BIO 122 WFW_Second Semester2020-2021_12March2021
[mosaic structure] because embedded into this liquid my by layer are many or several
Integrative science: physiological process life processes are highly regulated events
because this enzyme catalyzed biochemical reactions can be regulated in terms of their
production of the product
Regulation:
1. denature the structural integrity of the enzyme itself so the affinity between the
natural substrate and this competitor compound substance will actually modulate the
rate of the reaction
2. introduction of this competing substrate or reactor may either be on the same binding
site itself the same site where the natural substrate binds to the enzyme or it may be in a
space in a different location or binding site on the same enzyme
allosteric modulation: metabolic feedback modulation, which may inhibit or enhance
the rate of the reaction
What specific structure of the animal cell will allow this enzyme catalyzed biochemical
reactions to occur or to happen unimpeded?
! enzyme catalyzed biochemical reaction should be in an almost perfectly constant state
biological membranes/ plasmalemma
 serves us serves to maintain the stability of the so called internal
environment
 the biological membrane is not a static structure, it exists in a highly
dynamic state.
 Described by Singer and Nicholson from the University of California:
fluid mosaic model (1972)
Amphipathic compound: will not easily dissociate into its ionic components
 tail is hydrophobic and will tend to cluster or to gather together
avoiding water as much as possible
 hydrophilic head of this empty fatty compounds will tend to attract
water so easily
 lipid bilayer
protein components which can add us channels, the scepters, transporters, etc,
 regulates the traffic flow of substances across the biological
membrane.
[fluid] because these structures have the ability of lateral movement.
 integral proteins: membrane bound structures that span the entire
width of this lipid bilayer
 peripheral proteins: only one part of this membrane or protein is
exposed either to the extracellular component or to the intracellular
component.
[proof/demonstration that these membrane bound structures are proteins]
Freeze fracture experiment :
 enzymes will denature the proteins
 mostly protein in nature
cholesterol - tends to insert itself into the hydrophobic phase of the lipid by which
increases the mechanical rigidity of the of the plasmalemma
 main cause for the hardening of the arteries (arterial sclerosis)
Factor that influences the degree of fluidity of the membrane:
 influenced mainly by the composition of amphipathic compounds
(width and length of fatty acid tails)
 saturation or the level of unsaturation of this lipid tails
Saturated fatty acids: each carbon atom in that fatty acid makes a single covalent bond
with either another neighboring carbon or a hydrogen atom
 form a very neat layer of tails neatly stacked up together
Unsaturated: double bond introduces a bend or a kink that makes the membrane more
fluid
  saturated fatty acids have a high melting point and are solid
at room temperature
 unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature
 biological membrane that shields fluctuations in the cytosolic
compartment from fluctuations of the extracellular compartment
Cytosolic compartment - mainly made up of water
How do substances cross the biological membrane?
 by establishing a concentration gradient across the membrane
1. Diffusion- very, very slow process
- eventually equal amounts and the compound across the volume
- no barrier that will impede the free flow of these substances from one area to another
 Diffusion equation: is the rate of diffusion of a substance is slow in
the absence of a barrier.
 3 variables to consider to estimate rate of diffusion:
- diffusion coefficient of that solid: each substance has its own
unique inherent property (size, charges)
- cross sectional area of diffusion
- concentration gradient of that substance
Osmosis: special form of diffusion with a membrane and this usually refers to liquid
substances
- also a very slow and passive process scape
- water simply flows from a hypotonic chamber to a
hypertonic chamber
small depression- water pressure that is sufficient enough to stop the further flow of
water from an area of higher concentration of water to an area of lower concentration of
water
Concentration gradient: Don Gibbs equilibrium
Consider both concentration of solute and also the charges that these dissolved solids
 Demonstration: two chambers here filled with water and separated by a semi
permeable membrane
 Introduction of a salt: redistribute themselves until eventually they are equal
concentrations of potassium and chloride ions in the compartments
Modification: addition of a negatively charged ion species that cannot cross this semi
premium hoops cannot cross this semi permeable membrane
!There should be an equal number of negative charges on one side compared to the
number of positive charges on the opposite side okay
as soon as the state of equilibrium is there, water will move from an area of lower
osmolarity
Under resting conditions, the state of dynamic state equilibrium:
- Sodium ion [much higher in the extracellular]
- Chloride ions [higher in the extracellular]
- Potassium [higher in the intracellular]
- Calcium [higher in the intracellular]
Origin of ionic species: metabolic production waste products and a series of metabolic
reactions will create a lot of these substances that will dissociate into the ion
Electro chemical gradients are maintained by passive and active processes
 Important for maintaining a stable volume of the cell
1. isosmotic conditions or isotonic conditions: the cell will maintain its optimum
volume
2. hypertonic solution: cell will shrink
 if we assume that the solid particles dissolve in this hypertonic solution has no
ability to cross the plasma lemma of the immerse cells  cell death
 if let's say the solid dissolve in this hypertonic solution has this ability to go
across the biological membrane  gradually recover its volume okay until such
time that it will attain this state of equilibrium
1. Passive transport process: slow process driven by the electrochemical concentration
gradient
 For amphipathic compounds: the ease to dissociate from
water:
o oil and water partition coefficient :estimation of its
so called lipophilicity
 higher the oil water partition coefficient the easier for
amphipathic compounds to cross the biological
membrane by passive diffusion okay.
2. Facilitated diffusion- no need for an external source of energy
- carrier mediated transport: utilizes membrane bound proteins acting as channels
Types of facilitated diffusion:
1. uniporter channel - transporting only a single substance across the membrane
2. symporter channel - carry two different substances in the same direction
3. antiporter channel - are able to carry to at least two different substances at the same
time in different directions (coupled or linked transport)
All exhibit saturation kinetics:
 Free energy that is responsible for transporting a substance across the membrane
via a carrier mediated transport process via this membrane bound channels, is
not only influenced by the electrochemical concentration gradient of the
substance, but also by the density of these membrane bound channels.
Glucose: Passive diffusion
 given an area of a membrane, there's only finite quantities of this membrane
bound channels
 Michaelisen-meten constant, K,
3. active transport: flows against a concentration; there has to be provision of energy
from elsewhere(ATP)
Example: sodium pump: 3 sodium ions out, 2 potassium ions into the cell Okay,
remember
- ATP donates one of its high energy phosphate side group
that will lead to a change in the structural conformation
- Dephosphorylation: release of ions
- important because it is this accurate transport mechanism process that is responsible
for maintaining the electrochemical concentration gradients of many ionic species
Ouabain- inhibitor od the sodium pump
Establishment and the maintenance of that electrochemical gradient across the
biological membrane serves as a source of energy serves that will allow the transport of
substances
Maintenance and establishment of that chemical electrochemical gradient can create
ATP (in the mitochondria)
- mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell because of its ability to produce ATP
- double membrane organelle. So there is an outer membrane enclosing an inner
membrane:
o inner membrane has this folded appearance
o intermembrane gap/space
o fluid-filled matrix :aerobic and anaerobic respiration takes place)
ATP production via coupling mechanism: Chemiosmotic coupling mechanism.
- involves two distinct two distinct processes:
1. establishment of a concentration gradient
2. conversion electrochemical concentration gradient to produce energy itself
in the form of ATP
Matrix: A lot of respiratory chain process occur; a lot of proton is produced
Inner Membrane with membrane bound proton transporters
- protons are carried out and end up accumulating or building
up in concentration in the intermembrane gap and cannot
come back in
- protons use ATP synthase for entry