Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Investigation on the heating performance of the heat pump with

waste heat recovery for the electric bus
Xinxin Han a, b, c, Huiming Zou a, *, Jiang Wu a, Changqing Tian a, c, Mingsheng Tang a,
Guangyan Huang a, c
a
Beijing Key Laboratory of Thermal Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Cryogenics, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, CAS, Beijing, 100190,
China
b
Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, Henan, China
c
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Efficient heating system is critical for electric vehicles to extend the driving range. In this paper, an air
Received 17 June 2019 source heat pump system with waste heat recovery (WHR) for the electric bus was proposed to improve
Received in revised form the heating performance. According to the experimental results of the prototype, it’s found that the
17 December 2019
pressure drop of waste heat exchanger (WHX) has great effects on the heating performance and the heat
Accepted 17 January 2020
exchanger is required to be optimized. The simulation model of this series system was developed and
Available online 20 January 2020
validated to study the heating performance of the series waste heat recovery system with low pressure
drop WHX. The simulation results showed that heat recovery can improve the heating performance at
Keywords:
Heat pump
the ambient temperature of
5  C. Compared with the vapor injection heat pump without WHR, the
Waste heat recovery heating capacity and COP of the heat pump at 2 kW waste heat were increased by 1.61% and 1.38%,
Vapor injection respectively. The improvements of heating capacity and COP at 6 kW waste heat were 5.12% and 2.56%,
Electric bus respectively. As the ambient temperature is lower than 0  C, the heating performance of heat pump
system with 2 kW waste heat is better than that of system without WHR. However, as the ambient
temperature rises, the heating performance of heat pump with WHR becomes worse.
© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction heat pump can significantly reduce the power consumption

Under the background of global warming and energy shortage,
electric vehicles (EVs) have attracted lots of attention. The cabin
heating is a big challenge for EVs because no waste heat from in-
ternal combustion engine can be used. Although electric heaters,
such as Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) heater, can be
applied for heating supply, its low efficiency dramatically reduces
the driving mileage in winter. Although Positive Temperature Co-
efficient (PTC) heater can be applied for cabin heating, its low ef-
ficiency reduces the driving mileage by 20%e60% in winter [ [1,2]].
Therefore, the efficient cabin heating solution is critical for
extending driving mileage.
Heat pumps used in EVs have become a hot research topic due to
their high efficiency. The studies on R134a heat pump for EVs were
conducted extensively [ [3e5]], and these studies indicated that a
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zouhuiming@mail.ipc.ac.cn (H. Zou).
compared with PTC heaters. Heat pumps using some other re-
frigerants were also studied. Wang [6] tested the heating perfor-
mance of a single-stage CO2 heat pump system with internal heat
exchanger for EVs. Wang’s experimental results suggested that the
coefficient of performance (COP) and heating capacity achieved
were 3.1 and 3.6 kW at
20  C indoor and outdoor temperatures,
respectively. The COP was 1.7 at
20  C outdoor temperature and
20  C indoor temperature. Yu [7] proposed a CO2
propane auto
cascade heat pump system for EVs, and his theoretical calculation
showed that the COP of transcritical auto cascade heat pump sys-
tem at 0.8 CO2 mass fraction was 2.7 and 12.3% higher than that of
CO2 single
stage heat pump at the ambient temperature of
20  C.
Liu [8] investigated the heating performance of an automobile heat
pump using low-GWP refrigerant R290, and the heating perfor-
mance of heat pump systems with different refrigerant were also
compared, including R290, R134a, R1234yf and CO2. Liu’s experi-
ments showed that R290 system had the best performance when
the ambient temperature was above
10  C, while the CO2 system

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.01.075
0960-1481/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
836 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

Nomenclature Subscripts
suc suction of compressor
inj injection of compressor
Symbols dis discharge of compressor
p pressure, pa eva evaporator
h enthalpy, kJ/kg c condenser
t temperature,  C v volume
m mass flow rate, g/s mec mechanical
Q heat transfer rate, kW mot motor
COP coefficient of performance i indicated power
v specific volume, m3/kg c input power
k polytropic exponent sec section
r refrigerant
Greek symbols a air
h efficiency
a convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2,K) Abbreviations
d thickness, m VI vapor injection
l thermal conductivity, W/(m,K) WHR waste heat recovery
D difference WHX waste heat exchanger
r density, kg/m3 EEV electronic expansion valve
g specific heat, kJ/(kg,K) IHX internal heat exchanger
TS thermal storage

had a little advantage when the ambient temperature was
20  C.
Zou [9] experimentally studied a heat pump with secondary fluid
circle using R1234yf as the refrigerant. It was found that the heating
performance of R1234yf system was very close to that of R134a
system and the heating capacity of the test system was decreased
by around 37.2% as ambient temperature dropped from 0  C
to
10  C.
Applying waste heat recovery (WHR) is a good method to
improve the heating performance for heat pumps in EVs. Ahn [10]
experimentally investigated the heating performance of a dual
source heat pump for electric vehicles at three different operation
modes: air source-only, waste heat-only and dual heat source. The
results showed that heat pumps in dual source mode had higher
heating performance than that of single source mode at the
ambient temperature of 0  C. An alternating single source mode
was proposed for low ambient temperature condition because little
heat was absorbed from air source in the dual source heat mode.
Tian [11] proposed an integrated thermal management system for
EVs, considering cabin thermal comfort, battery pack cooling and
electric motor cooling simultaneously. The heat exchanger of bat-
tery pack/electric motor circuit was connected to the evaporator of
heat pump in parallel. The cooling and heating performance of this
parallel system was investigated experimentally and numerically.
The heating COP of heat pump system was improved by 25.55%
with the increase in waste heat from 0 W to 1000 W and the driving
range was extended up to 31.71% compared with PTC heaters. Ahn
[12] proposed a dual source dehumidifying heat pump for EVs with
a waste heat exchanger connected to outdoor heat exchanger in
parallel. The experimental results indicated that the heating ca-
pacity and COP of dual source dehumidifying heat pump were
increased by 15.8% and 5.2%, respectively, compared with those of
air source dehumidifying heat pump.
Vapor injection (VI) is considered as a promising solution to
improve the heating performance of heat pump at low ambient
temperature [ [13e15]]. The studies on VI application for EVs were
carried out by some researchers. Jongho Jung et al. [16] developed a
simulation model of VI heat pump for EVs and the heating per-
formance was investigated. The COP of VI heat pump with single-
and dual-injection ports were 7.5% and 9.8% higher than that of
non-injection system at the ambient temperature of
10  C,
respectively. Qin et al. [17] experimentally studied the VI heat
pump for EVs at outdoor temperature of
20  C. The heating ca-
pacity of VI heat pump was increased by 28.6%, compared with the
traditional single-stage compression heat pump. Han [18] devel-
oped a VI heat pump using R410a refrigerant for an electric bus and
experimentally investigated the heating performance under
different working conditions. When the working temperature
conditions were
20  C/20  C and compressor speed was set to
85 Hz, the results showed that using a VI heat pump increased COP
to 1.6, which was a 14.5% increase compared to the no VI system.
In this paper, a heat pump combining waste heat recovery and
vapor injection for electric bus was proposed. The heating perfor-
mance of this system at different ambient temperatures and
different waste heat was investigated experimentally and
numerically.
2. System description and experimentation
2.1. System description
The heat pump system for waste heat recovery normally in-
cludes two types: series system and parallel system. The two sys-
tems can both increase the suction pressure and improve the
heating capacity, however, they have different characteristics.
Table 1 lists the comparison of the two systems. The series system
has only one evaporation branch and one EEV, and thus its control
is very simple. The parallel system has two evaporation branches
and two EEVs, and therefore the system and its control is relatively
complex. Moreover, energy loss occurs in the mixing process of the
two evaporation branches for the parallel system. The main
advantage of parallel system is that the WHX branch can be
adjusted independently and it can be closed if no waste heat can be
used. The WHX branch in series system can’t be closed unless there
is a bypass branch. From the point of view of pressure drop, the
parallel system exhibits better performance. The refrigerant flows
through two heat exchangers in series in the evaporation process,
which leads to the series system has a greater pressure drop. In the
low ambient temperature, the VI is normally used to enhance the
 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848
Table 1
The comparison between series and parallel system.
4-5 evaporation in evaporator
5-1 evaporation in WHX
Series system
It has one EEV (3e4)
Simple system and control
No mixing process and no energy loss
The refrigerant side branch of WHX can’t be closed
unless there is a bypass branch.
The pressure drop in the evaporation process is relatively large
The inlet quality of WHX is high
The system is compatible with the VI system
heating performance. The series system is easy to combine with the
VI system, whereas integration with the parallel system would be
more complex. Therefore, series system is more applicable for
heating in low temperatures and it is chosen in this paper.
2.2. Experimental set up
Fig. 1(a) shows the flowchart of the heat pump system with
WHR for electric bus proposed in this study. The system can operate
in cooling mode or heating mode by switching four-way reversing
valve. In cooling mode, the refrigerant in WHR absorbed the heat
from the battery pack to maintain an appropriate temperature
range, whereas in heating mode, the refrigerant absorbed the heat
from the battery pack or the electric motor (EM) to improve cabin
heating. In this system, the WHX was connected to the evaporator
in series. The adjustment and control of the series system was
simpler than the parallel system.
The main components of this system include indoor and out-
door heat exchanger (Indoor HX, Outdoor HX), scroll compressor
with injection port, electronic expansion valve (EEV) in the main
branch and the VI branch (EEV1, EEV2), internal heat exchanger
(IHX), gas-liquid separator, four-way reversing valve and waste
heat exchanger (WHX). The WHX was downstream of the evapo-
rator either in the cooling mode or the heating mode, because it’s
placed between four-way reversing valve and gas-liquid separator.
The WHX can be bypassed by switching V1, V2 and V3; the VI
branch can be turned on/off by controlling EEV2. Thus, four
different heating modes of the system can be realized: VI/WHR, VI/
no WHR, no VI/WHR, no VI/no WHR. Table 2 details the flow paths
of the four modes.
Based on the series system, an experimental unit for an electric
bus was developed and Table 3 listed the detail and parameters of
the main components. The heating performance of this prototype
was measured in the psychrometric test room, as shown Fig. 1(b).
The detail test points can be seen in Fig. 1(a). The temperature and
pressure were measured by T-type thermocouples and pressure
transducers respectively, with accuracy of ±0.5  C and ±0.5%
respectively. The mass flow rate of main branch and VI branch were
837
4-6 evaporation in evaporator
5-7 evaporation in WHX
Parallel system
It has two EEVs (3e4, 3e5)
relatively complex system and control
Energy loss occurs in the mixing process
The refrigerant side branch of WHX (4e6) can be completely closed,
if no waste heat can be used
The pressure drop in the evaporation process is relatively small
The inlet quality of WHX is low
The system becomes very complex as combined with the VI system
tested by two Coriolis flow meters with accuracy of ±0.2%.
The prototype was tested under the ambient temperatures of
7  C, 0  C,
5  C and
10  C, whereas the indoor temperature was
set at 20  C. The frequency of compressor was set as 60 Hz at the
ambient temperatures of 7  C, 0  C,
5  C and
10  C. The indoor
and outdoor air flow rate were set as 4000 m3/h and 7000 m3/h,
respectively. The waste heat was set as 2 kW, 4 kW and 6 kW. The
total waste heat from electric motor, motor controller, battery and
inverters for a 10e12 m electric bus at high velocity is about 6 kW.
Thus, the range of waste heat in our paper is set as 0e6 kW. The
opening of EEV1 and EEV2 were adjusted according to the super-
heat of suction refrigerant and injection refrigerant, respectively.
The suction superheat was set as 3  C and the injection superheat
was 1  C.
The heating capacity of heat pump was evaluated from air side
as given in Eq. (1). The COP of heat pump was calculated by Eq. (2),
in which the electricity power refers to compressor input power.
The uncertainties of heating capacity and COP were calculated as
±5.09% and ±5.11%, respectively, according to Moffat’s equations
[19].


Qh ¼ ma;c ,cp , ta; out
ta;in (1)
Qh
COP ¼ (2)
Pcomp
2.3. Experimental results
Fig. 2 shows the heating performance of heat pump with VI and
without VI. The heating capacity of heat pump with VI is higher
than that without VI at different ambient temperatures. This is
mainly because the discharge mass flow rate is increased greatly
due to injecting refrigerant into the compressor during the
compression process. However, the COP doesn’t always have
advantage. Compared to heat pump without VI, the COP of heat
pump with VI is increased at low ambient temperature such
as
10  C and
5  C, while it’s decreased at 0  C and 7  C.
838 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

(a) The flowchart

(b) The experimental prototype

Fig. 1. The flowchart and experimental prototype of the heat pump system with WHX.

Table 2
The flow path of four different operation modes in heating.

Operation mode Valves switching Flow path

VI/WHR EEV2 on, V1 off, V2 and V3 on Compressor
Four-way valve
Indoor HX: (1)

IHX
EEV1
Outdoor HX
Four-way valve
WHX
Gas-liquid separator
Compressor;(2)
EEV2
IHX
Compressor
VI/no WHR EEV2 on, V1 on, V2 and V3 off Compressor
Four-way valve
Indoor HX: (1)
IHX
EEV1
Outdoor HX
Four-way valve
Gas-liquid separator
Compressor;
(2)
EEV2
IHX
Compressor
no VI/WHR EEV2 off, V1 off, V2 and V3 on Compressor
Four-way valve
Indoor HX
IHX
EEV1
Outdoor HX
Four-way
valve
WHX
Gas-liquid separator
Compressor
no VI/no WHR EEV2 off, V1 on, V2 and V3 off Compressor
Four-way valve
Indoor HX
IHX
EEV1
Outdoor HX
Four-way valve
Gas-liquid
separator
Compressor

Fig. 3 shows the experimental results of the series WHR heat
pump with VI. Fig. 3(a) shows the heating capacity and suction
pressure. The heating capacity of system with WHX was less than
that of system without WHX as waste heat varied from 2 kW to
6 kW at the ambient temperature of
5  C. Ahn’s experimental
results [10] showed the heating capacity and COP of heat pump
using waste heat can be improved. Here the decrease of heating
capacity is mainly related to the decrease of suction pressure
caused by the high pressure drop of WHX. Fig. 3(b) shows that the
pressure drop across the outdoor HX was not sensitive to the mass
flow rate, however, the pressure drop across the WHX significantly
varied with the mass flow rate. Moreover, the pressure drop of the
WHX was obviously higher than that of outdoor HX at the same
mass flow rate. That’s because the WHX was placed downstream of
 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848 839

Table 3
Specifications for major components of the prototype.

Components Specifications

Compressor Type: horizontal DC inverter scroll compressor

Displacement: 80 CC
Frequency controllability: 30e120 Hz
Refrigerant: R410a
Indoor HX Tube/fin material: copper/aluminum
Outer diameter of tube: 9.52 mm
Rows and columns: 7 rows, 8 columns, and 2 groups
Dimension: 1300 mm (width), 180 mm (height), 179 mm (thickness)
Outdoor HX Tube/fin material: copper/aluminum
Outer diameter of tube: 7 mm
Rows and columns: 6 rows and 40 columns
Dimension: 1400 mm (width), 109 mm (height), 840 mm (thickness)
IHX Type: plate heat exchanger
Material: copper
Plate number: 2 groups and each group 40 pieces
Dimension: 77 mm (width), 207 mm (height), 100 mm (thickness)
WHX Type: plate heat exchanger
Material: copper
Plate number: 40 pieces
Dimension: 77 mm (width), 153 mm (height), 75 mm (thickness)
EEV1 (main branch) Type: electronic expansion valve
Control steps: from 0 to 500
Tube diameter: 3.2 mm
EEV2 (VI branch) Type: electronic expansion valve
Control steps: from 0 to 500
Tube diameter: 2.2 mm

25 4.0
Heating capacity (kW)

non-inj non-inj
inj 3.5 inj
20
COP

3.0
15
2.5

10 2.0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Ambient temperature ( ) Ambient temperature ( )

(a) Heating capacity (b) COP

Fig. 2. The heating performance of heat pump with VI and without VI.

1.6 20 5.0
Pressure drop p (bar)

WHX Qh psuc 5 C 4.8

Suction pressure (bar)
Heating capacity (kW)

1.2 Outdoor HX 15 4.6

0.8 4.4
10
4.2
0.4
5 4.0
0 3.8
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
0 3.6
Mass flow rate of main branch (kg/s) no WHX WHX2kW WHX4kW WHX6kW

(a) Pressure drop (b) Heating capacity

Fig. 3. Experimental results of the series heat pump system with WHX.

the outdoor HX and the refrigerant quality defined as the mass pressure and the deterioration of heating performance. In order to
percentage of dry steam per kilogram of wet steam in WHX was investigate the heating performance of this series WHR heat pump
higher. Compared with the system without WHX, the great drop of system with low WHX pressure drop, the simulation model of this
WHX pressure resulted in the decrease of compressor suction system was developed.
840 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

6 specific volume and enthalpy at point 3 can be calculated as

follows:
5 4 v3 ¼ v2 msuc


msuc þ minj

(6)
Pressure (MPa)

4


h3 ¼ msuc h2 þ minj h5 msuc þ minj (7)
5
3 where, msuc and minj are suction mass flow rate and injection mass
3
flow rate, respectively.
2 2 Based on mass conservation law, the discharge mass flow rate
mdis can be calculated as:
1
1 mdis ¼ msuc þ minj (8)
0 The suction mass flow rate can be calculated as follows:
200 300 400 500 600
n,V
Enthalpy (kJ/kg) msuc ¼ hv (9)
60,vsuc
Fig. 4. Pressure-enthalpy diagram of the compressor model.
where, V is the compressor displacement, n is compressor speed,
vsuc is the specific volume at suction point, hv is volumetric effi-
3. Numerical modeling and validation ciency, which can be calculated by the following fitting formula:

3.1. Modeling of compressor hv ¼0:8149
0:006502rp þ2:42e
5 n
0:003103r2p þ1:231e
5 nrp

In this study, a theory-based simplified compressor model was 1:487e
8 n2 þ0:0001031r 3p
2:287e
7 r 2p n
3:11e
10 rp n2
developed, which assumed vapor injection as an instantaneous
þ7:27e
13 n3
process. Fig. 4 illustrates the simplified lumped model, which
comprised of three stages. The first stage from point 1 to point 2 (10)
was a compression process and the second stage was an injection In the author’s previous study [20], the injection ratio r defined
and mixing process. The refrigerant from point 2 was mixed with as the ratio of injection mass flow rate to the discharge mass flow
the injection refrigerant from point 5 in an instant. In the third rate has been obtained:
stage, the mixed refrigerant at point 3 was compressed to the
discharge pressure.
 1
k
V2 T1 xp5 V2 T1
The first and third stages were both compression processes, r¼
(11)
V1 kT5 p1 V1 kT5
which could be considered as a polytropic process and the
following equations can be obtained: The indicated power (Pi) and input power (Pc) of compressor
could be calculated by Eq. (12) and Eq. (13):
 k
p2 v
¼ 1 (3) Pi ¼ msuc ðh2
hsuc Þ þ mdis ðhdis
h3 Þ (12)
p1 v2

 k Pc ¼ Pi =hmec =hmot (13)

pdis v3
¼ (4)
p3 vdis where hmec is mechanical efficiency, and hmot is motor efficiency.

where p is the pressure, v is the specific volume, and k is the pol-
ytropic exponent. v1/v2 is determined by the injection port position.
The polytropic exponent is calculated by the following fitting
formula based on the experimental dates:
k ¼ 1:117 þ 0:003623rp
1:29e
5 n þ 5:58e
5 r 2p
3:91e
6 rp nþ
8:08e
9 n2 þ 1:01e
7 r 2p n þ 2:23e
11 rp n2
3:73e
13 n3
(5)
In the simplified model, the injection and mixing process is
assumed as an adiabatic and isovolumetric process. Therefore, the
3.2. Modeling of heat exchangers
The heat exchangers in the heat pump system with series WHX
includes condenser, evaporator, IHX and WHX. The distributed-
parameter method was used to simulate the finned tube heat ex-
changers such as condenser and evaporator, and the plate heat
exchangers such as IHX and WHX. The heat exchanger was divided
into n segments and each segment was simulated as a control
volume. For each segment the heat transfer rate can be calculated
by Eq. (14) and Eq. (15). The total heat transfer coefficient can be
calculated by Eq. (16) as follows:

Table 4
The heat transfer correlations in the model.

Working medium Content and region Correlations

refrigerant Heat transfer single
phase Dittus
Boelter correlation

Heat transfer two
phase in evaporating process Gungor and Winterton correlation
Heat transfer two
phase in condensing process Thome correlation
air Heat transfer Dittus
Boelter correlation
50% ethylene glycol solution Heat transfer Dittus
Boelter correlation
 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848 841

pin
pout
X¼ (18)
pin

X
Y ¼1
(19)
3Fg XT

g
Fg ¼ (20)
1:4

where Cd is the flow coefficient, Y is the expansion factor, XT is

pressure differential ratio factor, and g is the refrigerant specific
heat at EEV inlet. In this model, the expansion factor was added to
the Bernoulli equation to describe the two-phase flow character-
istics of the refrigerant.

3.4. Modeling of the system

Fig. 5 shows the flowchart of the VI heat pump simulation

Fig. 5. Simulation flowchart of the heat pump system.
model. Firstly, the initial value of evaporator superheat SHeva,
evaporating pressure pe, condensing pressure pc, and injection
pressure pinj were assumed. Then, the EEV2 model was invocated
and the injection mass flow rate was calculated. Subsequently, the
IHX model and compressor model were calculated and another
injection mass flow rate was obtained. Then, pinj was adjusted by
comparing the injection mass flow rate calculated from EEV2
m2_EEV and that from compressor m2_comp. As this cycle was over,
the main branch mass flow rate will be balanced. It can be calcu-
lated from the EEV1 model and the compressor model. The
condensing pressure pc can be adjusted according to the difference
between m1_EEV and m1_comp. Next, the evaporator model was
invoked and the superheat was obtained. The evaporating pressure
pe was adjusted by comparing the calculated superheat and the
assumed value. Finally, the superheat SHeva was adjusted according
to the refrigerant charging balance.

3.5. Model validation

qsec ¼ mr ,Dhr ¼ ma ,Dha (14)
The simulation model of heat pump in VI/no WHR model is
validated by the experimental data collected at the ambient tem-
DTmax
DTmin peratures of 0  C,
5  C,
10  C, and
15  C. Fig. 6 shows the
qsec ¼ U,Aout , (15)
lnðDTmax =DTmin Þ predicted heating capacity and input power using the simulation
model are consistent with the measured data within deviations of
 
1 ±7%, ±6%, respectively, and the predicted accuracy of COP and
Aout d,Aout 1
U¼ þ þ (16) suction mass flow rate are ±7%, ±5%, respectively.
ain ,Ain l,Ain aout
The heat transfer correlations in the model are listed in Table 4. 4. Results and discussions
The heat transfer coefficient of different working medium in single-
phase can be calculated by Dittus-Boelter correlation [21]. The heat 4.1. The pressure drop of WHX
transfer coefficient for refrigerant in evaporation process and
condensation process can be predicted by Gungor and Winterton The Friedel correlation [24] was used to study the refrigerant
correlation [22] and Shah correlation [23], respectively. The pres- side pressure drop characteristics of WHX in this section. Fig. 7
sure drop of refrigerant in single-phase is predicted by Friedel shows the pressure drop ratio of WHX according to the heat
correlation [24], and that in two-phase is predicted by Moddy exchanger area at the outlet pressure of 5.4 bar and heat transfer
correlation [21]. rate of 3 kW. The pressure drop ratio is defined as the ratio of
pressure drop under some condition to that under the condition of
0.07 kg/s mass flow rate and 0.7 inlet quality. It can be seen in
3.3. Modeling of EEV
Fig. 7(a) that the pressure drop of WHX at the refrigerant mass flow
rate of 0.07 kg/s reduced quickly with the increase in effective heat
The main branch EEV1 and VI branch EEV2 were simulated by
exchanger area from 0.29 to 1.17 m2 and it changed slowly when
the following equations according to the previous studies [
the area was greater than 1.17 m2. This reduction trend was mainly
[25e27]]:
caused by the decrease of refrigerant channel velocity. The inlet
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi quality of refrigerant also has great effects on the pressure drop.
m ¼ Cd ,A,Y 2rin pin X (17)
The pressure drop increased with the increase of inlet quality and
the increasement was greater at smaller heat exchanger area. This
842 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

25 8
Heating capacity (non inj) Input power (non inj)
7
20 Heating capacity (inj) Input power (inj)
6
Predicted data (kW)

Predicted data (kW)

+7% 5 +6%
15
4 -6%
-7%
10 3

2
5
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8
Measured data (kW) Measured data (kW)

(a) Heating capacity (b) Input power

4 0.12
COP (no inj) suction mass flow rate (no inj)
COP (inj) 0.10 suction mass flow rate (inj)
3
Predicted data (kg/s)

0.08
Predicted data

+7% +5%
2 0.06
-7% -5%
0.04
1
0.02

0 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Measured data Measured data (kg/s)

(c) COP (d) Suction mass flow rate

Fig. 6. Comparison between the measured data and predicted data.

means the effect of inlet quality on pressure drop can be ignored as
the heat exchanger area is large enough. Fig. 7(b) shows the
refrigerant mass flow rate has significant effects on the pressure
drop. As the mass flow rate increased from 0.06 kg/s to 0.08 kg/s,
the pressure drop at inlet quality of 0.7 increased by 68.28%
(0.29 m2) and 86.29% (2.35 m2), respectively. It also showed the
increase of area can reduce the pressure drop and the absolute
value of pressure drop increase caused by the increase of flow rate
can be ignored as the area was large enough. In the system model,
the effective heat exchanger area was set as 1.17 m2 to obtain
smaller pressure drop.
4.2. Heating performance under different waste heat
4.2.1. Heat pump with VI
Fig. 8 shows the pressure-enthalpy diagrams of VI heat pump
cycles with and without waste heat at the ambient temperature
of
5  C. The red solid line represents the heat pump cycle with
6 kW waste heat and the black dotted line represents the cycle
without waste heat. Compared with the heat pump cycle in VI/no
WHR mode, the suction pressure, injection pressure, and discharge
pressure of the heat pump cycle in VI/WHR mode were all
increased. The increase of suction pressure was caused by the
higher temperature of waste heat source, compared with outdoor
air temperature. In order to maintain the same injection superheat
as the VI/no WHR cycle, the injection pressure of VI/WHR cycle was
increased due to the increase of suction pressure. The optimum
injection superheat and suction superheat of each cycle were set as
3  C in this study. The slight increase of discharge pressure was
caused by the increase in suction pressure and injection pressure.
Because the outlet temperature of IHX main branch was limited by
the inlet temperature of IHX injection branch, as shown in Eq. (21),
the outlet enthalpy of IHX main branch (point 6) in VI/WHR cycle
was greater than that in VI/no WHR cycle. This resulted in the in-
crease in inlet enthalpy of evaporator and the decrease in heat
transfer rate of evaporator.
Tmain;out > TVI;in (21)
Fig. 9 shows the heating performance of heat pump with VI
according to waste heat at the ambient temperature of
5  C.
Fig. 9(a) shows that the compressor suction pressure gradually
increases and the evaporation temperature increases from
12.9  C
 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848 843

1.4 1.4

The pressure drop ratio

The pressure drop ratio

1.2 Inlet quality 0.5 1.2 0.06 kg/s
1.0 Inlet quality 0.7 1.0 0.07kg/s
0.8 Inlet quality 0.9 0.8 0.08 kg/s
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
The area of WHX (m2) The area of WHX (m2)

(a) Inlet quality (b) Mass flow rate

Fig. 7. The pressure drop characteristics of the WHX.

> (21) to
10.6  C with the increasing of waste heat from 0 to 6 kW.
Fig. 9(b) shows the suction mass flow rate is increased according to
2.8 black line_VI/no WHR red line_VI/WHR the waste heat, which is mainly related to the increase in
2.4 6 4 2 compressor suction density caused by higher suction pressure.
2.0 Compared with the heat pump without waste heat, the suction
Pressure (MPa)

mass flow rate of VI heat pump at 6 kW waste heat is increased by

1.6
6.98%. The injection mass flow rate also increases due to the in-
1.2 3 crease of injection pressure. It is increased by 17.3% at 6 kW waste
0.8 5 heat and becomes one of the major reasons for the increase of
discharge mass flow rate. Fig. 9(c) shows the heat absorption from
0.4 9 1
7 evaporator gradually decreases with the increase of waste heat,
0.0 whereas the total heat absorption from waste heat and ambient air
-50 50 150 250 350
increases due to the greater heat absorption from the waste heat.
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Fig. 9(d) shows the heating capacity of VI heat pump at 2 kW and
Fig. 8. Pressure-enthalpy diagrams of the VI heat pump cycles with and without waste 6 kW waste heat is increased by 1.61% and 5.12%, respectively,
heat. compared with that of heat pump without waste heat. The COP at

0.57 -10.0 75 13

Mass flow rate m inj (g/s)

Mass flow rate m suc (g/s)
Suction pressure (MPa)

Psuc t e va msuc minj

0.56 -10.5
Evaporation temp. (

0.55 -11.0 73 12
0.54 -11.5
71 11
0.53 -12.0
0.52 5 C, -12.5 69 5 C, 10
0.51 VI -13.0 VI
0.50 -13.5 67 9
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Waste heat (kW) Waste heat (kW)

(a) suction pressure (b) mass flow rate

16 14.8 19.0 2.98

Heat absorption Qeva (kW)

Heat absorbtion Qtotal (kW)

Heating capacity (kW)

Qe va Qtotal Qh COP
14.6 2.96
14 18.5
14.4 2.94
COP

12 5 C, 14.2 18.0 2.92

VI 14.0 2.90
10 17.5 5 C,
13.8 VI 2.88
8 13.6 17.0 2.86
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Waste heat (kW) Waste heat (kW)

(c) heat absorption (d) heating capacity and COP

Fig. 9. Heating performance of heat pump with VI according to waste heat.

844 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

2.8 black line_no VI/no WHR red line_no VI/WHR ambient air and waste heat is much less than the increasement of
waste heat.
2.4
3 2
2.0
Pressure (MPa)

4.2.2. Heat pump without VI

1.6 Fig. 10 shows the pressure-enthalpy diagrams of single stage
heat pump cycles with and without waste heat at the ambient
1.2 temperature of
5  C. The red solid line represents the cycle in no
VI/WHR mode with 6 kW waste heat and the black dotted line
0.8 represents the cycle without waste heat. Compared with the heat
pump cycle in no VI/no WHR mode, the suction pressure of the
0.4 4 5 1
cycle in no VI/WHR mode was increased, which resulted in the
0.0 increase of refrigerant mass flow rate. The discharge pressure was
-50 50 150 250 350 also increased due to the increase of mass flow rate.
Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Fig. 11 shows the heating performance of heat pump without VI
according to waste heat at the ambient temperature of
5  C.
Fig. 10. Pressure-enthalpy diagrams of the single stage heat pump cycles with and
Fig. 11(a) shows with the increase in waste heat from 0 to 6 kW, the
without waste heat.
compressor suction pressure gradually increases and the evapora-
tion temperature increases from
11.9  C to
9.8  C. Fig. 11(b)
shows the heating capacity of heat pump without VI is increased by
2 kW and 6 kW waste heat is increased by 1.38% and 2.56%, 3.84% at 2 kW waste heat and 9.45% at 6 kW waste heat. The COP is
respectively. Although the improvements of heating capacity and increased by 2.65% and 5.07%, respectively. Fig. 11(c) shows the
COP are comparable to the predicted accuracy, the results can be heating capacity of heat pump with VI is higher than that of the
referenced for the performance analysis. That’s because the heating system without VI as the waste heat increases from 0 to 6 kW. The
capacity increase varying with waste heat input is calculated based maximum improvement was 18.28% at 0 kW waste heat and the
on the simulation model with the same parameter setting. With the improvement gradually diminished with the increase of waste
increasing of waste heat, the improvement of heat capacity is very heat. Fig. 11(d) shows the COP of the heat pump with VI is higher
slight. The main reason is that the heat absorption from ambient air than that of the heat pump without VI at 0 kW waste heat, and
is decreased and the increasement of total heat absorption from similar under the condition of 2 kW and 4 kW waste heat, while

0.59 17 3.1
Suction pressure (MPa)

Heating capacity (kW)

Psuc t e va -8.5 Qh COP

0.58
Evaporation temp. (

0.57 -9.5 16 3.0

0.56

COP
0.55 -10.5
0.54 15 2.9
5 C, 5 C,
-11.5
0.53 no VI no VI
0.52 -12.5 14 2.8
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Waste heat (kW) Waste heat (kW)

(a) suction pressure (b) heating capacity and COP

20 3.2
Heating caapcity (kW)

5 C 3.0 5 C
18
2.8
COP

16 2.6
VI VI
2.4
14 no VI no VI
2.2
12 2.0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
Waste heat (kW) Waste heat (kW)

(c) heating capacity compared with VI system (d) COP compared with VI system

Fig. 11. Heating performance of heat pump without VI according to waste heat.
 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848 845

0.80 95
VI/no WHR VI/no WHR

Suction pressure (MPa)

0.75 90

Mass flow rate msuc (g/s)

0.70 VI/WHR 85 VI/WHR
0.65 80
0.60 75
0.55 70
0.50 65
0.45 60
0.40 55
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Ambient temperature ( C) Ambient temperature ( C)

(a) suction pressure (b) mass flow rate

23 3.3
22 VI/no WHR 3.2 VI/no WHR
Heating capacity (kW)

21 VI/WHR 3.1 VI/WHR

20
3.0

COP
19
2.9
18
17 2.8
16 2.7
15 2.6
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Ambient temperature ( C) Ambient temperature ( C)

(c) heating capacity (d) COP

Fig. 12. Heating performance of heat pump with VI according to ambient temperature.

lower than that of the condition of 6 kW waste heat.
4.3. Heating performance under different ambient temperature
4.3.1. Heating performance of heat pump with VI
Fig. 12 displays the heating performance of VI heat pump with
2 kW waste heat and without waste heat at different ambient
temperatures. Fig. 12(a) shows that the suction pressure of heat
pump in VI/WHR mode and VI/no WHR mode is both decreased
with decreasing ambient temperatures. As the ambient tempera-
ture is lower than 0  C, suction pressure in VI/WHR mode is a little
higher than that in VI/no WHR mode because the waste heat source
had higher temperature than ambient air. Fig. 12(b) shows that the
suction mass flow rate is strongly dependent on the ambient
temperature and it decreases sharply with the dropping of ambient
temperature due to the decrease in suction pressure. The suction
mass flow rate in VI/WHR mode is a little higher than that of VI/no
WHR mode due to the increase in suction pressure. Fig. 12(c and d)
shows that the heating capacity of heat pump in VI/WHR and VI/no
WHR modes decreases by 37.65% and 29.27%, and the COP de-
creases by 14.45% and 15.75%, as the ambient temperature drops
from 7  C to
10  C. As the ambient temperature is lower than 0  C,
waste heat recovery is beneficial to improve the heating perfor-
mance. The heating capacity and COP of heat pump in VI/WHR
mode are higher than those in VI/no WHR mode. However, the
heating capacity and COP of heat pump in VI/WHR mode are both
decreased at 7  C ambient temperature due to the increase of WHX
pressure drop.
4.3.2. Heating performance of heat pump without VI
Fig. 13 shows the heating performance of single stage heat pump
with 2 kW waste heat and without waste heat at different ambient
temperature. Fig. 13(a and b) shows that the suction pressure and
suction mass flow rate of heat pump in no VI/WHR mode and no VI/
no WHR mode decrease with the decreasing of ambient tempera-
ture. At the same ambient temperature, suction pressure and suc-
tion mass flow rate in no VI/WHR mode are a little higher than
those in no VI/no WHR mode. Fig. 13(c) indicates that the heating
capacity of heat pump in no VI/WHR and no VI/no WHR modes is
decreased by 30.97% and 32.25%, respectively, as ambient temper-
ature decreases from 7  C to
10  C. The heating capacity of heat
pump with 2 kW waste heat is higher than that of the system
without waste heat at the same ambient temperature and the
improvement rate gradually decreases with the increasing of
ambient temperature. Fig. 13(d) shows that the COP of heat pump
with waste heat has an advantage over that without waste heat as
the ambient temperature is lower than 4  C. However, as ambient
temperature rises above 4  C, waste heat recovery has no advan-
tage. This is because the heating capacity improvement decreases
at high ambient temperatures due to the increase of WHX pressure
drop.
5. Further discussions
5.1. The operation strategy of mode switching
The heat pump system with WHR proposed in this study can
operate in four different heating modes: VI/WHR, VI/no WHR, no
846 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848

0.80 95
0.75 no VI/no WHR 90 no VI/no WHR

Mass flow rate msuc (g/s)

Suction pressure (MPa)
0.70 no VI/WHR 85 no VI/WHR
0.65 80
0.60 75
0.55 70
0.50 65
0.45 60
0.40 55
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Ambient temperature ( C) Ambient temperature ( C)

(a) suction pressure (b) mass flow rate

21 3.3
20 no VI/no WHR no VI/no WHR
3.2
Heating capacity (kW)

19 no VI/WHR no VI/WHR
3.1
18
17 3.0
16 COP 2.9
15
2.8
14
13 2.7
12 2.6
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Ambient temperature ( C) Ambient temperature ( C)

(c) heating capacity (d) COP

Fig. 13. Heating performance of heat pump without VI according to ambient temperature.

VI/WHR, no VI/no WHR. It can be converted into different operation
modes according to actual operation conditions. As the previous
section shows, the waste heat recovery exhibits advantage for both
VI system (ambient temperature lower than 0  C) and no VI system
(ambient temperature lower than 4  C). Therefore, the heat pump
system can operate in VI/WHR mode as ambient temperature stays
lower than 0  C, and operate in no VI/no WHR mode when the
ambient temperature is more than 4  C. When the ambient tem-
perature is between 0 and 4  C, two operating modes are available:
VI/no WHR and no VI/WHR. Fig. 14 shows the heating capacity of
system in VI/no WHR mode is 11.86%e16.05% higher than that of no
VI/WHR mode as ambient temperature rises from
10  C to 7  C,
however, the COP is lower. Therefore, if the heating capacity of
system in no VI/WHR mode can satisfy the heating load, no VI/WHR
mode should be chosen as ambient temperature remains between
0  C and 4  C. if not, VI/no WHR mode should be chosen.
5.2. The dynamic variation of waste heat
The waste heat of EVs mainly comes from the electric motor, the

24 24
no VI/WHR no VI/WHR
Heating capacity (kW)
Heating capacity (kW)

22 22
VI/no WHR VI/no WHR
20 20

18 18

16 16

14 14

12 12
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Ambient temperature ( C) Ambient temperature ( C)

(a) heating capacity (b) COP

Fig. 14. Heating performance comparison between VI/no WHR and no VI/WHR.
 X. Han et al. / Renewable Energy 152 (2020) 835e848
Outdoor HX
Compressor
V1 V2
Gas-liquid
separator
cooling
heating
Fig. 15. The system flowchart of the heat pump with thermal storage.
battery, the inverter and other electric device. Thus, the value of
waste heat varies greatly in the actual driving conditions. In order
to obtain the relatively stable waste heat, the Thermal storage (TS)
could be integrated into the waste heat recovery system. Phase
change energy storage is very suitable for waste heat recovery
system for EVs due to the large latent heat of phase change material
and the small volume of the energy storage device, which can also
be combined with the battery thermal management. Some re-
searches [ [28e30]] proposed the heat pump with TS for EVs, in
which the electric battery was used as TS device and was predicted
by the electric heater before the heat pump was started. The TS
could be used to preheat the cabin supply air or as a heat source of
the heat pump. Here the TS is combined with the waste heat re-
covery heat pump with VI, as shown in Fig. 15. Compared to Fig. 1,
the increasement part is circled in the red rectangle. The heat of TS
is completely from the waste heat rather than the electric heater. As
the EV starts, the pump P2 is turned on and the waste heat is stored
into the TS. As the heat pump starts, the pump P1 is turned on and
the heat is extracted from the TS. The heat storage and heat removal
may be processed simultaneously in the TS.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, a heat pump with heat recovery for electric bus is
investigated experimentally and numerically. The following con-
clusions can be obtained:
1) The pressure drop of waste heat exchanger has great effects on
the heating performance of the heat pump with waste heat
exchanger connected to evaporator in series. The waste heat
exchanger should be optimized to reduce the pressure drop
because it’s in the high-quality evaporating region.
2) Waste heat recovery can improve the heating capacity of heat
pump. As ambient temperature was at
5  C, the heating ca-
pacity and COP of injection heat pump with 2 kW waste heat
recovery were 1.61% and 1.38% higher than those of heat pump
without waste heat recovery. The improvements of heat pump
with 6 kW waste heat recovery were 5.12% and 2.56%,
respectively.
3) As the ambient temperature was lower than 0  C, the heating
performance of heat pump system with 2 kW waste heat
847
Indoor HX
EEV2
IHX
P1
P2
Thermal
Storage
Battery
WHX
or EM
V3
EEV1 IHX
Indoor HX
recovery was better than that of system without waste heat
recovery. However, as the ambient temperature rises, the
heating performance of waste heat recovery system becomes
worse than that of the system without waste heat recovery due
to the increase of pressure drop of the waste heat exchanger.
Author contributions section
Xinxin Han: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Writing
- Original Draft. Huiming Zou: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Writing - Review & Editing. Jiang Wu: Visualization, Supervision.
Changqing Tian: Conceptualization, Writing - Review & Editing.
Mingsheng Tang: Software, Supervision. Guangyan Huang:
Validation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the support by the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (No.
2018YFB0105900).
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