adductor muscles. The muscles of the adductor group form the muscle mass at the
medial side of each thigh; as their name indicates, they adduct, or press, the thighs
together.
Muscles Causing Movement at the Knee Joint

The muscles of the lower limb that causes movement of the knee joint are:
 Hamstring group. The muscles forming the muscle mass of the posterior thigh are the
hamstrings; the group consists of three muscles, the biceps femoris,
semimembranosus, and semitendinosus, which originate on the ischial tuberosity and
run down the thigh to insert on both sides of the proximal tibia.
 Sartorius. It is the most superficial muscle of the thigh; it acts as a synergist to bring
about the cross-legged position.
 Quadriceps group. The quadriceps group consists of four muscles- the rectus
femoris muscle and three vastus muscles– that flesh out the anterior thigh; the group
as a whole acts to extend the knee powerfully.
Muscles Causing Movement at the Ankle and Foot

There are 5 muscles that cause movement at the ankle and foot:
 Tibialis anterior. The tibialis anterior is a superficial muscle on the anterior leg; it arises
from the upper tibia and then parallels the anterior crest as it runs to the tarsal bones.
 Extensor digitorum longus. Lateral to the tibialis anterior, the extensor digitorum
longus muscle arises from the lateral tibial condyle and proximal radius; it is a prime
mover of toe extension and a dorsiflexor of the foot.
 Fibularis muscles. The three fibularis muscles- longus, brevis, and tertius- are found on
the lateral part of the leg; the group as a whole plantar flexes and everts the foot.
 Gastrocnemius. The gastrocnemius muscle is a two-bellied muscle that forms the
curved half of the posterior leg; it is a prime mover for plantar flexion of the foot.
 Soleus. Deep to the gastrocnemius is the fleshy soleus muscle; because it arises from
the tibia and fibula, it does not affect knee movement.

Physiology of the Muscular System
1. Nerve Stimulus and the Action Potential
To contract, skeletal muscle cells must be stimulated by nerve impulse.
 Neurotransmitter. When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminals, a chemical
referred to as the neurotransmitter is released; the specific neurotransmitter that
stimulate skeletal muscle cells is acetylcholine, or ACh.
 Temporary permeability. If enough acetylcholine is released, the sarcolemma at that
point becomes temporarily more permeable sodium ions, which rush into the muscle
cell, and to potassium ions, which diffuse out of the cell.
 Action potential. More channels in the sarcolemma open up to allow only sodium to
enter, which generates an electrical current called an action potential; once the
action is begun, it is unstoppable; it travels over the entire surface of the sarcolemma,
conducting the electrical impulse from one end of the cell to the other; the result is
contraction of the muscle cell.
 Break down of enzymes. Acetylcholine, which began the process of muscle
contraction, is broken down to acetic acid and choline by enzymes present on the
sarcolemma; for this reason, a single nerve impulse produces only one contraction;
the muscle cell relaxes until stimulated by the next round of acetylcholine release.

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding Filament Theory
When muscle fibers are activated by the nervous system, the myosin heads attach to
binding sites on the thin filaments, and the sliding begins.
 Relaxed muscle cell. In a relaxed muscle cell, the regulatory proteins forming part of
the actin myofilaments prevent myosin binding; when an action potential sweeps
along its sarcolemma and a muscle cell is excited, calcium ions are released from
intracellular storage areas.
 Contraction trigger. The flood of calcium acts as the final trigger for contraction,
because as calcium binds to the regulatory proteins on the actin filaments, they
change both their shape and their position on the thin filaments.
 Attachment. The physical attachment of myosin to actin “springs the trap”, causing
the myosin heads to snap toward the center of the sarcomere; because actin and
myosin are firmly bound to each other when this happens, the thin filaments are slightly
pulled toward the center of the sarcomere.

Muscular System Diseases
Muscular system diseases fall in a wide range of categories. Simple muscular system
injuries can happen, such as tearing a muscle or spraining an ankle.
1. Tendonitis can happen when a tendon is repeatedly strained.
2. Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disease that affects the muscular system. Beginning
at the ages 2-6, the disease persistently weakens the muscles across the entire anatomy.
This continues through the remainder of an afflicted person’s life. Generally, people with
muscular dystrophy only live into their late teens or early twenties.
3. Lupus is another disease which affects the muscular system. The symptoms of
Lupus include a butterfly-shaped rash on the face, as well as swelling and
inflammation of the skin, muscles, and joints. Lupus is an autoimmune disease,
meaning the cause of the disease is immune cells within your body creating
antibodies against your body’s own proteins.
Summary
 One of the most predominant characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue is its contractility
and nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
 Four functions of muscle contraction are movement, posture, joint stability, and heat
production.
 Three types of muscle are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by endomysium. The fibers are collected into bundles
covered by perimysium. Many bundles, or fasciculi, are wrapped together by the
epimysium to form a whole muscle.
 Muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
 Muscle features such as size, shape, direction of fibers, location, number of origin, origin
and insertion, and action are often used in naming muscles.
 Four major muscle groups of the body include:
o Muscles of the head and neck;
o Muscles of the trunk;
o Muscles of the upper extremity; and
o Muscles of the lower extremity.
Assessment
1. It is a threadlike structure that extends from one end of the muscle fiber to another.
A. Sarcomere C. Myofibril
B. Sarcolemma D. Myofilament

2. Which is NOT a function of muscles?
A. cause movement C. absorb nutrients
B. produce heat D. maintain posture
3. A type of muscle that aids muscles by producing the same movement or by reducing
undesirable or unnecessary movement.
A. Fixators C. Antagonists
B. Synergists D. Prime Mover
4. The four pairs of muscles of chewing or mastication are
A. temporalis, masseter, pterygoid, and buccinators.
B. masseter, pterygoid, and 2 pairs of temporalis.
C. temporalis, pterygoid, and 2 pairs of masseter.
D. temporalis, masseter, and 2 pairs of pterygoid.
5. A fleshy, triangle-shaped muscle that provides the rounded shape of the shoulders.
A. Trapezius C. Biceps brachii
B. Deltoids D. Rectus abdominis
6. Which of the following correctly identifies muscle components in order from largest to
smallest?
A. Muscles — Fasciculus — Myofibrils — Muscle fibers — Myofilaments
B. Muscles — Muscle fibers — Myofibrils — Fasciculus — Myofilaments
C. Muscles — Fasciculus — Muscle fibers — Myofibrils — Myofilaments
D. Muscles — Muscle fibers — Fasciculus — Myofibrils — Myofilaments
7. Movement that allows a palm to be turned face down is

A. Extension C. Supination
B. Flexion D. Pronation
8. Which is not an indicator of an aging muscle?
A. Loss of mass C. Loss of strength
B. Increased elasticity D. Increased connective tissue
9. A band of tough, inelastic fibrous tissue that connects a muscle with its bony
attachment:
A. Tendon
B. Extensor
C. Flexor
10. Muscles that extend or straighten a body part:
A. Extensor
B. Flexor
C. Tendon

Enrichment
A. Match the following muscles with their corresponding description.

1. Gastrocnemius A. Prayer muscle
2. Sternocleidomastoid B. Kissing muscle
3. Levator labii superioris C. Blowing muscle
4. Zygomaticus D. Toe dancer’s muscle
5. Buccinator E. Smiling muscle
6. Depressor anguli oris F. Pouting muscle
7. Orbicularis oris G. Sneering muscle
B. Explain the mechanism of MUSCLE CRAMPS. Identify the chemicals involved and what
happens to the muscle fibers.
C. How do muscles build when one regularly exercises? Do male and female build muscles
differently?
References
Muscular System - Definition, Function and Parts | Biology ...
biologydictionary.net › muscular-system
https://biologydictionary.net/muscular-system
By:Gabe Buckley/ Reviewed by: BD Editors
Last Updated: January 15, 2021
11 functions of the muscular system: Diagrams, facts, and ...

www.medicalnewstoday.com › articles
Muscular System Anatomy and Physiology - Nurseslabs

nurseslabs.com › Notes › Anatomy & Physiology
https://nurseslabs.com/muscular-system-anatomy-physiology/
Notes Muscles - The Biology Corner

www.biologycorner.com › anatomy › notes_muscles
https://www.biologycorner.com/anatomy/muscles/notes_muscles.html
Links
The Muscular System Explained in 6 Minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rMcg9YzNSEs
Structure of Skeletal Muscle Explained in simple terms

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SCznFaTwTPE
Sliding filament theory in muscle contraction

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gZevEd0qeW4

Lesson 4: Respiratory System
Learning Objectives
1. List the structures of the respiratory system
2. List the major functions of the respiratory system
3. Outline the forces that allow for air movement into and out of the lungs
4. Outline the process of gas exchange; and
5. Summarize the process of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport within the
respiratorysystem.
Discussion
Through breathing, inhalation and exhalation, the respiratory system facilitates the exchange of
gases between the air and the blood and between the blood and the body’s cells. The
respiratory system also helps us to smell and create sound.
The following are the five key functions of the respiratory system.
1. Inhalation and Exhalation Are Pulmonary Ventilation—That’s Breathing
- The respiratory system aids in breathing, also called pulmonary ventilation.
- In pulmonary ventilation:
a. air is inhaled through the nasal and oral cavities (the nose and mouth).
b. It moves through the pharynx, larynx, and trachea into the lungs. Then air is exhaled,
flowing back through the same pathway.
- Changes to the volume and air pressure in the lungs trigger pulmonary ventilation.
a. Inhalation
- During normal inhalation, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract and
the ribcage elevates. As the volume of the lungs increases, air pressure drops and air
rushes in.
b. Exhalation
- During normal exhalation, the muscles relax. The lungs become smaller, the air pressure
rises, and air is expelled.
2. External Respiration Exchanges Gases Between the Lungs and the Bloodstream
- Inside the lungs, oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide waste through the process called
external respiration. This respiratory process takes place through hundreds of millions of
microscopic sacs called alveoli.
- Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses from the alveoli into pulmonary capillaries
surrounding them.
- It binds to hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells, and is pumped through the
bloodstream.
- carbon dioxide from deoxygenated blood diffuses from the
capillaries into the alveoli, and is expelled through exhalation.
3. Internal Respiration Exchanges Gases Between the Bloodstream and Body Tissues
- The bloodstream delivers oxygen to cells and removes waste carbon dioxide through
internal respiration.
- red blood cells carry oxygen absorbed from the lungs around the body, through the
vasculature.

- When oxygenated blood reaches the narrow capillaries, the red blood cells release
the oxygen.
- It diffuses through the capillary walls into body tissues. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide
diffuses from the tissues into red blood cells and plasma.
- The deoxygenated blood carries the carbon dioxide back to the lungs for release.
Red blood cell

Red blood cells carry inhaled oxygen to the body's tissues and bring carbon dioxide back
to the lungs to be exhaled.
4. Air Vibrating the Vocal Cords Creates Sound

- Phonation is the creation of sound by structures in the upper respiratory tract of the respiratory
system.
- During exhalation, air passes from the lungs through the larynx, or “voice box.” When
we speak, muscles in the larynx move the arytenoid cartilages.
- The arytenoid cartilages push the vocal cords, or vocal folds, together. When the cords
are pushed together, air passing between them makes them vibrate, creating sound.
- Greater tension in the vocal cords creates more rapid vibrations and higher-pitched
sounds.
- Lesser tension causes slower vibration and a lower pitch.
5. Olfaction, or Smelling, Is a Chemical Sensation
- Olfaction
- begins with olfactory fibers that line the nasal cavities inside the nose.
- As air enters the cavities, some chemicals in the air bind to and activate nervous
system receptors on the cilia.
- This stimulus sends a signal to the brain: neurons take the signal from the nasal
cavities through openings in the ethmoid bone, and then to the olfactory bulbs. -
The signal then travels from the olfactory bulbs, along cranial nerve 1, to the
olfactory area of the cerebral cortex.
Respiratory Structures
The respiratory system is divided into two parts:
1. Upper respiratory tract:
Nose
Mouth
the beginning of the trachea (the section that takes air in and lets it out).
2. Lower respiratory tract:
Trachea
Bronchi
broncheoli
lungs (the act of breathing takes place in this part of the system).

- The organs of the lower respiratory tract are located
in the chest cavity.
- They are delineated and protected by the ribcage,
the chest bone (sternum), and the muscles between
the ribs and the diaphragm (that constitute a
muscular partition between the chest and the
abdominal cavity).
The trachea – the tube connecting the throat to the

bronchi.
The bronchi – the trachea divides into two bronchi
(tubes). One leads to the left lung, the other to the
right lung. Inside the lungs each of the bronchi divides
into smaller bronchi.
The broncheoli - the bronchi branches off into smaller

tubes called broncheoli which end in the pulmonary
alveolus.
Pulmonary alveoli – tiny sacs (air sacs) delineated by

a single-layer membrane with blood capillaries at the
other end.
The exchange of gases takes place through the membrane of the pulmonary alveolus,
which always contains air: oxygen (O2) is absorbed from the air into the blood capillaries
and the action of the heart circulates it through all the tissues in the body. At the same time,
carbon dioxide (CO2) is transmitted from the blood capillaries into the alveoli and then
expelled through the bronchi and the upper respiratory tract.
The inner surface of the lungs where the exchange of gases takes place is very large, due
to the structure of the air sacs of the alveoli.
The lungs – a pair of organs found in all vertebrates.
The structure of the lungs includes the bronchial tree – air tubes branching off from the
bronchi into smaller and smaller air tubes, each one ending in a pulmonary alveolus

Mechanics of Breathing
Breathing is the physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
The mechanism of breathing involves two main processes: inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration occurs when the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles contract.
- Boyle's Law describes the relationship between the pressure (P) and the volume
(V) of a gas. The law states that if the volume increases, then the pressure must
decrease (or vice versa). This relationship is often written algebraically as PV =
constant, or P 1V 1 = P 2V 2. Both equations state that the product of the pressure
And volume remains the same.
Breathing
Breathing occurs when the contraction or relaxation of muscles around the lungs changes the
total volume of air within the air passages (bronchi, bronchioles) inside the lungs. When the
volume of the lungs changes, the pressure of the air in the lungs changes in accordance with
Boyle's Law. If the pressure is greater in the lungs than outside the lungs, then air rushes out. If
the opposite occurs, then air rushes in.

Summary of the process:
1. Inspiration occurs when

the diaphragm and the
external intercostal muscles—
contract. Contraction of the
diaphragm (the skeletal
muscle below the lungs)
causes an increase in the size
of the thoracic cavity, while
contraction of the external
intercostal muscles elevates
the ribs and sternum. Thus,
both muscles cause the lungs
to expand, increasing the
volume of their internal air
passages. In response, the air
pressure inside the lungs decreases below that of air outside the body. Because gases
move from regions of high pressure to low pressure, air rushes into the lungs.
2. Expiration occurs when the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax. In
response, the elastic fibers in lung tissue cause the lungs to recoil to their original
volume. The pressure of the air inside the lungs then increases above the air pressure
outside the body, and air rushes out. During high rates of ventilation, expiration is
facilitated by contraction of the expiratory muscles (the intercostal muscles and the
abdominal muscles).
Lung compliance is a measure of the ability of the lungs and thoracic cavity to expand. Due
to the elasticity of lung tissue and the low surface tension of the moisture in the lungs, the lungs
normally have high compliance.
During inhalation – the muscles contract:

Contraction of the diaphragm muscle – causes the diaphragm to flatten, thus enlarging the
chest cavity.
Contraction of the rib muscles – causes the ribs to rise, thus increasing the chest volume.
The chest cavity expands, thus reducing air pressure and causing air to be passively drawn
into the lungs. Air passes from the high pressure outside the lungs to the low pressure inside the
lungs.
During exhalation – the muscles relax:

The muscles are no longer contracting, they are relaxed.
The diaphragm curves and rises, the ribs descend – and chest volume decreases.

Summary
 The entire process of respiration includes ventilation, external

respiration, transport ofgases, internal respiration, and cellular
respiration.
 The three pressures responsible for pulmonary ventilation are
atmospheric pressure,intraalveolar pressure, and intrapleural pressure.
 A spirometer is used to measure respiratory volumes and
capacities. Thesemeasurements provide useful information about the
condition of the lungs.
 The frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses are air-filled
cavities thatopen into the nasal cavity.
 The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends
from the baseof the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
 The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is the passageway for air
between thepharynx above and the trachea below.
 The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs.
 The trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi, which
branch into smallerand smaller passageways until they terminate in tiny
air sacs called alveoli.
 The two lungs contain all the components of the bronchial tree
beyond the primarybronchi.
 The right lung is shorter, broader, and is divided into three lobes.
 The left lung is longer, narrower, and is divided into two lobes.
Enrichment
1. Which is bigger, the Right or the Left lung? How many lobes do we have in total?
2. What damage to the respiratory system is done by tobacco/cigarette smoke? Why
is this dangerous?
3. Explain how the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood affects the rate of
breathing.
References
Mechanism of Breathing, Animation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wc2K1Olt4Q8
Mechanics of Breathing - Inspiration - Expiration ...

teachmephysiology.com › ... › Pulmonary Ventilation

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/anatomy-and-physiology/the-respiratory-
system/mechanics-of-breathing
Links
Mechanism Of Breathing - Explore Mechanism Of Respiration ...

byjus.com › Biology › Biology Article
https://byjus.com/biology/mechanism-of-breathing/
Human Respiratory System - Diagram, Respiratory System ...

byjus.com › Biology › Biology Artic
https://byjus.com/byjus-classes-book-a-free-demo
class/registration/?utm_source=website&utm_medium=biology&utm_campaign=k10topbann
erwithteach
Lesson 5: Excretory System
• Describe the composition of urine;
• Label structures of the urinary system; and
• Characterize the roles of each of the parts of the urinary system.
Discussion
Functions
 Eliminating waste products such as urea, uric acid

ammonia, and other chemical products via urine.
 Maintaining the osmotic level of blood and plasma
 Maintaining the electrolyte balance in the body
Parts of the Human Excretory System

 2 Kidneys
 2 Ureters
 1 Urinary bladder
 1 Urethra
Kidneys
Kidneys are the main organ of the human excretory system. Every individual has a pair of
kidneys. They are located one on each side of the spine at the level of the liver.

Kidneys are divided into three regions:
a. renal cortex which is the outer layer
b. renal medulla which is the inner layer
c. renal pelvis which carries the urine from the kidney to the ureter.
 And it also helps in the metabolism of those drugs that do not get metabolized in the liver.
Structure of a Nephron
The nephron is the functional unit of a
kidney. Each kidney consists of millions of
nephrons. They all function together to
filter blood and expel waste products.
It consists of the following parts:

 Bowman’s capsule– a cup-shaped
structure and receives the blood
vessels. Glomerular filtration occurs
here. The blood cells and proteins
remain in the blood.
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule– The Bowman’s capsule extends downwards to form the
proximal tubule. Water and reusable materials from the blood are now reabsorbed back
into it.

The loop of Henle– The proximal tubule leads to the formation of a u-shaped loop called the
Loop of Henle. It has three parts: the descending limb, the u-shaped bend, and the ascending
limb. It is in this area in which urine becomes concentrated as water is reabsorbed. The
descending limb is permeable to water whereas the ascending limb is impermeable to it.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule– The Loop of Henle leads into the distal convoluted tubule. It is
where the kidney hormones cause their effect.
 Collecting Duct– The Distal Convoluted Tubule of each nephron leads to the collecting
ducts. The collecting ducts together form the renal pelvis. Through renal pelvis, the urine
passes into the ureter and then into the bladder.
Ureters
There is one ureter that comes out of each kidney as an extension of the renal pelvis. It is a thin
muscular tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
Urinary Bladder
The bladder is a sac-like structure. And a smooth muscle layer lines it. It stores the urine until
micturition.
Micturition is the act of expelling urine from the body. The bladder receives urine from
the ureters, one from each kidney.
Urethra is a tube that arises from the urinary bladder. Its function is to expel the urine outside by
micturition. In addition, it is shorter in females and longer in males. Furthermore, in males, it
functions as a common path for sperms and urine. Sphincter guards - the opening of the
urethra.
Other Excretory Organs

Apart from the above-mentioned organs, there are other organs that perform excretion.
They are:
Skin
The skin is the largest organ in the body. Its primary function is to protect the different
organs of the body. In addition, the skin excretes sweat. In particular, the skin eliminates
compounds like NaCl, some amount of urea etc.
Lungs
Lungs are the primary respiratory organs. They help take in oxygen and expel carbon
dioxide. But, in this process, they also eliminate some amount of water in the form of
vapour.
Liver
This organ has an important function in excreting waste from the body. It is the first line
of defense when it comes to hormones, fats, alcohol, and drugs. Most drugs undergo
first-pass metabolism in this organ. The kidneys also eliminate a few drugs. Furthermore,
the liver eliminates excess fats and cholesterol. This is essential to maintain the health of
the body.

Urine Formation
Summary:
 The urinary system rids the body of waste materials, regulates fluid volume, maintains
electrolyte concentrations in body fluids, controls blood pH, secretes erythropoietin, and
renin.
 The components of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
 The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are located retroperitoneally
between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae.
 The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma of the kidney.
 The central region of the kidney is the renal pelvis, which collects the urine as it is produced.
 The functional unit of the kidney is a nephron, which consists of a renal corpuscle anda
renal tubule.
 The ureters transport urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
 The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine.
 The urethra is the final passageway for the flow of urine.
 The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by an involuntary internal urinary
muscle
 The functional unit of the kidney is a nephron, which consists of a renal corpuscle anda
renal tubule.

 The ureters transport urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. The urinary system rids
the body of waste materials, regulates fluid volume, maintains electrolyte concentrations
in body fluids, controls blood pH, secretes erythropoietin, and renin.
 The components of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
 The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are located
retroperitoneally between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae.
 The corex and medulla make up the parenchyma of the kidney.
 The central region of the kidney is the renal pelvis, which collects the urine as it is
produced.
 The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine.
 The urethra is the final passageway for the flow of urine.
 The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by an involuntary internal urethral
sphincter and voluntary external urethral sphincter.
Assessment for Respiratory and Excretory System
1. Internal respiration is at the level of the

A. organism. C. lungs.
B. cell. D. pharynx.
2. Sound is produced by the vibrations of the
A. notochords C. vocal cords.
B. bronchi. D. tracheal ring.
3. The passageway leading directly from the pharynx to the lungs is the
A. esophagus. C. bronchus.
B. trachea. D. larynx
4. The order of air movement within the lungs is best described as
A. bronchi – bronchioles – alveoli. C. bronchioles – alveoli – bronchi.
B. bronchi – alveoli – bronchioles. D. trachea – bronchi – alveoli.
5. The substance in blood whose level regulates breathing is
A. carbon monoxide. C. carbon dioxide.
B. oxygen. D. nitrogen.
6. During inhalation, the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles causes the
chest cavity’s
A. volume to decrease and pressure to increase.
B. volume to increase and pressure to decrease.
C. volume to increase and pressure to increase.
D. volume to decrease and pressure to decrease.
7. Air in the alveoli following an inhalation has the highest concentration of which gas”
A. Nitrogen C. Water vapor
B. Carbon dioxide D. Oxygen
8. The two gases exchanged by the respiratory system are
A. CO2 and N2 C. O2 and CO2
B. CO2 and O2 D. O2 and N2

9. Which are the tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the bladder?
A. Adrenal tubes C. Ureters
B. Kidneys D. Urethras
10. The _________ is/are responsible for urine storage.
A. Bladder C. Ureter
B. Kidneys D. Urethra
11. The major organ of the urinary system is the
A. Gallbladder C. Kidney
B. Ureter D. Nephrons
12. Urine flows out of the kidneys through narrow tubes called
A. Gallbladder C. Nephrons
B. Ureter D. Urethra
13. Place the following events in sequence:
A) Urine passes through the ureters
B) Urea enters the kidneys
C) Urine enters the urethra
A. B, A, C C. B, C, A
B. C, B, A D. A, C, B
14. What word describes the function of the nephrons?
A. Tube C. Passageway
B. Filter D. Reservoir
15. What is the function of the urethra?
A. It filters urea out of the bloodstream
B. It delivers urine from the bladder to the outside world
C. It transfers urine from the kidneys to the bladder
D. It prevents urine from leaking out of the bladder
Enrichment
1. Why is it that females are more vulnerable in developing Urinary Tract Infections than
males?
2. Explain why a person loses weight after changing to a low salt diet without reducing
calorie intake.
3. Discuss the process of hemodialysis using a flow chart.
References
Excretory System: Organs, Functions, Videos with Questions

www.toppr.com › guides › biology › excretory-products
Anatomy and Function of the Urinary System – Stanford…

www.stanfordchildrens.org › topic › id=anatomy-of-the...
Suggested Link:
3D Urinary System tutorial.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v805VoHIIQCs

Lesson 6: Digestive System
Learning Objectives
• List and describe the functional anatomy of the organs and accessory organs of
thedigestive system;
• Discuss the processes and control of ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion,
chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation; and
• Discuss the roles of the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder in digestion.
Discussion:
Digestion is the process by which food and liquid are broken down into smaller parts. The body
can then use them to build and nourish cells and to make energy.
The digestive system is a tube running from mouth to anus. Its chief goal is to break down huge
macromolecules (proteins, fats and starch), which cannot be absorbed intact, into smaller
molecules (amino acids, fatty acids and glucose) that can be absorbed across the wall of the
tube, and into the circulatory system for dissemination throughout the body.
The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or
functions.
1. Ingestion is to take in food through the mouth.
2. Mechanical Digestion
The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into smaller particles that
can be acted upon by various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which begins in
the mouth with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing
actions in the stomach.
3. Chemical Digestion
The complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are transformed by
chemical digestion into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the
cells. Chemical digestion, through a process called hydrolysis, uses water and
digestive enzymes to break down the complex molecules. Digestive enzymes speed
up the hydrolysis process, which is otherwise very slow.
4. Movements
- After ingestion and mastication, the food particles move from the mouth into the
pharynx, then into the esophagus. This movement is deglutition, or
swallowing.

- Mixing movements occur in the stomach as a result of smooth muscle
contraction. These repetitive contractions usually occur in small segments of
the digestive tract and mix the food particles with enzymes and other fluids.
The movements that propel the food particles through the digestive tract
are called peristalsis.
Peristalsis - are rhythmic waves of contractions that move the food particles
through the various regions in which mechanical and chemical digestion
takes place.
5. Absorption
The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell
membranes of the lining in the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries.
This process is called absorption.
6. Elimination
The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated
from the body. The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the
form of feces,is defecation or elimination.
Parts of the Digestive System
The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract and other organs that aid in digestion.
The digestive tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to
the anus.
It consists of the following:
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine (includes the colon and rectum)
Anus
Organs that help with digestion, but are not part of the digestive tract, are the:
Tongue
Glands in the mouth that make saliva
Pancreas
Liver
Gallbladder

Parts of other organ systems, such as nerves and blood, also play a major role in the digestive
process.
1. Mouth
The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of the

digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food
by ingestion, break it into small particles by
mastication, and mix it with saliva.
- The lips, cheeks, and palate form the
boundaries.
The oral cavity contains the teeth and tongue
and receives the secretions from the salivary
glands.
Lips and Cheeks

The lips and cheeks help hold food in the
mouth and keep it in place for chewing. They are also used in the formation of
words for speech.
The lips contain numerous sensory receptors that are useful for judging the
temperature and texture of foods.

Palate
The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the
nasal cavity.The anterior portion, the hard palate, is supported by bone.
- The posterior portion, the softpalate, is skeletal muscle and connective tissue.
Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a projection called the uvula.
- During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move upward to direct food
away from the nasal cavity and into the oropharynx.
Tongue
The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech. The
surface is coveredwith papillae that provide friction and contain the taste
buds
Teeth
A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth. There are 32
teeth in a complete permanent (secondary) set. The shape of each tooth type
corresponds to the way it handles food.
3. Pharynx
Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When
food reaches the opening, sensory receptors around
the fauces respond and initiate an involuntary
swallowing reflex.
- This reflex action has several parts. The uvula is
elevated to prevent food from entering the
nasopharynx. The epiglottis drops downward to
prevent food from entering the larynx and
trachea in order to direct the food into the
esophagus. Peristaltic movements propel the food
from the pharynx into the esophagus.
4. Esophagus
The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway
between the pharynx and stomach. As it descends, it is posterior to the
trachea and anterior to the vertebral column. It passes through an
opening in the diaphragm, called the esophageal hiatus, and then empties
into the stomach.

- The mucosa has glands that secrete mucus to keep the lining moist and well
lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower esophageal
sphincters control the movement of food into and out of the esophagus. The
lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes called the cardiac sphincter and
resides at the esophagogastric junction.
5. Stomach
The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the
upper abdomen. The stomach receives food
from the esophagus. As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it
enters the stomach through a muscular
valve called the lower esophageal sphincter.
- The stomach secretes acid and enzymes Relaxation of the pyloric
sphincter allows chyme to pass from the stomach into the small
intestine. The rate of which this occurs depends on the nature of
the chyme and the receptivity of the small intestine.
6. Small intestine
The small intestine is made up of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Together with
the esophagus, large intestine, and the stomach, it forms the gastrointestinal tract.
In living humans, the small intestine alone measures about 6 to 7 meters long. After
death, this length can increase by up to half. It has a surface area of over 200 meters.
The internal walls of the small intestine are covered in finger-like tissue called villi. Each of
these villi is covered in even smaller finger-like structures called microvilli. These villi and
microvilli increase the surface area available for
the absorption of nutrients.
In the small intestine food that has already

been broken down by chewing and stomach
enzymes is further degraded by additional
enzymes. Some of these chemicals are
secreted in the lumen (the hollow area in the
middle of the intestine), but others are
transported to the intestine from other organs
such as the pancreas and liver. Where
absorption takes place depends on the type of
nutrient or vitamin being absorbed.
Once fully reduced to a chemical level the

molecules that are going to be absorbed pass through the walls of the intestine into the
bloodstream.

Peristalsis, contraction of the muscle walls, is the force that propels matter through the
small intestine. It is a slow process, allowing the food matter to mix with the digestive
juices.
7. Large Intestine
The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal
junction, where the ileum enters the large intestine, and ends at the anus. The large
intestine consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.
The wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other parts
of the digestive tract but there are some distinguishing characteristics. The mucosa has
a large number of goblet cells but does not have any villi.
The longitudinal muscle layer, although present, is incomplete. The longitudinal muscle
is limited to three distinct bands, called teniae coli, that run the entire length of the
colon. Contraction of the teniae coli exerts pressure on the wall and creates a series of
pouches, called haustra, along the colon.

- Epiploic appendages are pieces of fat-filled connective tissue, are attached to the
outer surface of the colon.
The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes. Chemical digestion is completed

in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. Functions of the
large intestine include the absorption of water and electrolytes and theelimination of
feces.
7. Rectum and Anus
The rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick muscular
layer. It follows the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by connective
tissue. The rectum ends about 5 cm below the tip of the coccyx, at the beginning
of the analcanal
The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal, which continues from the rectum and
opens to the outside at the anus. The mucosa of the rectum is folded to form longitudinal anal
columns. The smooth muscle layer is thick and forms the internal anal sphincter
at the superior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is under involuntary control. There is an
external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is composed of
skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.
Accessory Organs
The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but they
have a role in digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.
Salivary Glands
Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and
numerous smaller ones secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed with food during
mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and enzyme
amylase.
Functions of saliva include the following:

 It has a cleansing action on the teeth.
 It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and
swallowing.
 It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.
 It begins the chemical digestion of starches through
the action of amylase, which breaks down
polysaccharides into disaccharides.
Liver

The liver is located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions of the
abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm. It is the largest gland in the body. On the surface, the
liver is divided into two major lobes and two smaller lobes. The functional units of the liver are
lobules with sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to the central vein of the lobule.
The liver receives blood from two sources. Freshly oxygenated blood is brought to the liver by
the common hepatic artery, a branch of the celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta. Blood that
is rich in nutrients from the digestive tract is carried to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.
The liver has a wide variety of functions and many of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes perform
most of the functions attributed to the liver, but the phagocytic Kupffer cells that line the
sinusoids are responsible for cleansing the blood.
Liver functions include the following:

 Secretion
 synthesis of bile salts
 synthesis of plasma protein
 storage
 detoxification
 excretion
 carbohydrate metabolism
 lipid metabolism
 protein metabolism
 filtering
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by the
cystic duct. The principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir for
bile.
Bile is a yellowish-green fluid produced by liver cells. The main components of bile are
water, bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.
Bile salts act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats.
Cholesterol and bile pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin are excreted from
the body in the bile.

Pancreas
The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions.
The endocrine portion consists of the scattered Islets of
Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and
glucagon into theblood.
The exocrine portion is the major part of the gland. It consists
of pancreatic acinar cells that secrete digestive enzymes
into tiny ducts interwoven between the cells.
Pancreatic enzymes include amylase, trypsin, peptidase, and
lipase. Pancreatic secretions are controlledby the hormones
secretin and cholecystokinin.
Assessment
1. What is the digestive system?
A, The body’s breathing system.
B. The body’s system of nerves,
C. The body’s food-processing system.
D. The body’s blood- transporting system.
2. Digestion begins in the mouth. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
A. The tongue aids in the digestion of the food.
B. The saliva changes some of the starches in the food to sugar.
C. The tongue keeps the food in place in the mouth.
D. The digestive juices can react more easily with the food when chewed.
3. Where does food pass through between the mouth and the stomach?
A. The gullet C. The rectum
B. The small intestine D. The large intestine
4. Our throat divides into two separate tubes: the windpipe and the gullet. What prevents food
from entering the windpipe?
A. The uvula C. The trachea
B. The tongue D. The epiglottis
5. What happens when food reaches the stomach?
A. Nothing. No digestion occurs in the stomach.
B. The food moves quickly into the small intestine.
C. Juices mix with the food and stomach muscles squeeze it.
D. The food is completely digested and is absorbed by tiny blood vessels in the walls of
the stomach.

6. Where does the partly-digested food (in liquid form) go after it leaves the stomach?
A. The gullet C. The appendix
B. The small intestine D. The large intestine
7. How does digested food finally reach the bloodstream?
A. It passes through the gullet into the blood.
B. It is absorbed into the blood through blood vessels.
C. It is absorbed into the blood through the walls of the lungs.
D. It passes from the small intestine into the large intestine, then into the blood.
8. The digestive system processes food into usable and unusable materials. The usable
materials are sent to the body's cells as food. What happens to unusable materials?
A. It goes into the pancreas to await disposal.
B. It goes to the right ventricle to await disposal.
C. It goes into the large intestine to await disposal.
D. It goes into the small intestine to await disposal.
9. Solid waste leaves the body through the rectum then the anus. Liquid waste leaves the
body after passing through the
A. kidneys and bladder. C. blood vessels and lungs.
B. blood vessels and lungs. D. large intestine and bowel
10. Digestion takes place in a long tube-like canal called the alimentary canal, or the
digestive tract. Food travels through these organs in the following order:
A. Mouth, gullet, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum
B. Mouth, esophagus, stomach, large intestine, small intestine and rectum
C. Mouth, stomach, esophagus, small intestine, large intestine and rectum
D. Mouth, stomach, gullet, small intestine, large intestine and rectum
11. Which of the following does NOT manufacture digestive juices?
A. liver B. kidneys C. stomach D. pancreas
12. The liver is located in the abdomen and performs many functions. Which of the following is
NOT a function of the liver?
A. Storing food C. Producing digestive juices
B. Manufacturing insulin D. Healing itself when it is damaged
13. During deglutition, the bolus passes into the stomach from the esophagus through the
A. esophageal sphincter. C. urethral sphincter.
B. pyloric sphincter. D. gastroesophageal sphincter
14. What is the main organic molecule digested in the stomach?
A. lipids B. nucleic acids C. carbohydrates D. proteins
15. The propulsive function that occurs in the esophagus is called
A. peristalsis. C. segmentation.
B. ingestion. D. defecation.
Enrichment
1. What is the function of mucus in the digestion of food?
2. Name the four types of digestive system and give a brief explanation for each.
3. How does bile aid in the digestion of fats? Where are fats absorbed from the GI tract?

References
Digestive System -- An Overview - Health Encyclopedia - URMC
www.urmc.rochester.edu › Encyclopedia
Mechanical Digestion | BioNinja

ib.bioninja.com.au › 61-digestion-and-absorption › me..
https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=85&con
Digestion and Absorption | BioNinjaib.bioninja.com.au › topic-6-human-physiology ›

tentid=P00380b.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-6-human-physiology/61-
digestion-and-absorption/mechanical-digestion.html80
Link
3D Anatomical tutorial of the Digestive System

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X3TAROotFfM

1

wwe

Physiology with Lab

STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:
PROFESSOR

IV. Module Title The last 5 Body Systems
V. Overview of the Module This module discusses the Circulatory, Nervous,
Reproductive, Endocrine and Lymphatic System.
The module covers the lessons for the Final period
of the course. The assessment part found at the end of the
module maybe composed of varied types of questions. It may
take the form of matching type, multiple choice, compare
and contrast, filling the table with the correct data and/or
essay and problem solving.
instructions.
You are advised to practice honesty as you work with all the
outputs. If found having a totally copied output/same answers
you will be asked to repeat your submittals or get a failing
grade for cheating.
Good luck.

Lesson 1: Endocrine System
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the composition of endocrine network
2. Label structures of the endocrine system;
3. Characterize the roles of each of the parts of the glands and their hormones
secreted.
4. Understand the role of hormones in growth, metabolism and
maintaining homeostasis.
Discussion
The endocrine system - is a network of glands that secrete chemicals called hormones
to help your body function properly. Hormones are chemical signals that coordinate
a range of bodily functions.
Hormones are secreted by the glands of the endocrine system, traveling through the
bloodstream to various organs and tissues in the body. The hormones then tell these organs and
tissues what to do or how to function.
Some examples of bodily functions that are controlled by the endocrine system include:
 metabolism
 growth and development
 sexual function and reproduction
 heart rate
 blood pressure
 appetite
 sleeping and waking cycles
 body temperature
Endocrine system organ

The endocrine system is made up of a complex network of glands, which are organs that
secrete substances.
The glands of the endocrine system are where hormones are produced, stored, and released.
Each gland produces one or more hormones, which go on to target specific organs and
tissues in the body.

The glands of the endocrine system include:
 Hypothalamus. While some people don’t consider it a gland, the hypothalamus produces
multiple hormones that control the pituitary gland. It’s also involved in regulating many
functions, including sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and appetite. It can also
regulate the function of other endocrine glands.
 Pituitary. The pituitary gland is located below the hypothalamus. The hormones it produces
affect growth and reproduction. They can also control the function of other endocrine
glands.
 Pineal. This gland is found in the middle of your brain. It’s important for your sleep-wake
cycles.
 Thyroid. The thyroid gland is located in the front part of your neck. It’s very important for
metabolism.
 Parathyroid. Also located in the front of your neck, the parathyroid gland is important for
maintaining control of calcium levels in your bones and blood.
 Thymus. Located in the upper torso, the thymus is active until puberty and produces
hormones important for the development of a type of white blood cell called a T cell.
 Adrenal. One adrenal gland can be found on top of each kidney. These glands produce
hormones important for regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, and stress
response.
 Pancreas. The pancreas is located in your abdomen behind your stomach. Its endocrine
function involves controlling blood sugar levels.
Some endocrine glands also have non-endocrine functions. For example, the ovaries and
testes produce hormones, but they also have the non-endocrine function of
producing eggs and sperm, respectively.

Hormones produced by the Endocrine Glands
Where the hormone is Hormone(s) secreted Hormone function

produced
Adrenal glands Aldosterone Regulates salt, water balance, and blood
pressure
Adrenal glands Corticosteroid Controls key functions in the body; acts
as an anti-inflammatory; maintains blood
sugar levels, blood pressure, and muscle
strength; regulates salt and water
balance
increases blood pressure, heart rate,
Adrenal glands adrenaline
and metabolism in reaction to stress
dehydroepiandrosterone aids in production of body odor and
Adrenal glands
sulfate (DHEA) growth of body hair during puberty
Pituitary gland Antidiuretic hormone Affects water retention in kidneys;
(vasopressin) controls blood pressure
Pituitary gland Adrenocorticotropic hormone Controls production of sex hormones
(ACTH) (estrogen in women and testosterone in
men) and the production of eggs in
women and sperm in men.
Pituitary gland Growth hormone (GH) Affects growth and development;
stimulates protein production; affects fat
distribution
Pituitary gland Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Controls production of sex hormones
follicle-stimulating hormone (estrogen in women and testosterone in
(FSH) men) and the production of eggs in
women and sperm in men
Pituitary gland Oxytocin Stimulates contraction of uterus and milk
ducts in the breast
Pituitary gland Prolactin Initiates and maintains milk production in
breasts; impacts sex hormone levels
Pituitary gland Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the production and secretion
(TSH) of thyroid hormones
Kidneys Renin and angiotensin Controls blood pressure, both directly and
also by regulating aldosterone
production from the adrenal glands
Kidneys Erythropoietin Affects red blood cell (RBC) production
Pancreas Glucagon Raises blood sugar levels
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood sugar levels; stimulates
metabolism of glucose, protein, and fat
Ovaries Estrogen Affects development of female sexual
characteristics and reproductive
development, important for functioning
of uterus and breasts; also protects bone
health

Ovaries Progesterone Stimulates the lining of the uterus for
fertilization; prepares the breasts for milk
production
Parathyroid glands Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Most important regulator of blood
calcium levels
Thyroid gland Thyroid hormone Controls metabolism; also affects growth,
maturation, nervous system activity, and
metabolism
Adrenal glands Epinephrine Increases heart rate, oxygen intake, and
blood flow
Adrenal glands Norepinephrine Maintains blood pressure
Testes (testicles) Testosterone Develop and maintain male sexual
characteristics and maturation
Pineal gland Melatonin Releases melatonin during night hours to
help with sleep
Hypothalamus Growth hormone releasing Regulates growth hormone release in the
hormone (GHRH) pituitary gland
Hypothalamus Thyrotropin releasing hormone Regulates thyroid stimulating hormone
(TRH) release in the pituitary gland
Hypothalamus Gonadotropin releasing Regulates LH/FSH production in the
hormone (GnRH) pituitary gland
Hypothalamus Corticotropin releasing Regulates adrenocorticotropin release in
hormone (CRH) the pituitary gland
Thymus Humoral factors Helps develop the lymphoid system
Conditions that can affect the endocrine system

Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism happens when your thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than
necessary. This can be caused by a range of things, including autoimmune conditions.
Some common symptoms of hyperthyroidism include:

 fatigue
 nervousness
 weight loss
 diarrhea
 issues tolerating heat
 fast heart rate
 trouble sleeping
Treatment depends on how severe the condition is, as well as its underlying cause. Options
include medications, radioiodine therapy, or surgery.
- Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder and common form of hyperthyroidism. In people

with Graves disease, the immune system attacks the thyroid, which causes it to produce more
thyroid hormone than normal.

Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism occurs when your thyroid doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone. Like
hyperthyroidism, it has many potential causes.
Some common symptoms of hypothyroidism include:

 fatigue
 weight gain
 constipation
 issues tolerating the cold
 dry skin and hair
 slow heart rate
 irregular periods
 fertility issues
Treatment of hypothyroidism involves supplementing your thyroid hormone with medication.
Cushing syndrome
Cushing syndrome happens due to high levels of the hormone cortisol.
Common symptoms of Cushing syndrome include:
 weight gain
 fatty deposits in the face, midsection, or shoulders
 stretch marks, particularly on the arms, thighs, and abdomen
 slow healing of cuts, scrapes, and insect bites
 thin skin that bruises easily
 decreased sex drive and fertility in males
Treatment depends on the cause of the condition and can include medications, radiation
therapy, or surgery.
Addison disease
Addison disease happens when your adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol or
aldosterone. Some symptoms of Addison disease include:
 fatigue
 weight loss
 abdominal pain
 low blood sugar
 nausea or vomiting
 diarrhea
 irritability
 a craving for salt or salty foods
Treatment of Addison disease involves taking medications that help to replace the hormones
that your body isn’t producing enough of.

Diabetes
Diabetes refers to a condition in which your blood sugar levels aren’t regulated properly.
People with diabetes have too much glucose in their blood (high blood sugar). There are
two types of diabetes: type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes.
Some common symptoms of diabetes include:
 fatigue
 weight loss
 increased hunger or thirst
 frequent urge to urinate
 irritability
 frequent infections
Treatment for diabetes can include blood sugar monitoring, insulin therapy, and medications.
Lifestyle changes, such as getting regular exercise and eating a balanced diet, can also help.
Enrichment
1. Why has the pituitary gland often been called the master gland?
2. How does the secretion of adrenaline prepare the body for emergencies?
3. Compare the action of polypeptide hormones and steroid hormones. Present in tabular
form.
Refences
The Endocrine System: Function, Organs, Hormones, and ...
www.healthline.com › health › the-endocrine-system
https://www.healthline.com/health/the-endocrine-system
Introduction to the Endocrine System - SEER Training

training.seer.cancer.gov › anatomy › endocrine
https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/endocrine/
Link
The Endocrine System, Overview, Animation

YouTubewww.youtube.com › watch
Intro to the endocrine system (video) | Khan Academy

www.khanacademy.org › science › hs-human-body-systems

Lesson 2: Cardiovascular System
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the primary functions of blood;
2. Describe the formation of the formed element components of blood;
3. Identify and describe the interior and exterior parts of the human heart;
4. Describe the path of blood through the cardiac circuits;
5. Describe the size, shape, and location of the heart.
Discussion
Cardiovascular System (Heart)
Cardiovascular system - the transport

system of the body.
Three main components:

1. heart- is the system's pump; the key
organ in the circulatory system
2. blood vessel - are like the delivery
routes
3. blood - which contains the oxygen
and nutrients the body needs and carries
the wastes which need to be removed
Function and Location of the Heart

The heart's job is to pump blood around
the body. The heart is located in between
the two lungs. It lies left of the middle of the
chest.
Structure of the Heart

The heart is a muscle about the size of a fist, and is roughly cone-shaped.
- a hollow, muscular pump, its main function is to propel blood throughout the body.
- It usually beats from 60 to 100 times per minute, but can go much faster when it
needs to.
- The heart gets messages from the body that tell it when to pump more or less blood
depending on a person's needs. When we're sleeping, it pumps just enough to provide for
the lower amounts of oxygen needed by our bodies at rest. When we're exercising or
frightened, the heart pumps faster to get more oxygen to our bodies.

Parts:
1. Pericardium - is a fibrous covering which wraps around the whole heart. It holds the
heart in place but allows it to move as it beats.
2. Myocardium- the major portion of the heart composed of muscles that provide the
contractile force that pumps blood.
3. Endocardium - lines the inner chambers of the myocardium composed of specialized
tissues that form the inner lining of the heart, blood and lymph vessel.
4. Septum - divides the heart into four chambers
Chambers of the Heart
The heart has four chambers that are enclosed by thick, muscular walls. It lies between the
lungs and just to the left of the middle of the chest cavity.
- The bottom part of the heart is divided into two chambers called the right and left
ventricles, which pump blood out of the heart. A wall called the interventricular septum
divides the ventricles.
- The upper part of the heart is made up of the other two chambers of the heart, called
the right and left atria. The right and left atria receive the blood entering the heart. A wall
called the interatrial septum divides the atria, and they're separated from the ventricles by
the atrioventricular valves. The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right
ventricle, and the mitral valve separates the left atrium and the left ventricle.
- Two other heart valves separate the ventricles and the large blood vessels that carry
blood leaving the heart. These valves are called the pulmonic valve, which separates the
right ventricle from the pulmonary artery leading to the lungs, and the aortic valve, which
separates the left ventricle from the aorta, the body's largest blood vessel.
Blood Vessels
A. Arteries - Blood vessels carrying blood away from the heart. They are the thickest blood
vessels, with muscular walls that contract to keep the blood moving away from the heart
and through the body.
- In the systemic circulation, oxygen-rich blood is pumped from the heart into the
aorta. This huge artery curves up and back from the left ventricle, then heads down in
front of the spinal column into the abdomen.
- Two coronary arteries branch off at the beginning of the aorta and divide into a
network of smaller arteries that provide oxygen and nourishment to the muscles of the
heart.
- The body's other main artery, the pulmonary artery, carries oxygen-poor blood. From
the right ventricle, the pulmonary artery divides into right and left branches, on the way
to the lungs where blood picks up oxygen.

Arterial walls have three layers:
1. endothelium is on the inside and provides a smooth lining for blood to flow over as it
moves through the artery.
2. media is the middle part of the artery, made up of a layer of muscle and elastic
tissue.
3. adventitia is the tough covering that protects the outside of the artery.
As they get farther from the heart, the arteries branch out into arterioles, which are
smaller and less flexible.
-The arteries expand and constrict with each heartbeat, the rhythmic movement is felt and
is felt as pulse.
B. Veins - Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart. They are not as muscular as
arteries, but they contain valves that prevent blood from flowing backward.
- Veins have the same three layers that arteries do, but they are thinner and less flexible.
The two largest veins are the superior and inferior vena cavae. The terms superior and
inferior mean that they are located above (superior) and below (inferior) the heart.
C. Capillaries - connects the arteries and veins. Even though they're tiny, the capillaries
are one of the most important parts of the circulatory system because it is through them
that nutrients and oxygen are delivered to the cells. In addition, waste products such as
carbon dioxide are also removed by the capillaries.
Valves - are fibrous flaps of tissue found between the heart chambers and in the blood
vessels. They are rather like gates which prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction.
- Valves between the atria and ventricles are known as the right and left atrioventricular
valves, known as the tricuspid and mitral valves respectively.
- Valves between the ventricles and the great arteries are known as the semilunar valves.
- The aortic valve is found at the base of the aorta, while the pulmonary valve is found the
base of the pulmonary trunk. There are also many valves found in veins throughout the
body. However, there are no valves found in any of the other arteries besides the aorta and
pulmonary trunk.
Blood
- Blood is the fluid in the body that transports oxygen and
nutrients to all parts of the body. It also carries carbon
dioxide to the lungs for excretion.
- the volume of blood in a regular adult person is about 7-
8% of his total body weight.
- Blood volume may fluctuate in certain conditions:
a. it decreases when one is engaged in heavy activities
b. a pregnant woman has more blood compared to a
woman who is not pregnant. A pregnant woman needs more blood to support the
fetus in her womb with oxygen and nutrients.

Parts of the Blood:
1. Plasma - clear, yellowish fluid that carries oxygen and nutrients throughout the body. It also
picks up waste
materials from the body and delivers it to part of the body responsible for excretion.
- composed of water with small amounts of minerals, glucose, fats, amino acids, hormones,
enzymes, dissolved gases and proteins
- made up of albumin, globulin and clotting factors
Albumin - regulates the water content of blood and tissues
Globulin - is an antibody that helps protect the body against invading bacteria and virus.
Blood factor - causes blood to clot to heal wound (fibrinogen)
2. Red Blood Cell (erythrocyte) - biconcave disc which is greenish yellow in color due to
hemoglobin it gives a reddish color
- can be separated from the corpuscles by hemolysis leaving the corpuscles colorless called
stroma or ghost
- function as carrier of oxygen (oxyhemoglobin) used in the different processes occurring in
cells.
- its shape and flexible plasma membrane allow the erythrocyte to penetrate the smallest of
capillaries.
- has antigens known as recognition markers on its surface.
- Blood type A has only A marker on its surface.
- Blood type B has only B marker,
- blood type AB with markers A and B,
- but blood type O has none of these recognition markers on its surface. This is the
reason why blood type O is the universal donor but can only accept blood type O.
3. White Blood Cell (leucocyte) - colorless cells with a true nucleus and
cytoplasm, more or less amoeboid.
Types:
a. Agranular WBC - granules are absent in the cytoplasm
1. Lymphocyte - specialized white blood cells whose function is to
identify and destroy invading organisms such as bacteria and viruses.
- some T lymphocytes directly destroy invading organisms, whereas
others regulate the immune system by directing immune
responses.
2. Monocytes - cells have a larger cytoplasm with the nucleus oval or kidney shaped
b. Granular WBC - granules are present in the cytoplasm
1. Acidophilic - nucleus with two oval lobes connected by a thin chromatin threads
2. Basophilic - nucleus elongated and often bent in the form of an S with constriction
3. Heterophilic or Neutrophilic - possesses a lobulated nucleus which stains with both
acid and basic dyes.

Functions of WBC:
1. Phagocytosis - exhibited by heterophilic granulocytes when they eat up foreign bodies like
bacteria, they are therefore important in the immune reactions of the body.
2. Chemotaxis - causes migration of the leucocytes into the tissue toward the site of the local
injury.
3. Active movement - explains why leucocytes are found everywhere in connective tissues
C. Platelets (thrombocyte) - small, colorless corpuscles whose shapes vary from round, oval to
biconcave disc
- functions for blood clotting:

a. compounds which they absorb stimulate contraction
of injured vessels to prevent loss of blood
b. their agglutination at the site of injury (adhesiveness)
c. participation in the formation of thromboplastin
which is important in the process
Blood clotting process:

1. platelets come in contact with damaged cells - injury
2. platelets form a clump, adhering to each other and to
the blood vessel wall
- platelets produce thromboplastin which converts the
plasmaprotein prothrombin into thrombin with the
participation of calcium ions
3. they secrete chemicals that alter a blood-borne

protein, fibrinogen, so that it forms fibrin, that forms a
mesh of fibers at the damage site.
4. a fluid called serum is squeezed out and hardened preventing the flow of blood
- a clot forms when platelets,RBC, and WBC become trapped in the fibers

BLOOD TYPING
- classifies the kind of antigen and antibodies present in the blood
ANTIBODIES - are complex proteins produced by the immune system that acts as a defense
against the antigen
ANTIGEN- foreign substances that may cause the production of specific antibodies.
- the introduction of antigen into the body causes the immune system to produce antibodies
that will fight back the antigen.
- the reaction involved in antigen-antibody is called agglutination - the clumping together of
blood cells
- clumped blood cells plug blood vessels which can lead to sudden death
- The antigen is the part of the cell recognition system that helps the body recognize self and
non-self. When the recognition system identifies what is non-self, it will stimulate the immune
response to produce antibodies. The antibodies will agglutinate the antigen.
- People with blood type A can donate receive blood from donors with blood type A only
- People with blood type B can receive blood from donors with blood type B
- if a patient is given blood that is not of his blood type, the donated blood will agglutinate
the blood of the patient. A condition that is fatal and will result to sudden death.
BLOOD TRANSFUSION - the transfer of blood from a donor into the bloodstream of a recipient.
- people with hepatitis, heart problem, high blood pressure, sexually transmitted diseases are
not allowed to donate blood.
- blood transfusion are collected in plastic bags with preservative and are properly labeled
with the following information: blood type, date of collection, expiration date and other
important data.
- donated blood is matched with the blood of the patient before it is given to the patient.
What Do the Heart and Circulatory System Do?

Functions:
1. The circulatory system works closely with other systems in our bodies. It supplies oxygen and
nutrients to our bodies by working with the respiratory system.
2. The circulatory system helps carry waste and carbon dioxide out of the body.
3. Hormones — produced by the endocrine system — are also transported through the blood
in our circulatory system.
As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one
set of cells to another.
4. It is also responsible for maintaining the optimal internal homeostasis of the body and the
critical regulation of body temperature and pH.

Internally, the cardiovascular system is regulated by three main pathways.
1. Autoregulation of the cardiovascular system is the normal means by which the body
regulates heart rate. If blood flow is slowed or occluded to an organ or tissue, the body works
on its own to correct it over the course of a few minutes. If autoregulation is unsuccessful, two
other pathways take over.
2. Hormone secretion into the blood stream occurs to make long-term changes in circulation
like shunting of blood to high-priority tissues, breaking up of emboli or stimulation of blood cell
development.
3. Neural integration and receptors play an active part in short-term cardiovascular
changes.
- Baroreceptors detect changes in arterial and venous pressures.
- Chemoreceptors detect changes in blood chemistry---things like pH and oxygen
saturation.
All internal mechanisms of cardiovascular regulation act in response to external stimuli.
Heartbeat
- A healthy heart makes a "lub-dub" sound with each beat.
Cardiac cycle - is the sequence of events that occurs in one complete beat of the heart. -
The pumping phase of the cycle, also known as systole, occurs when heart muscle contracts.
The filling phase, which is known as diastole, occurs when heart muscle relaxes.
- The process is made up of two phases:

 In the first phase, the ventricles contract (systole), sending blood into the pulmonary and
systemic circulation. To prevent the flow of blood backwards into the atria during systole,
the atrioventricular valves close, creating the first ("lub") sound.
 When the ventricles finish contracting, the aortic and pulmonic valves close to prevent
blood from flowing back into the ventricles. This is what creates the second sound (the
"dub").
 Then the ventricles relax (diastole) and fill with blood from the atria, which makes up the
second phase of the cardiac cycle.
 A unique electrical system in the heart causes it to beat in its regular rhythm. The sinoatrial
or SA node, a small area of tissue in the wall of the right atrium, sends out an electrical signal
to start the contracting of the heart muscle. These electrical impulses cause the atria to
contract first; they then travel down to the atrioventricular or AV node, which acts as a kind
of relay station. From here the electrical signal travels through the right and left ventricles,
causing them to contract and force blood out into the major arteries.
- Pressure is exerted on the walls of the arteries as blood flows through it. The pressure exerted
varies during the different phases of the cardiac cycle. It is higher during systole and lower
during diastole.

Sphygmomanometer - instrument that records pressure in millimeters of mercury
Normal blood pressure - 120/80

Hypertension - a prolonged and constant increase in blood pressure
- Blood pressure varies with the distance from the heart. It is highest in the pulmonary arteries
and decreases as blood flow farther from the heart.
Two kinds of Circulation

1. Systemic circulation - the picking up of oxygen to be delivered to all parts of the body
except to the lungs.
 blood travels out of the left ventricle, to the aorta, to every organ and tissue in the
body, and then back to the right atrium. Once in the arteries, blood flows to smaller
arterioles and then to capillaries.
 The main arteries which branch off the aorta and take blood to specific parts of the
body are:
Carotid arteries, which take blood to the neck and head
Coronary arteries, which provide blood supply to the heart itself
Hepatic artery, which takes blood to the liver with branches going to the
stomach
Mesenteric artery, which takes blood to the intestines
Renal arteries, which takes blood to the kidneys
Femoral arteries, which take blood to the legs
 While in the capillaries, the bloodstream delivers oxygen and nutrients to the
body's cells and picks up waste materials. Blood then goes back through the
capillaries into venules, and then to larger veins until it reaches the vena cavae.
 Blood from the head and arms returns to the heart through the superior vena
cava, and blood from the lower parts of the body returns through the inferior
vena cava. Both vena cavae deliver this oxygen-depleted blood into the right
atrium. From here the blood exits to fill the right ventricle, ready to be pumped
into the pulmonary circulation for more oxygen
2. Pulmonary circulation - the process of removing carbon dioxide collected by the
blood as it delivers nutrients and other substances to all parts of the body.
 blood low in oxygen but high in carbon dioxide is pumped out the right ventricle
into the pulmonary artery, which branches off in two directions. The right branch
goes to the right lung, and vice versa. In the lungs, the branches divide further into
capillaries. Blood flows more slowly through these tiny vessels, allowing time for
gases to be exchanged between the capillary walls and the millions of alveoli -
the tiny air sacs in the lung.
 During the process called oxygenation - oxygen is taken up by the bloodstream.
Oxygen locks onto a molecule called hemoglobin in the red blood cells. The
newly oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins and
heads back to the heart. It enters the heart in the left atrium, then fills the left
ventricle so it can be pumped into the systemic circulation.



 The body is then able to use the oxygen in the blood to carry out its normal
functions. This blood will again return back to the heart through the veins and the
cycle continues.
Components of the Heartbeat

- The adult heart beats around 70 to 80 times a minute at rest.
- Stethoscope-instrument use to hear the heart beat.
- The sound is usually described as "lubb-dupp". The "lubb" also known as the first heart
sound, is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves. The "dupp" sound is due to
the closure of the semilunar valves when the ventricles relax.
- Abnormal heart sounds are known as murmurs. Murmurs may indicate a problem with
the heart valves, but many types of murmur are no cause for concern.
- The rate and strength of the heart rhythm is controlled by external factors such as neural
signal and hormonal action. The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems
control the rate and strength of heart rhythm. The parasympathetic nervous system
releases acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter into the heart. It slows down the heartbeat.
The sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine, causes the heartbeat to
speed up.
The Electrocardiogram
Pacemaker - the small group of muscle cells in the heart that has an inbuilt rhythm of
contraction and relaxation.
- The pacemaker generates an electrical impulse which spreads over the atria,
making them contract.
- This impulse then spreads to the ventricles, causing them to contract.

Electrocardiograph - an instrument that can detect the electrical changes that spread
through the heart at the surface of the body.
- Electrodes are placed in a number of positions over the chest and the electrical
changes are recorded on moving graph paper as an electrocardiogram (ECG).
Effects of Aging on the Heart in Men and Women
As a part of the normal aging process a number of changes occur to the cardiovascular
system.
- Our heart rate slows down because the time between heartbeats increases as we
age. This is one of the main reasons why the heart is unable to pump out more blood
during exercise
- The amount of blood the heart pumps each minute can change as we age. It
decreases slightly in older women. However, it does not change in healthy older men
who have no heart disease. The reason for the difference between the sexes is not fully
understood.
- As we age, our blood pressure falls much more on standing from the sitting position
compared to when we are younger. This phenomenon is known as postural hypotension.
This explains why elderly people are more likely to feel dizzy or to fall when they stand up
quickly from a resting position.
Cardiac Diseases:
1. Congenital heart defects. Congenital heart defects are heart problems that babies have
at birth. Congenital heart defects occur while a baby is developing in the mother's uterus.
Doctors don't always know why congenital heart defects occur — some congenital heart
defects are caused by genetic disorders, but most are not. A common sign of a congenital
heart defect is a heart murmur. A heart murmur is an abnormal sound (like a blowing or
whooshing sound) that's heard when listening to the heart.
2. Arrhythmia. Cardiac arrhythmias, which are also called dysrhythmias or rhythm disorders,
are problems in the rhythm of the heartbeat. Arrhythmias may be caused by a congenital
heart defect or a person may develop this condition later. An arrhythmia may cause the
heart's rhythm to be irregular, abnormally fast, or abnormally slow. Arrhythmias can happen
at any age and may be discovered when a teen has a checkup.
3. Cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathy - is a long-lasting disease that causes the

heart muscle (the myocardium) to become weakened. Usually, the disease first
affects the lower chambers of the heart, the ventricles, and then progresses and
damages the muscle cells and even the tissues surrounding the heart. Some kids
and teens with cardiomyopathy may receive heart transplants to treat their
condition.

4. Coronary artery disease. Coronary artery disease is the most common heart
disorder in adults, and it's caused by atherosclerosis. Deposits of fat, calcium, and
dead cells form on the inner walls and clog up the body's arteries — in this case,
the coronary arteries (the blood vessels that supply the heart) — and get in the
way of the smooth flow of blood. A clot of blood may even form, which can lead
to a heart attack. Heart attacks are very rare in kids and teens.
5. Hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol). Cholesterol is a waxy substance that is found in

the body's cells, in the blood, and in some of the foods we eat. Having too much cholesterol
in the blood, also known as hypercholesterolemia or hyperlipidemia, is a major risk factor for
heart disease and can lead to a heart attack.
6. Hypertension (high blood pressure). Hypertension is when a person has blood pressure
that's significantly higher than normal. Over time, it can cause damage to the heart and
arteries and other body organs. Teens can have high blood pressure, which may be
caused by genetic factors, excess body weight, diet, lack of exercise, and diseases such
as heart disease or kidney disease.
7. Rheumatic heart disease. Teens who have had strep throat infection may develop
rheumatic fever. This type of infection can cause permanent heart problems, mostly in kids
and teens between 5 and 15 years of age. People who've had strep throat and received
antibiotics right away are unlikely to develop this problem.
Prevention: Getting plenty of exercise, eating a nutritious diet, maintaining a healthy

weight, and seeing your doctor regularly for medical checkups are the best ways to help
keep the heart healthy and avoid long-term problems like high blood pressure, high
cholesterol, and heart disease.
Environmental Effects
Factors:
1. Exposures to drugs
2. chemicals
3. biological agents
4. therapeutic radiation
5. nutritional deficiencies/lifestyle
6. Smoking
7. temperature
These factors may affect the:

1. heart structure
2. the conduction system
3. the myocardium
4. blood pressure
5. cholesterol metabolism

Developmental periods before and after birth are associated with different types of risks.
- The embryonic period is the critical window of vulnerability for congenital
malformations.
- The fetal period seems to have lifelong effects on coronary heart disease and its
precursors.
- During the weeks immediately after birth, susceptibility to myocardial damage seems
to be high.
Exposure to cancer chemotherapy or radiotherapy in childhood raises the risk of long-
term progressive
left ventricular dysfunction and other cardiovascular problems.
- In childhood and adolescence, use of recreational drugs such as cocaine and
tobacco poses cardiovascular dangers as well.
Summary of the Lesson:

 The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, which is a muscular
pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins,
and capillaries.
 The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis
depends on the continuous and controlled movement of blood through
the thousands of miles of capillaries that permeate every tissue and
reach every cell in the body.
 The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to
circulate the blood to all the tissues in the body.
 Three layers of the heart are: the epicardium, the myocardium, and the
endocardium.
 The four chambers of the heart are: the right atrium, the right ventricle,
the left atrium, and the left ventricle.
 Two types of valves of the heart are the atrioventricular valves and
semilunar valves.
 Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle and then is pumped
to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left
atrium, then to the left ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic
circulation.
 Specialized cardiac muscle cells that make up the conduction system of
the heart coordinate contraction of the chambers.
 The pulmonary vessels transport blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
and back tothe left atrium.
 The systemic vessels carry blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all
parts of the body and then returns the blood to the right atrium.

 Substances pass through the capillary wall by diffusion, filtration, and
osmosis.
Assessment
Identification: Write the correct answer on a short bond paper.
1. The hollow, muscular, saclike organ that is about the size of a clenched fist.
2. It is the transport system of the body.
3. The fibrous covering which wraps around the heart.
4. The partition that divides the heart into left and right halves.
5. The wall that divides the ventricles.
6. The valve that separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.
7. The body's largest blood vessel.
8. They are the thickest blood vessels, with muscular walls that contract to
keep the blood moving away from the heart and through the body.
9. Three layers of the arterial wall (9-11)
12. The part of blood that is clear, yellowish fluid that carries oxygen and
nutrients throughout the body.
13. Specialized white blood cells whose function is to identify and destroy
invading organisms such as bacteria and viruses.
14. Kinds of granular WBC (14-16)
17. The function of WBC where leucocytes migrate into the tissue toward the
site of local injury.
18. Part of the blood that stimulate contraction of injured vessels to prevent loss
of blood.
19. These are complex proteins produced by the immune system that acts as a
defense against the antigen.
20. Diseases present in a donor that is a cause of rejection to donate blood
(20-23)
24. The sequence of events that occurs in one complete beat of the heart.
25. The instrument that records blood pressure.
26. A prolonged and constant increase in blood pressure.
27. A kind of circulation where carbon dioxide is removed and collected by
blood as it delivers nutrients and other substances to all parts of the body.
28. The main arteries which branch off the aorta and their corresponding parts of the
body (28-33)
34. The pumping phase of the cardiac cycle.
35. Instrument use to hear the heartbeat.
36. The small group of muscle cells in the heart that has an inbuilt rhythm of
contraction and relaxation.

37. An instrument that can detect the electrical changes that spread through the
heart at the surface of the body.
38. Cardiac disease where the heart's rhythm is irregular.
39. A condition of having too much cholesterol in the blood.
40. Environmental factors that affects the heart (40-46)
47. A condition where the heart is unable to cope with its work load of pumping
blood to the lungs and the rest of the body.
48. The normal blood pressure value
49. An abnormal sound that is heard when listening to the heart.
50. A type of circulation that involves the picking up of oxygen to be delivered to all
parts of the body except to the lungs.
Enrichment
1. Why does proper exercise promote good circulation?

2. What are the three important proteins of Blood Plasma and what are the
functions?
3. Differentiate Low Density Lipoprotein(LDL) from High Density Lipoprotein(HDL)
and discuss their role in increase blood pressure.
References
Circulatory System Anatomy, Diagram & Function | Healthlinewww.healthline.com ›

human-body-maps › circulatory..
https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/circulatory-system#1
The circulatory system review (article) | Khan Academy

www.khanacademy.org › hs-human-body-systems › hs.
Link
Circulatory System and Pathway of Blood Through the Heart ..

www.youtube.com › watch
Circulatory System | Biology for Majors II - Lumen Learning

courses.lumenlearning.com › wm-biology2 › chapter › ci..

Lesson 3: Lymphatic System
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the structure and function of the lymphatic tissue (lymph fluid,
vessels, ducts,and organs).
2. Describe the structure and function of the primary and secondary lymphatic organs.
3. Discuss the cells of the immune system, how they function, and their relationship
with thelymphatic system.
Discussion
- The lymphatic system is associated with the immune system to such a degree that the
two systems are virtually indistinguishable.
- The immune system is the complex collection of cells and organs that destroys or
neutralizes pathogens that would otherwise cause disease or de
- The lymphatic system is the system of vessels, cells, and organs that carries excess fluids
to the bloodstream and filters pathogens from the blood. The swelling of lymph nodes
during an infection and the transport of lymphocytes via the lymphatic vessels are but
two examples of the many connections between these critical organ systems.
Functions
The lymphatic system has three main functions:
 It maintains the balance of fluid between the blood and tissues, known as
fluid homeostasis.
 It forms part of the body’s immune system and helps defend against
bacteria and other intruders.
 It facilitates absorption of fats and fat-soluble nutrients in the digestive
system.
- The system has special small vessels called lacteals. These enable it to absorb
fats and fat-soluble nutrients from the gut.
Explanation of the functions
1. It returns excess interstitial fluid tothe blood.

- They work with the blood capillaries in the folded surface membrane of the small
intestine. The blood capillaries absorb other nutrients directly into the bloodstream.
- The lymphatic system drains excess fluids into the blood stream. Blood pressure
causes leakage of fluid from the capillaries, resulting in the accumulation of
fluid in the interstitial space—that is, spaces between individual cells in the
tissues.

- In humans, 20 liters of plasma is released into the interstitial space of the tissues
each day due to capillary filtration. Once this filtrate is out of the bloodstream and
in the tissue spaces, it is referred to as interstitial fluid. Of this, 17 liters is reabsorbed
directly by the blood vessels.
- But what happens to the remaining three liters? This is where the lymphatic system
comes into play. It drains the excess fluid and empties it back into the bloodstream
via a series of vessels, trunks, and ducts.
- Lymph is the term used to describe interstitial fluid once it has entered the
lymphatic system. When the lymphatic system is damaged in some way, such as
by being blocked by cancer cells or destroyed by injury, protein-rich interstitial fluid
accumulates in the tissue spaces. Small protein molecules may "leak" through
the capillary wall and increase the osmotic pressure of the interstitial
fluid. This further inhibits the return of fluid into the capillaries, and fluid tends
to accumulate in the tissue spaces. If this continues, blood volume and blood
pressure decrease significantly and the volume of tissue fluid increases, which
results in edema (swelling).
- Cells of the immune system not only use lymphatic vessels to make their way
from interstitial spaces back into the circulation, but they also use lymph nodes as
major staging areas for the development of critical immune responses. A lymph
node is one of the small, bean-shaped organs located throughout the lymphatic
system.
2. The absorption of fats and fat- soluble vitamins from the digestive system and
the subsequent transport of these substances to the venous circulation.
- The mucosa that lines the small intestine is covered with fingerlike projections called villi.
There are blood capillaries and special lymph capillaries, called lacteals, in the
center of each villus.
The blood capillaries absorb most nutrients, but the fats and fat-soluble vitamins are
absorbed by the lacteals. The lymph in the lacteals has a milky appearance due to its
high fat content and is called chyle.
2. Defense against invading microorganisms and disease. Lymph nodes and other
lymphatic organs filter the lymph to remove microorganisms and other foreign
particles. Lymphatic organs contain lymphocytes that destroy invading
organisms.

Components of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system consists of many parts. These include:

 Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains
from cells and tissues (that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances.
The other substances include proteins, minerals, fats, nutrients, damaged cells, cancer
cells and foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, etc). Lymph also transports infection-fighting
white blood cells (lymphocytes).
 Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and cleanse the
lymph as it filters through them. The nodes filter out the damaged cells and cancer cells.
These lymph nodes also produce and store lymphocytes and other immune system cells
that attack and destroy bacteria and other harmful substances in the fluid.
 You have about 600 lymph nodes scattered throughout your body. Some exist as a single
node; others are closely connected groups called chains. A few of the more familiar
locations of lymph nodes are in your armpit, groin and neck. Lymph nodes are
connected to others by the lymphatic vessels.
 Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the network of capillaries (microvessels) and
large network of tubes located throughout the body that transport lymph away from
tissues. Lymphatic vessels collect and filter lymph (at the nodes) as it continues to move
toward larger vessels called collecting ducts.

 These vessels operate very much like your veins do: they work under very low pressure,
have a series of valves in them to keep the fluid moving in one direction.
 Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic duct and
left lymphatic duct (also called the thoracic duct). These ducts connect to the
subclavian vein, which returns lymph to your bloodstream. The subclavian vein runs below
your collarbone. Returning lymph to the bloodstream helps to maintain normal blood
volume and pressure. It also prevents the excess buildup of fluid around the tissues (called
edema).
The lymphatic system collects excess fluid that

drains from cells and tissue throughout the body
and returns it to the bloodstream, which is then
recirculated through the body.
 Spleen: This largest lymphatic organ is
located on your left side under your ribs and
above your stomach. The spleen filters and
stores blood and produces white blood cells
that fight infection or disease.
 Thymus: This organ is located in the upper
chest beneath the breast bone. It matures a
specific type of white blood cell that fights off
foreign organisms.
 Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid organs
trap pathogens from the food you eat and air
you breathe. They are your body’s first line of
defense against foreign invaders.
 Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy tissue in
the center of certain bones, such as the hip
bone and breastbone. White blood cells, red
blood cells, and platelets are made in the bone marrow.
 Peyer’s patches: These are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous membrane
that lines your small intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy bacteria in the
intestines.
 Appendix: Your appendix contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it
breaches the intestine wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the appendix plays
a role in housing “good bacteria” and repopulating our gut with good bacteria after an
infection has cleared.
What conditions affect the lymphatic system?

Many conditions can affect the vessels, glands, and organs that make up the
lymphatic system.

Some happen during development before birth or during childhood. Others develop
as a result of disease or injury.
Some common and less common diseases and disorders of the lymphatic system
include:
 Enlarged (swollen) lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy): Enlarged lymph nodes are
caused by infection, inflammation or cancer. Common infections that can cause
enlarged lymph nodes include strep throat, mononucleosis, HIV infection and infected
skin wounds. Lymphadenitis refers to lymphadenopathy that is caused from an infection
or inflammatory condition.
 Swelling or accumulation of fluid (lymphedema): Lymphedema can result from a
blockage in the lymphatic system caused by scar tissue from damaged lymph vessels
or nodes. Lymphedema is also often seen when lymph nodes are removed in persons
who have had surgery and/or radiation to remove a cancer. The buildup of lymphatic
fluid is most commonly seen in the arms and legs. Lymphedema can be very mild or be
quite painful, disfiguring and disabling. People with lymphedema are at risk for serious
and potentially life-threatening deep skin infections.
 Cancers of the lymphatic system: Lymphoma is cancer of the lymph nodes and occurs
when lymphocytes grow and multiply uncontrollably. There are several different types
of lymphoma, including Hodgkin’s lymphoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
Cancerous tumors can also block lymphatic ducts or be near lymph nodes and
interfere with the flow of lymph through the node.
Other disorders include:

 Lymphangitis: This is an inflammation of the lymph vessels.
 Lymphangioma: This is a condition that you are born with. It’s a malformation in the
lymphatic system.
 Lymphangiomatosis is the presence of multiple or widespread lymphatic vascular
malformations.
 Intestinal lymphangiectasia: This is a condition in which loss of lymph tissue in the small
intestine leads to loss of protein, gammaglobulins, albumin and lymphocytes.
 Lymphocytosis: This is a condition in which there is a higher-than-normal amount of
lymphocytes in the body.
 Lymphatic filariasis: This is an infection caused by a parasite that causes the lymphatic
system not to function correctly.
 Castleman disease: Castleman disease involves an overgrowth of cells in the body’s
lymphatic system.
 Lymphangioleiomyomatosis: This is a rare lung disease in which abnormal muscle-like
cells begin to grow out of control in the lungs, lymph nodes and kidneys.
 Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome: This is a rare genetic disorder in which there
is a high number of lymphocytes in the lymph nodes, liver and spleen.
 Mesenteric lymphadenitis: This is an inflammation of the lymph nodes in the abdomen.
 Tonsillitis: This is an inflammation and infection of the tonsils

How can I keep my lymphatic system healthy?
To keep your lymphatic system strong and healthy, you should:
 Avoid exposure to toxic chemicals like those in pesticides or cleaning products.
These chemicals can build up in your system and make it harder for your body to
filter waste.
 Drink plenty of water to stay hydrated so lymph can easily move throughout the
body.
 Maintain a healthy lifestyle that includes regular exercise and a healthy diet
Summary
 The lymphatic system returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood, absorbs fats and fat-
soluble vitamins, and provides defense against disease.
 Lymph is the fluid in the lymphatic vessels. It is picked up from the interstitial fluid and
returned to the blood plasma.
 Lymphatic vessels carry fluid away from the tissues.
 The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of the body and
the thoracic duct drains all the rest.
 Pressure gradients that move fluid through the lymphatic vessels come from the skeletal
muscle action, respiratory movements, and contraction of smooth muscle in vessel
walls.
 Lymph enters a lymph node through afferent vessels, filters through the sinuses, and
leaves through efferent vessels.
 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue associated with openings into the pharynx and
provide protection against pathogens that may enter through the nose and mouth.
 The spleen is a lymph organ that filters blood and also acts as a reservoir for blood.
 The thymus is large in the infant and atrophies after puberty.
Enrichment
1. In what ways does fever help the body fight infection?
2. Compare specific and non-specific defenses. Present in tabular form.
3. Why should people wash breaks in the skin with antiseptics?
References
Lymphatic system: Definition, anatomy, function, and diseases
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/303087
Lymphatic System: Parts & Common Problems

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21199-lymphatic-system
Suggested Link:
Lymphatic System tutorial
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QD9AdNXSQe4

Lesson 4: Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and specialized cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different parts of the body. It is essentially the body's electrical
wiring. Structurally, the nervous system has two components: the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system.
Lesson Objectives:
1. Name the major divisions of the nervous system, both anatomical and functional
2. Distinguish the major functions of the nervous system: sensation, integration, and
response
3. Discuss the functions of the brain and the spinal cord.
4. Discuss the parts and major functions of the different senses of the body.
Discussion
Functions
1. The major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body.

2. It is the center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory.
3. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for
regulating and maintaining homeostasis.
4. its receptors, the nervous system keeps us in touch with our environment,
both external and internal.
Parts of the nervous system

Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Ganglia
Functions according to the type of activities:

 Sensory
 Integrative
 Motor
1. Sensory - Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called stimuli, which occur
inside and outside the body. They monitor such things as temperature, light, and
sound from the external environment.
- Inside the body, the internal environment, receptors detect variations in
pressure, pH, carbon dioxide concentration, and the levels of various electrolytes. All of
this gathered information is called sensory input.

2. Integration - Sensory input is converted into electrical signals called nerve impulses that are
transmitted to the brain. There the signals are brought together to create sensations, to
produce thoughts, or to add to memory; Decisions are made each moment based on the
sensory input. This is integration.
3. Motor - Based on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system responds by sending
signals to muscles, causing them to contract, or to glands, causing them to produce secretions.
Muscles and glands are called effectors because they cause an effect in response to
directions from the nervous system. This is the motor output or motor function.
Nerve Tissue
Two main types:

1. Actual nerve cell - neuron
- It is the "conducting" cell that transmits impulses and the structural unit of the
nervous system.
2. Neuroglia or glial cell
- These cells are nonconductive and provide a support system for the neurons. They
are a special type of "connective tissue" for the nervous system.
Neurons
Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the functions of the nervous system by conducting nerve
impulses. They are highly specialized and amitotic. This means that if a neuron is destroyed, it
cannot be replaced because neurons do not go through mitosis.
Each neuron has three basic parts: cell body (soma), one or more dendrites, and a
single axon.

A. Cell Body - It has a nucleus with at least one nucleolus and contains many of the typical
cytoplasmic organelles.
- It lacks centrioles - because centrioles function in cell division, they are amitotic in nature.
B. Dendrites - cytoplasmic extensions, or processes, that project from the cell body. They are
sometimes referred to as fibers.
- Dendrites are usually, short and branching, which increases their surface area to receive
signals from other neurons.
- They are called afferent processes because they transmit impulses to the neuron cell body.
There is only one axon that projects from each cell body. It is usually elongated and because
it carries impulses away from the cell body, it is called an efferent process.
C. Axon
- Axons and axon collaterals (infrequent branches of the axon) terminate in many
short branches or telodendria.
The distal ends of the telodendria are slightly enlarged to form synaptic bulbs. Many axons
are surrounded by a segmented, white, fatty substance called myelin or the myelin
sheath.
- Myelinated fibers make up the white matter in the CNS, while cell bodies and
unmyelinated fibers make the gray matter.
- The unmyelinated regions between the myelin segments are called the nodes of
Ranvier.
- In the PNS, the myelin is produced by Schwann cells.

- The cytoplasm, nucleus, and outer cell membrane of the Schwann cell form a tight
covering around the myelin and around the axon itself at the nodes of Ranvier. This
covering is the neurilemma, which plays an important role in the regeneration of nerve
fibers.
- In the CNS, oligodendrocytes produce myelin, but there is no neurilemma, which is why
fibers within the CNS do not regenerate.
Types of Neurons according to the direction in which they transmit impulses relative to
the central nervous system.
- Afferent, or sensory neurons - carry impulses from peripheral sense receptors to the CNS.
They usually have long dendrites and relatively short axons.
- Efferent, or motor neurons - transmit impulses from the CNS to effector organs such as
muscles and glands. Efferent neurons usually have short dendrites and long axons.
- Interneurons, or association neurons - are located entirely within the CNS in which they
form the connecting link between the afferent and efferent neurons. They have short
dendrites and may have either a short or long axon.

Neuroglia
Neuroglia cells do not conduct nerve impulses, but

instead, they support, nourish, and protect the
neurons. They are far more numerous than neurons
and, unlike neurons, are capable of mitosis.
Organization of the Nervous System
2 Subdivisions of the Nervous Syste,

1. Central nervous system (CNS)
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The Central Nervous System

- The brain and spinal cord are the organs of the central nervous system. Because they are
so vitally important, the brain and spinal cord, located in the dorsal body cavity, are
encased in bone for protection.
- The brain is in the cranial vault, and the spinal cord is in the vertebral canal of
the vertebral column. Although considered to be two separate organs, the brain and spinal
cord are continuous at the foramen magnum.
Functions
1. Coordination and Movement
- The primary function of the central nervous system is integration and coordination. The
CNS receives input from a variety of different sources, and implements an appropriate
response to the stimuli, in a cohesive manner.
Ex. A similar process of receiving complex stimuli and generating a coordinated response is
required for vastly varied activities – whether it is balancing a bicycle, maintaining a
conversation or mounting an immune response.
2. Thought and Processing
- The CNS, especially the brain, is considered the physical seat for most higher-order mental
functions. Neuronal connections form the basis for thought and retention of memory. The
brain plays an important role in the development of speech, language, and
communication. These tasks involve an association of abstract symbols and sounds with
concrete objects and emotions. Motivation, ambition, reward, and satisfaction are also
mediated through neuronal connections in the CNS.

- the limbic system of the brain also controls the most basic emotions and drives,
such as pleasure, fear, anger, hunger, thirst, sleepiness and sexual desire. In
addition, involuntary reflexes are mediated by the spinal cord, providing
protection and quickly preventing injury.
- The CNS directly or indirectly influences nearly every internal organ system,
whether related to respiration, digestion, excretion, circulation or reproduction.
Central Nervous System Parts
Meninges - membranous coverings that provide mechanical support and protection to
the central nervous system. These meninges are called pia mater, arachnoid mater
and dura mater. Pia mater is the layer closest to the nervous tissue and dura mater lies
next to the bone.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - produced in the four ventricular cavities of the brain, flows
between the pia mater and arachnoid mater, providing protection from pathogens and
mechanical support to the entire central nervous system. Special glial cells called ependymal
cells produce CSF.
The Brain
The brain is made of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem.
The Cerebrum
The cerebrum consists of two large

hemispheres demarcated by a thick
band of nerve fibers called the corpus
callosum.
Each of the hemispheres can be divided into four

lobes.
Frontal - higher levels of cognition
Parietal - somatosensory input
Temporal - auditory stimuli
Occipital lobes - visual stimuli

- The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex and this is usually
pinkish grey in color and contains neural cell bodies.
- It can be divided on the basis of function into sensory, motor and association
areas
- Sensory cortex receives sensory

input from the body as well as
from specialized sense organs.
- Motor areas are involved in

the control and execution of
voluntary motor activities.
- Association areas are

necessary for perception,
abstract thinking, and
associating new sensory input
with memory.
The Cerebellum
- The cerebellum is smaller than the cerebrum, is made
of two lobes, and is located behind the brain stem. It is
involved in the coordination of different muscle groups to
produce smooth movement, controlling posture and
balance.
- The
neurons of the inner ear associated with

balance relay their information to the
cerebellum, which also receives auditory
and visual input.
The Brainstem
The brainstem is made of three parts – the
midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
- The medulla controls most involuntary actions
- the midbrain and pons are associated with sensory functions, excitation, and motivation.
- The brain stem connects the brain with the spinal cord.

The diencephalon
- is made up of four main components: the thalamus, the subthalamus, the
hypothalamus, and the epithalamus.
 The hypothalamus is an integral part of the endocrine system, with the key function of linking
the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
 The thalamus is critically involved in a number of functions including relaying sensory and motor
signals to the cerebral cortex and regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
 The epithalamus functions as a connection between the limbic system to other parts of the
brain. Some functions of its components include the secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland
(involved in circadian rhythms) and regulation of motor pathways and emotions
Thalamus and Hypothalamus

- The hypothalamus is a small but important area in the center of the brain. It plays an
important role in hormone production and helps to stimulate many important processes in
the body and is located in the brain, between the pituitary gland and thalamus.
- The hypothalamus’ main role is to keep the body in homeostasis as much as possible.
- Homeostasis means a healthful, balanced bodily state. The body is always trying to achieve
this balance. Feelings of hunger, for example, are the brain’s way of letting its owner know
that they need more nutrients to achieve homeostasis.
- The hypothalamus acts as the connector between the endocrine and nervous systems to
achieve this. It plays a part in many essential
functions of the body such as:
 body temperature
 thirst
 appetite and weight control
 emotions
 sleep cycles
 sex drive
 childbirth
 blood pressure and heart rate
 production of digestive juices
 balancing bodily fluids
Thalamus
- The thalamus is a small structure within the brain located just above the brain stem
between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain and has extensive nerve connections to
both. The primary function of the thalamus is to relay motor and sensory signals to the
cerebral cortex.

- The thalamus is a mostly gray matter structure of the diencephalon that has many essential
roles in human physiology. The thalamus is composed of different nuclei that each serve a
unique role, ranging from relaying sensory and motor signals, as
well as regulation of consciousness and alertness.
The Spinal Cord

- The spinal cord is about 17 inches in length, tapering along the
length of the vertebral column in humans, beginning near
the occipital bone and ending at the lumbar region of the spine.
- It connects the brain with most parts of the body while also
containing independent neural networks for pattern generation and for executing reflexes.
- It can be divided into 31 segments, each giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves.
Spinal nerves - carry both sensory and motor signals between the body and the spinalcord. The
central part of the spinal cord consists of an H-shaped grey column containing the cell bodies of
spinal cord neurons. The myelinated axons of these neurons form the white matter.
The spinal cord has two main functions:
 Serving as a conduction pathway for impulses going to and from the brain. Sensory impulses
travel to the brain on ascending tracts in the cord. Motor impulses travel on descending tracts.
 Serving as a reflex center. The reflex arc is the functional unit of the nervous system. Reflexes
are responses to stimuli that do not require conscious thought and consequently, they occur
more quickly than reactions that require thought processes. For example, with the withdrawal
reflex, the reflex action withdraws the affected part before you are aware of the pain. Many
reflexes are mediated in the spinal cord without going to the higher brain centers.
The Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)

- The PNS consists of the nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord. These
nerves form the communication network between the CNS and the body parts.
Subdivisions of the PNS

 Afferent (sensory) division - transmits impulses from peripheral organs to the CNS
 Efferent (motor) division - transmits impulses from the CNS out to the peripheral organs
to cause an effect or action
 Subdivisions of the efferent division
- The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that go to the skin and
muscles and is involved in conscious activities.
- The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the CNS to
the visceral organs such as the heart, stomach, and intestines. It mediates
unconscious activities.
- It is further subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions.
Structure of a Nerve
A nerve - contains bundles of nerve fibers, either axons or dendrites, surrounded by

connective tissue.
Sensory nerves contain only afferent fibers, long dendrites

of sensory neurons.
Motor nerves have only efferent fibers, long axons of
motor neurons.
Mixed nerves contain both types of fibers.
Parts:
1. Epineurium - a connective tissue sheath that surrounds
each nerve.
2. Fasciculus - bundle of nerve fibers
3. Perineurium – a layer of connective tissue that surrounds
the fasciculus.
4. Endoneurium – a connective tissue,within the fasciculus of
each individual nerve fiber, with its myelin and neurilemma.
5. A nerve may also have blood vessels enclosed in its
connective tissue wrappings.
Somatic Nervous System
- The somatic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for
carrying motor and sensory information both to and from the central nervous system (CNS).
This system is made up of nerves that connect to the skin, sensory organs, and all skeletal
muscles.
Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the inferior surface of the brain. All of these nerves,
except the vagus nerve, pass through foramina of the skull to innervate structures in the head,
neck, and facial region.
Most of the nerves have both sensory and motor components.
- Three of the nerves are associated with the special senses of smell, vision, hearing, and
equilibrium and have only sensory fibers.
- Five other nerves are primarily motor in function but do have some sensory fibers for
proprioception.
- Four nerves consist of significant amounts of both sensory and motor fibers.

Spinal Nerves
Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge laterally from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves
corresponds to a segment of the cord and they are named accordingly.
- This means there are 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves,
and 1 coccygeal nerve.
- Each spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a ventral root. The
cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in the dorsal root ganglion, but the motor neuron cell
bodies are in the gray matter. The two roots join to form the spinal nerve just before the nerve
leaves the vertebral column. Because all spinal nerves have both sensory and motor
components, they are all mixed nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system - is a visceral efferent system, which means it sends motor
impulses to the visceral organs. It functions automatically and continuously, without conscious
effort, to innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
- It is concerned with heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and
other visceral activities that work together to maintain homeostasis.
The autonomic nervous system has two parts:

- the sympathetic division
- The parasympathetic division.
- one stimulates and the other inhibits. This antagonistic functional relationship serves as a
balance to help maintain homeostasis.

Assessment
1. The term central nervous system refers to the
A) autonomic and peripheral nervous systems.
B) brain, spinal cord, and cranial nerves.
C) brain and cranial nerves.
D) spinal cord and spinal nerves.
E) brain and spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system consists of
A) spinal nerves only. D) the brain and spinal cord.
B) the brain only. E) the spinal and cranial nerves.
C) cranial nerves only.
3. Which of these cells are not a type of neuroglia found in the CNS?
A) astrocytes D) ependymal cells
B) microglia E) oligodendrocytes
C) Schwann cells
4. The Schwann cells form a myelin sheath around the
A) dendrites. D) axon.
B) cell body. E) nodes of Ranvier.
C) nucleus.
5. The neuron processes that normally receives incoming stimuli are called
A) axons. D) Schwann cells.
B) dendrites. E) satellite cells.
C) neurolemmas.
6. Collections of nerve cell bodies inside the PNS are called
A) ganglia. D) nuclei.
B) tracts. E) tracts or ganglia.
C) nerves.
7. Which of the following best describes the waxy-appearing material called myelin?
A) An outermembrane on a neuroglial cell.
B) A lipid-protein (lipoprotein) cell membrane on the outside of axons.
C) a mass of white lipid material that surrounds the cell body of a neuron.
D) a mass of white lipid material that insulates the axon of a neuron.
E) a mass of white lipid material that surrounds the dendrites of a neuron.
8. A neuron with a cell body located in the CNS whose primary function is connecting other
neurons is called a(n)
A) efferent neuron. D) glial cell.
B) afferent neuron. E) satellite cell.
C) interneuron.
9. White matter refers to myelinated fibers in the
A) CNS. B) PNS. C) ANS. D) SNS . E) both ANS and SNS.
10. Impulse conduction is fastest in neurons that are
A) myelinated. D) motor.
B) unmyelinated. E) cerebral.
C) sensory

11. Sally has a brain injury; she knows what she wants to say but can’t vocalize the words.
The part of her brain that deals with the ability to speak is the
A) longitudinal fissure. D) Broca’s area.
B) gyrus. E) primary motor control.
C) central sulcus.
12. The midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata are housed in the
A) diencephalon. D) pineal gland.
B) hypothalamus. E) cerebellum.
C) brain stem.
13. It is the lobe that contains the primary motor area that enables voluntary control of
skeletal muscle movements.
A) parietal lobe D) frontal lobe
B) temporal lobe E) diencephalon
C) occipital lobe
14. Afferent nerves are called ______, and motor nerves are called ______.
A) motor nerves; sensory nerves
B) peripheral nerves; cranial nerves
C) mixed nerves; motor nerves
D) sensory nerves; efferent nerves
E) cranial nerves; peripheral nerves
15. The area of the brain stem that plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep
cycle is the
A) thalamus. D) limbic system.
B) reticular activating system (RAS). E) cerebellum.
C) pineal gland.
16. Control of temperature, endocrine activity, metabolism, and thirst are functions
associated with the
A) medulla oblongata. D) thalamus.
B) cerebellum. E) cerebrum.
C) hypothalamus.
17. The vital centers for the control of visceral activities such as heart rate, breathing, blood
pressure, swallowing, and vomiting are located in the
A) pons. D) cerebrum.
B) medulla oblongata. E) hypothalamus.
C) midbrain.
18. Loss of muscle coordination results from damage to the
A) cerebrum. D) thalamus.
B) hypothalamus. E) midbrain.
C) cerebellum.
19. Preparing the body for “fight-or-flight” response during threatening situations is the
role of the
A) sympathetic nervous system. D) somatic nervous system.
B) cerebrum. E) afferent nervous system.
C) parasympathetic nervous system.

20. The CNS consists of the
A) somatic system and the autonomic system.
B) brain and the spinal cord.
C) cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla.
D) spinal cord and the peripheral nerves.
Enrichment
A. Explain why the cerebrum is more developed in human than it is in any other vertebrate?
B. Identification. Please write "SNS" if the given bodily function is operated by the
sympatheticnervous system and "PNS" if the given bodily function is operated by the
parasympathetic nervous system. Place the answer on a short bond paper.
1. Constricts the pupil of the eyes.
2. Increases salivation.
3. Decreases the heart rate.
4. Activates the digestive tract movement.
5. Decreases blood flow.
6. Dilates the pupils and allows light in.
7. Decreases salivation.
8. Increases heart rate.
9. Increases flow of air in the lungs.
10. Increases blood flow to bodily organs.
C. Make a table consisting of the 12 Cranial Nerves, its name and specific
functions. Please also categorize on the table whether it is sensory, motor or both.
References
Introduction to the Nervous System

https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/
Nervous System Overview - Visible Body

https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/nervous/system-overview
Central Nervous System: Definition, Function, Parts | Biology ...

https://biologydictionary.net/central-nervous-system/#the-spinal-cord
Link
The Nervous System In 9 Minutes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44B0ms3XPKUink

Lesson 5: Reproductive System
Lesson Objectives
1. Describe the functions and importance of the reproductive system.
2. Compare sexual development in males and females.
3. Identify the structures of the male and female reproductive system.
Discussion:
The reproductive system of an organism, also known as the genital system, is the
biological system made up of all the anatomical organs involved in sexual reproduction.
Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important
accessories to the reproductive system.
Functions
The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Other
systems in the body, such as the endocrine and urinary systems, work continuously to maintain
homeostasis for survival of the individual. An individual may live a long, healthy, andhappy
life without producing offspring, but if the species is to continue, at least someindividuals must
produce offspring.
The reproductive system has four functions:

 To produce egg and sperm cells
 To transport and sustain these cells
 To nurture the developing offspring
 To produce hormones
Divisions of the Reproductive Organs
1. The primary reproductive organs - gonads, consist of the ovaries and testes. These organs
are responsible for producing the egg and sperm cells gametes), and hormones. These
hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive system, the development of sexual
characteristics, and regulation of the normal physiology of the reproductive system.
2. All other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductive system are considered secondary,
or accessory,reproductive organs. These structures transport and sustain the gametes and
nurture the developing offspring.

Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system, consists

of:
- a pair of testes
- a network of excretory ducts

(epididymis, ductus deferens (vas
deferens), and ejaculatory ducts),
- seminal vesicles,
- the prostate,
- the bulbourethral glands,
Testes
The male gonads, testes or testicles, begin their

development high in the abdominal cavity,
near the kidneys. During the last two months
before birth, or shortly after birth, they descend
through the inguinal canal into the scrotum, a
pouch that extends below the abdomen,
posterior to the penis.
- The scrotum - consists of skin and

subcutaneous tissue. A vertical septum, or
partition, of subcutaneous tissue in the
center divides it into two parts, each
containing one testis. Smooth muscle fibers,
called the dartos muscle, in the
subcutaneous tissue contract to give the scrotum its wrinkled appearance. When these
fibers are relaxed, the scrotum is smooth. Another muscle, the cremaster muscle, consists
of skeletalmuscle fibers and controls the position of the scrotum and testes. When it is cold
or a man is sexually aroused, this muscle contracts to pull the testes closer to the body for
warmth.

- The testes - is outside the abdominal cavity, it provides a temperature about 3° C below
normal body temperature. This lower temperature is necessary for the production of viable
sperm.
- A tough, white fibrous connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea, surrounds each testis
and extends inward to form septa that partition the organ into lobules. There are about 250
lobules in each testis.
- Each lobule contains 1 to 4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules that converge to form a single
straight tubule, which leads into the rete testis. Short efferent ducts exit the testes. Interstitial
cells (cells of Leydig), which produce male sex hormones, are located between the
seminiferous tubules within a lobule.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm are produced by spermatogenesis within the seminiferous tubules. A transverse
section of a seminiferous tubule shows that it is packed with cells in various stages of
development. Interspersed with these cells, there are large cells that extend from the
periphery of the tubuleto the lumen. These large cells are the supporting, or sustentacular
cells (Sertoli's cells), which support and nourish the other cells.
Spermatogenesis - is the process of the production of sperms from the immature male germ cells. It
starts at puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death, although a slight decrease in the
quantity of sperm is seen with increase in age.
Process of Spermatogenesis:
1. The spermatogonia (2N) present at the inner

side of the seminiferous tubules multiply by
mitotic divisions and increase in number.
2. They stop undergoing mitosis, grow and

become primary spermatocytes (2N).
3. Each primary spermatocyte undergoes

meiosis to form two equal haploid secondary
spermatocytes(N).
4. Each secondary spermatocyte then

undergoes second meiotic division to form four
equal haploid cells called spermatids (N).
5. Spermatids receive nourishment to form sperms by the process called

spermiogenesis.

Duct System
Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts to reach the outside of the body. After they
leave the testes, the sperm passes through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory
duct, and urethra.
Epididymis
- Sperm leave the testes through a series of efferent ducts that enter the epididymis. Each
epididymis is a long (about 6 meters) tube that is tightly coiled to form a comma-
shaped organ located along the superior and posterior margins of the testes. When the
sperm leave the testes, they are immature and incapable of fertilizing ova. They
complete their maturation process and become fertile as they move through the
epididymis. Mature sperm are stored in the lower portion, or tail, of the epididymis.
Ductus Deferens (Vas deferens)

- The ductus deferens, also called vas deferens - is a fibromuscular tube that is
continuous ( or contiguous) with the epididymis. It begins at the bottom (tail) of the
epididymis then turns sharply upward along the posterior margin of the testes.
- The ductus deferens entersthe abdominopelvic cavity through the inguinal canal
and passes along the lateral pelvic wall. It crosses over the ureter and posterior portion
of the urinary bladder, and then descendsalong the posterior wall of the bladder toward
the prostate gland. Just before it reaches the prostate gland, each ductus deferens
enlarges to form an ampulla. Sperm are stored in the proximal portion of the ductus
deferens, near the epididymis, and peristaltic movements propel the sperm through the
tube.
- The proximal portion of the ductus deferens is a component of the spermatic cord,
which contains vascular and neural structures that supply the testes. The spermatic cord
contains the ductus deferens, testicular artery and veins, lymph vessels, testicular
nerve, cremaster muscle that elevates the testes for warmth and at times of
sexual stimulation, anda connective tissue covering.
Ejaculatory Duct
Each ductus deferens, at the ampulla, joins the duct from the adjacent seminal vesicle
(one of the accessory glands) to form a short ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct
passes through the prostate gland and empties into the urethra.

Urethra
The urethra extends from the urinary bladder to
the external urethral orifice at the tip of the penis.
It is a passageway for sperm and fluids from the
reproductive system and urine from the urinary
system. While reproductive fluids are passing
through the urethra, sphincters contract tightly to
keep urine from entering the urethra.
- The male urethra is divided into three regions:
1. Prostatic urethra - is the proximal portion that
passes through the prostate gland. It receives the
ejaculatory duct, which contains sperm and
secretions from the seminal vesicles, and
numerous ducts from the prostate glands.
2. Membranous urethra - is a short region that

passes through the pelvic floor.
3. Penile urethra (also called spongy urethra or

cavernous urethra) -The longest portion, which
extends the length of the penis and opens to the
outside at the external urethral orifice. The ducts from the bulbourethral glands open into
the penile urethra.
Accessory Glands
The accessory glands of the male reproductive system are the seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, and the bulbourethral glands. These glands secrete fluids that enter the urethra.
Seminal Vesicles
The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder.
Each gland has a short duct that joins with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form
an ejaculatory duct, which then empties into the urethra.
The fluid from the seminal vesicles isviscous and contains:
 fructose, which provides an energy source for the sperm;
 prostaglandins,which contribute to the mobility and viability of the sperm; and
 proteins that cause slight coagulation reactions in the semen after ejaculation.

Prostate
The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the urinary
bladder. It is about the size of a walnut and encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary
bladder. Numerous short ducts from the substance of the prostate gland empty into
the prostatic urethra. The secretions of the prostate are thin, milky colored, and alkaline.
They function to enhance the motility of the sperm.
Bulbourethral Glands
The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are small, about the size of a pea, and
located near the base of the penis. A short duct from each gland enters the proximal
end of the penileurethra.
In response to sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline mucus-
like fluid. This fluid neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra, helps to
neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and provides some lubrication for the tip of the
penis during intercourse.
Seminal Fluid
Seminal fluid, or semen, is a slightly alkaline mixture of sperm cells and secretions from
theaccessory glands. Secretions from the seminal vesicles make up about 60 percent of
the volume of the semen, with most of the remainder coming from the prostate gland. The
spermand secretions from the bulbourethral gland contribute only a small volume.
The volume of semen in a single ejaculation may vary from 1.5 to 6.0 ml. There are usually
between 50 to 150 million sperm per milliliter of semen. Sperm counts below 10 to 20 million per
milliliter usually present fertility problems. Although only one sperm actually penetrates and
fertilizes the ovum, it takes several million sperm in an ejaculation to ensure that fertilization will
take place.
Penis
The penis, the male copulatory organ, is a cylindrical pendant organ located anterior
to the scrotum and functions to transfer sperm to the vagina. The penis consists of three
columnsof erectile tissue that are wrapped in connective tissue and covered with skin.
The two dorsal columns are the corpora cavernosa. The single, midline ventral column
surrounds the urethra and is called the corpus spongiosum.

Parts: a root, body (shaft), and glans penis
- The root of the penis attaches it to the pubic arch,
- the body is the visible, pendant portion.
- The corpus spongiosum expands at the distal end to form the glans penis. The urethra, which
extends throughout the length of the corpus spongiosum, opens through the external
urethral orifice at the tip of the glans penis. Aloose fold of skin, called the prepuce, or
foreskin, covers the glans penis.
Male Sexual Response and Hormonal Control

The male sexual response includes erection and orgasm accompanied by ejaculation
of semen. Orgasm is followed by a variable time period during which it is not possible to
achieve another erection.
Three hormones are the principle regulators of the male reproductive system:
 follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates spermatogenesis;
 luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates theproduction of testosterone; and
 testosterone stimulates the development of male secondarysex characteristics and
spermatogenesis.
Female Reproductive System

Functions
 produce and sustain the female sex cells (eggcells or ova),
 transport these cells to a site where they may be fertilized by sperm,
 provide a favorable environment for the developing fetus,
 move the fetus to the outside at the end of the development period, and
 produce the female sex hormones.
The female reproductive system includes : the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
glands, and external genital organs.

Ovaries
The primary female reproductive organs, or gonads, are the two ovaries. Each ovary is a solid,
ovoid structure about the size and shape of an almond, about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide,
and 1 cm thick. The ovaries are located in shallow depressions, called ovarian fossae, one on
each side of the uterus, in the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity. They are held loosely in place
by peritoneal ligaments.
Structure
The ovaries are covered on the outside by a layer of simple cuboidal epithelium called
germinal (ovarian) epithelium. This is actually the visceral peritoneum that envelops the
ovaries. Underneath this layer is a dense connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea.
- The substance of the ovaries is distinctly divided into an outer cortex and an
inner medulla.
 The cortex appears more dense and granular due to the presence of
numerous ovarian follicles in various stages of development. Each of the
follicles contains an oocyte, a female germ cell.
 The medulla is a loose connective tissue with abundant blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers.

Oogenesis
Oogenesis - is the process of formation of female gametes. This process begins inside the
fetus before birth. The steps in oogenesis up to the production of primary oocytes occur
before birth. Primary oocytes do not divide further. They either become secondary oocytes
or degenerate.
Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. Oogenesis starts with a germ cell
called oogonium and undergoes mitosis to increase in number. The process of oogenesis
takes place in the following three stages:
 Pre-natal
 Antral
 Pre-ovulatory
Process of Oogenesis
The process of oogenesis is completed in the following three stages:
1. Pre-natal Stage
The primary oocyte grows while being arrested in meiosis-I. The follicular cells proliferate and
form a stratified cuboidal epithelium. Such cells are known as granulosa cells. These cells
secrete glycoproteins to form zona pellucida around the primary oocyte.
2. Antral Stage
The fluid-filled area, present between granulosa cells, combines to form a central fluid-filled
space called the antrum. These are known as secondary follicles. In every month cycle,
these secondary follicles develop under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone.
3. Pre-Ovulatory Stage
This stage is induced by LH surge, and meiosis-I completes here. Two haploid cells of unequal
sizes are formed within the follicle. One of the daughter cells that receive less cytoplasm forms
a polar body. This cell does not participate in ovum formation. The other daughter cell is
known as the secondary oocyte. The two daughter cells undergo meiosis-II. The polar body
replicates to form two polar bodies, while the secondary oocyte arrests in the metaphase
stage of meiosis-II.

Ovulation
Ovulation is the release of an egg from your ovary, into your fallopian tube. It typically
happens about 13–15 days before the start of each period. Like your period, the timing
of ovulation can vary cycle-to-cycle, and you may have the odd cycle where you
don't ovulate at all.
Development of oocyte takes place in ovaries. Every oocyte is neighbored by follicle
cells to form a follicle.
As the menstrual cycle starts, primary oocytes initiate to grow bigger, and follicle cells
rise in number, causing the follicle to grow larger too.
Normally, some nurturing oocytes degenerate and leave just one follicle to mature.
Here, fraternal twins may be born, which are distinct genetically.
When a follicle attains maturity, the primary oocyte finishes its primary meiotic division
and becomes secondary oocyte. Soon after, the follicle breaks and secondary
oocyte is liberated in the fallopian tube even when the second meiotic division has
not happened. This release of a secondary oocyte from ovaries is known as ovulation.

Fertilization
Human fertilization is the union of
a human egg and sperm, occurring
in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.
The result of this union, leads to the
production of a zygote cell,
or fertilized egg, initiating prenatal
development.
The process of fertilization involves a
sperm fusing with an ovum.
Meiosis-II is completed on
fertilization. This gives off a third
polar body. If the fertilization does
not occur, the oocyte degenerates
24 hours after ovulation while
remaining arrested in meiosis-II cell
division.
The major difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis is that oogenesis
begins in the fetus prior to birth.

Genital Tract
Fallopian Tube
- There are two uterine tubes, also called Fallopian tubes or oviducts. There is
one tube associated with each ovary. The end of the tube near the ovary
expands to form a funnel- shaped infundibulum, which is surrounded by fingerlike
extensions called fimbriae.
- Because there is no direct connection between the infundibulum and the
ovary, the oocyte enters the peritoneal cavity before it enters the Fallopian tube.
- At the time of ovulation, the fimbriaeincrease their activity and create currents
in the peritoneal fluid that help propel the oocyte into the Fallopian tube.
- Once inside the Fallopian tube, the oocyte is moved along by the rhythmic
beating of cilia on the epithelial lining and by peristaltic action of the smooth
muscle in the wall of the tube.
- The journey through the Fallopian tube takes about 7 days. Because the oocyte
is fertile for only 24 to 48 hours, fertilization usually occurs in the Fallopian tube.
Uterus
The uterus is a muscular organ
that receives the fertilized
oocyte and provides an
appropriateenvironment for the
developing fetus. Before the first
pregnancy, the uterus is about
the size
and shape of a pear, with the narrow
portion directed inferiorly. After
childbirth, the uterus isusually larger,
then regresses after menopause.
The uterus is lined with the

endometrium. The stratum
functionale of the endometrium
slough off during menstruation.
The deeper stratum basale
provides the foundation for
rebuilding the stratum
functionale.

Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular tube, about 10 cm long, that extends from the cervix of
the uterus to the outside.
It is located between the rectum and the urinary bladder. Because the vagina is tilted
posteriorly as it ascends and the cervix is tilted anteriorly, the cervix projects intothe
vagina at nearly a right angle.
The vagina serves as a passageway for menstrual flow, receives the erect penis
during intercourse, and is the birth canal during childbirth.
External Genitalia
The external genitalia are the accessory structures of the femalereproductive system that
are external to the vagina. They are also referred to as the vulva or pudendum.
The externalgenitalia include: the labia majora, mons pubis, labia minora, clitoris, and
glands within the vestibule.
The external genital organs have three main functions:

 Enabling sperm to enter the body
 Protecting the internal genital organs from infectious organisms
 Providing sexual pleasure
The clitoris
- is an erectile organ, similar to the male penis, that responds to sexual stimulation.
Posterior to the clitoris, the urethra, vagina, para urethralglands and greater vestibular glands
open into the vestibule.
- located between the labia minora at their upper end, is a small protrusion that
corresponds to the penis in the male. The clitoris, like the penis, is very sensitive to sexual
stimulation and can become erect. Stimulating the clitoris can result in an orgasm.

Mons pubis is a rounded mound of fatty tissue that covers the pubic bone. During puberty, it becomes
covered with hair. The mons pubis contains oil-secreting (sebaceous) glands that release substances
that are involved in sexual attraction (pheromones).
Llabia majora (literally, large lips) are relatively large, fleshy folds of tissue that enclose and protect the
other external genital organs. They are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain
sweat and sebaceous glands, which produce lubricating secretions. During puberty, hair appears on
the labia majora.
Labia minora (literally, small lips) can be very small or up to 2 inches wide. The labia minora lie just
inside the labia majora and surround the openings to the vagina and urethra. A rich supply of blood
vessels gives the labia minora a pink color. During sexual stimulation, these blood vessels become
engorged with blood, causing the labia minora to swell and become more sensitive to stimulation.
- The area between the opening of the vagina and the anus, below the labia majora, is called the
perineum. It varies in length from almost 1 to more than 2 inches (2 to 5 centimeters).
- The labia majora and the perineum are covered with skin similar to that on the rest of the body. In
contrast, the labia minora are lined with a mucous membrane, whose surface is kept moist by fluid
secreted by specialized cells.
- The opening to the vagina is called the introitus. The vaginal opening is the entryway for the penis
during sexual intercourse and the exit for blood during menstruation and for the baby during birth.
- When stimulated, Bartholin glands (located beside the vaginal opening) secrete a thick fluid that
supplies lubrication for intercourse.
- The opening to the urethra, which carries urine from the bladder to the outside, is located above
and in front of the vaginal opening.
Female Sexual Response & Hormone Control

The female sexual response includes arousal and orgasm, but there is no ejaculation. A
woman may become pregnant without having an orgasm.
Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone have

major roles in regulating the functions of the female reproductive system.

- At puberty, when the ovaries and uterus are mature enough to respond to hormonal
stimulation, certain stimuli cause the hypothalamus to start secreting gonadotropin-
releasing hormone. This hormone enters the blood and goes to the anterior pituitary
gland where it stimulates the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone. These hormones, in turn, affect the ovaries and uterus and the monthly
cycles begin. A woman's reproductive cycles last from menarche to menopause.
- The monthly ovarian cycle begins with the follicle development during the follicular
phase, continues with ovulation during the ovulatory phase, and concludes with the
development and regression of the corpus luteum during the luteal phase.
- The uterine cycle takes place simultaneously with the ovarian cycle.
- The uterine cycle beginswith menstruation during the menstrual phase,
- continues with repair of the endometrium during the proliferative phase, and
- ends with the growth of glands and blood vessels during the secretory phase.
- Menopause occurs when a woman's reproductive cycles stop. This period is marked
by decreased levels of ovarian hormones and increased levels of pituitary follicle-
stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. The changing hormone levels are
responsible for the symptoms associated with menopause.
Mammary Glands
Functionally, the mammary glands produce milk;
structurally, they are modified sweat glands.Mammary
glands, which are located in the breast overlying the
pectoralis major muscles, arepresent in both sexes, but
usually are functional only in the female.
Externally, each breast has a raised nipple, which is

surrounded by a circular pigmented area called the
areola. The nipples are sensitive to touch, due to the
fact that they contain smooth muscle that contracts
and causes them to become erect in response to
stimulation.
Internally, the adult female breast contains 15 to 20 lobes of glandular tissue that radiate
around the nipple. The lobes are separated by connective tissue and adipose.
- Theconnective tissue helps support the breast. Some bands of connective tissue,
called suspensory (Cooper's) ligaments, extend through the breast from the skin to the
underlying muscles.

- The amount and distribution of the adipose tissue determines the size and shape of the
breast. Each lobe consists of lobules that contain the glandular units.
- A lactiferous duct collects the milk from the lobules within each lobe and carries it to the
nipple. Just before the nipple, the lactiferous duct enlarges to form a lactiferous sinus
(ampulla), which serves as a reservoir for milk. After the sinus, the duct again narrows and
each duct opens independently on the surface of the nipple.
- Mammary gland function is regulated by hormones.
- At puberty, increasing levels of estrogen stimulate the development of glandular

tissue in the female breast. Estrogen alsocauses the breast to increase in size
through the accumulation of adiposetissue.
- Progesterone stimulates the development of the duct system. During pregnancy,

thesehormones enhance further development of the mammary glands.
- Prolactin fromthe anterior pituitary stimulates the production of milk within the
glandular tissue, and
- oxytocin causes the ejection of milk from the glands.

Summary
The four functions of the reproductive system are:

o To produce egg and sperm cells
o To transport and sustain these cells
o To nurture the developing fetus
o To produce hormones
The primary reproductive organs are the gonads, which produce the gametes and
hormones. The secondary, or accessory, structures transport and sustain the gametes
and nurture the developing offspring.
The male reproductive system consists of the testes, duct system, accessory glands,
andpenis.
The male gonads are the testes. Their location within the scrotum is necessary for the
production of viable sperm.
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
accessory glands, and external genital organs.
The female gonads are the ovaries, which are located on each side of the uterus in
thepelvic cavity.
Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of glandular tissue and ducts
in the breast. Prolactin stimulates the production of milk, and oxytocin causes the
ejectionof milk.
Enrichment
1. Describe the changes that occur in males and females during puberty. What
hormones cause these changes? Present in tabular form.
2. Explain how the shape of the sperm cell helps its function.
3. Describe the phases of the menstrual cycle.
Suggested Links:
3D Anatomical tutorial of the Male Reproductive System.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1aFBOy6dDI
3D Anatomical tutorial of the Female Reproductive System.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_owp8kNMus


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Course Title: Anatomy and

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 1: Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Two general approaches to the study of the body’s structures:

1. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

2. appreciate the interrelationships of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves,

- Form is closely related to function in all living things.

4) Sports Medicine/Coaching - when working with students and athletes, it is important to

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

6) Biology/Chemistry/Anthropology - Those going on to study chemistry or biology can get

LESSON 2: The Levels of Organization and Functions of Life

-The simplest building blocks of matter: subatomic

- Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule,

- A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even

 A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

 An organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more

The Eleven Organ System of the Body

 The 11 Organ Systems

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 3: Functions of Human Life

Living things have a variety of common characteristics.

 Organization. Living things exhibit a high level of organization, with multicellular

- Homeostasis. Homeostasis is the maintenance

1. Sensor or receptor - detects changes in the internal

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

- Positive feedback is a mechanism in which an output is enhanced in order to maintain

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Negative feedback mechanisms reduce output or

- Regulation of blood pressure is an example of

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

- Multicellular organisms pass through a more complicated process of differentiation and

- exhibit internal growth or intussipation; they grow by development of new parts

 Metabolism (Energy acquisition and release)

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Catabolism is the process by which larger more

Anabolic reactions are building reactions, and they consume

 Responsiveness/Irritability - Detection and response to stimuli (both internal and

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 4: Requirements for Human Life

ENERGY-YIELDING and BODY-BUILDING NUTRIENTS - are primarily carbohydrates and

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

3. Narrow Range of Temperature

b. Shivering - which is random muscle movement that generates heat. Another

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

damage can be permanent and lead to gangrene, requiring amputation of the

4. Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

6. Gross anatomy includes all of the following except

9. Why do we need oxygen?

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology | Boundless Anatomy ...

Homeostasis and Feedback Loops/ Anatomy and Physiology 1

Lesson 5: Anatomical Terminology

Learning Module on Anatomy and Physiology

NAME: _______________ SECTION: _