BULLETIN OF T H E AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS

VOL. 44, NO. 12 (DECEMBER. 1960). PP. 1921-1932, 14 FIGS.

CONCEPTS OF FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY'

ORVILLE L. BANDY^i AND ROBERT E. ARNAL'
Los Angeles and San Jose, California

ABSTRACT
Studies of modern foraminiferal ecology have provided at least 5 distinct criteria for the reconstruc-
tion of marine paleoenvironments: (1) both the number of species and specimen abundance increase away
from shore and with increasing depth of water to maximum values on the outer shelf and in the upper and
middle bathyal zone; (2) diverse porcelaneous species are abundant in shoal near-shore marine environ-
ments; (3) arenaceous Foraminifera with simple interiors may be abundant in shallow waters whereas more
complex types with labyrinthic interiors are more characteristic of bathyal depths; (4) deposition of
planktonic species occurs most abundantly on the outer shelf and in the upper bathyal zone, with even
greater abundances in deeper waters under the right conditions; and (5) similar environmental adaptations
of modern species and fossil homeomorphs (and isomorphs) may be assumed, especially for groups of
species.
Faunal contamination or mixed faunas must be recognized as an ever-present deterrent to valid
stratigraphic and paleoecologic analyses. One important type of contamination is the displacement of
shoal faunas into deeper water; however, the displacement problem is minimized by selecting the deepest
bathymetric indicator species in each sample. Another type of mixed fauna is produced by the reworking
of faunas from older strata into younger sediments. This type of contamination usually is recognizable by
differences in preservation or incongruous mixtures of index species of different ages or both.
To test the value of foraminiferal ecology to the finding of oil deposits, a detailed study was made of
the biofacies of the Middle Tertiary of the San Joaquin Valley, California. The analyses of more than 5,000
samples (cores) made it possible to construct a series of paleobathymetric maps showing the gradual evolu-
tion of the San Joaquin basin. Examples of this study are presented to illustrate the methods of applied
paleoecology and their implications.

INTRODUCTION sented and applied in this investigation. T o test

A detailed paleoecologic s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n
several years ago for the Western Division of t h e
Gulf Oil Corporation. In this s t u d y criteria were
established and tested for the reconstruction of
environments of the past. T h e present report
presents the initial methods developed and
applied in t h a t project.
M a n y students of modern foraminiferal ecology
have investigated q u a n t i t a t i v e aspects of dis-
tribution p a t t e r n s in recent years. These studies
and those of the writers were reviewed and served
as t h e basis for the development of criteria pre-
' Manuscript received, April 9, 1960.
^ University of Southern California, Los Angeles.
' San Jose State College, San Jose.
Many thanks and appreciation are due the Gulf Oil
Corporation which instigated and financed the project.
Much valuable help and advice were given by G. W.
Ledingham, M. J. Hill, and R. L. Johnston of the Gulf
Oil Corporation. Stratigraphic consultation was con-
tributed by R. Stanley Beck, Bakersfield, California.
Research and library faciUties were provided by the
Allan Hancock Foundation, University of Southern
CaUfornia, Los Angeles, California. The writers are
grateful to the management of the Gulf Oil Corporation
for permission to present this paper at the national
A.A.P.G. meeting of 1958, and for publication of the
paper at this time. A Gulf Oil Corporation research
grant to the University of Southern California defrayed
the costs of preparing the manuscript for publication.
1921
the value of this t y p e of research in oO explora-
tion, a detailed s t u d y was made of the biofacies of
the Middle T e r t i a r y of the San J o a q u i n basin,
California.'This basin is admirably suited to this
purpose because the sediments are a b u n d a n t l y
fossiliferous; they exhibit m a n y diverse faunas;
the area has been sufficiently explored to yield
good sample coverage; it was a large marine basin
with one major and perhaps two minor marine
connections on the southwest and northwest
respectively; and it is one of t h e major oil-pro-
ducing areas of California (Fig. 1). T h e analysis of
more t h a n 5,000 core samples from selected wells
made it possible to construct a series of environ-
mental maps showing t h e gradual evolution of the
San J o a q u i n basin during the Middle Tertiary.
Selected examples from t h a t project are presented
here to illustrate the methods of paleoenviron-
m e n t analyses.
T R E N D S OF F O R A M I N I F E R A L D I S T R I B U T I O N
T h e most distinctive and significant changes in
foraminiferal populations are those which occur
with increasing d e p t h of water and distance from
the shore. These changes appear to be common to
most modern areas of investigation. Following is a
discussion of trends, each being analyzed in three
ways: (I) the basis for the trend as seen in modern
 1922 ORVILLE L. BANDY AND ROBERT E. ARNAL

LOCATION OF
^ 1 0 a 600

SAN JOAQUIN BASIN

5 20 I- 400

Ll" 3O0O

VALLECirOS
TROUGH FIG. 3.—Trends in abundance of foraminiferal species
and specimens off Mississippi River delta of Gulf of
SAN BEMTO]
TROUGH r~ Mexico. Data plotted from Parker (1954).
DIABLO UPLIFT y

BAKERSFIEI D I- Bandy, 1953; and Bandy and Arnal, 1957).

FIG. 1.—Location of San Joaquin basin, California.
foraminiferal ecology, (2) exceptions to the trend,
and (3) examples of its application to the Middle
Tertiary of the San Joaquin basin of California.
Stages of the California Miocene referred to are
the Luisian and Mohnian, probably equivalent to
the Helvetian and Tortonian of the European
system (Kleinpell, 1938).
SPECIES ABUNDANCE
Species increase in number with increasing
depth of water and greater distance from shore.
Supporting evidence for this criterion may be
seen in studies off the Atlantic Coast (Fig. 2), in
the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 3), and in the eastern
Pacific (Figs. 4, 5) (Parker, 1948 and 1954;
Exceptions to the major trend in species abun-
dance occur in closed basins and in deeper waters
of the bathyal zone. Recently, Resig (1958, text
Fig. 3) found that the number of species dimin-
ishes below sill depth in the Santa Cruz basin off
southern California. Said has presented corrobor-
ative data in his investigations of the Red Sea
(Said, 1949). A plot of data from his work shows
that more than 50 species comprise the assem-
blages shoaler than 328 feet, and that fewer than
20 species occur below this depth, within the
closed part of the basin (Fig. 6). Exceptions of this
nature, to the general increase of species abun-
dance with depth, provide additional methods of
identifying fossil faunas of closed basins. It
should be noted that a reversal in the abundance
trend seems to occur in very deep waters off the
Pacific Coast (Fig. 4).
The observed general trend in abundance of

'i
^BOTTOM
^ - > s ^ PROFILE
/ \
l\
BC,COG
/ \
M,r S ^ / - \ :

II
N5 OF ^ _ ^
~~~^
0 f- a,'-:,i-,r'C
"/' \
/• / \ ^
° --' ° / TOTAL
' BENTHONIC
SPECIMENS
^ .
H
FIG. 2.—Trends in foraminiferal species and specimen FIG. 4.—Trends in abundance of foraminiferal species
abundance off Block Island, Rhode Island. Data plotted and genera off Point Conception, California. Data plot-
from Parker (1948). ted from Bandy (1953).
 CONCEPTS OF FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY
species is probably due to the fact that Forami-
nifera are typical marine organisms which are
well adjusted to the gamut of ecological condi-
tions existing in the sea. Relatively few species
have been able to cope with the greater environ-
mental heterogeneity of shoal inshore waters.
This is true of both the benthonic and planktonic
groups. The greater availability of food in the
photic and disphotic zones on the continental
shelf promotes large animal populations, both on
the bottom and in the overlying waters. Sverdrup,
Johnson, and Fleming (1942), reported that for
this reason the number of species decreases with
depth in the sea below the shelf. Maximum diver-
sification in Foraminifera seems to occur some-
what deeper than in the groups of larger animals.
In the Luisian stage of the Tertiary of the San
Joaquin Valley, contours of equal value for spe-
cies abundance reveal a large area of higher values
near the southern part of the valley, surrounded
by decreasing values toward the north, east, and
south, thereby suggesting shoreward trends in
those directions (Fig. 7). A continuation of high
values toward the San Andreas fault, at the west,
suggests a seaward connection in that direction.
Widely spaced contours, especially on the north,
indicate gradually shoaling conditions, whereas
closely spaced contours on the east and south may
suggest steeper bottom slopes.
SPECIMEN ABUNDANCE
Percentages of Foraminifera in sediments of
modern seas increase away from shore toward the
^-, , . ; j - (Porceioneous Species)
10.000-)'
NArenoceous Species)
M tt 5 0 0 0 -
^ i^ Species
S 5 1000- Abundonce~
i =>
S ^ 500-
I i T T - r I I-1 r i 11 I I I I r I T i - T T T - i T T r r i T
FIG. S.^Composite profile from eastern Pacific.
General foraminiferal trends plotted against depth of
water and distance from shore off Panama. Data from
Bandy and Arnal (1957).
1923
DEPTH IN METERS
300 600
FIG. 6.—Number of foraminiferal species plotted
against depth for Red Sea. Data from Said (1949).
edge of the continental shelf (Figs. 2, 3, 5).
Beyond that point two possibilities arise: there
may be a sharp increase in abundance into the
deeper areas of globigerina ooze, or there may be a
considerable decrease as in the Pacific Ocean off
the coast of Panama (Fig. 5). Increases in num-
bers of foraminiferal tests away from shore is due
to progressively less dilution of faunas with
sediment; hence, although there are larger living
populations near shore, the actual number of
specimens per gram of sediment (foraminiferal
number) will be much higher along the outer part
of the continental shelf. This phenomenon has
been noted by Phleger (1951) and Walton (1955).
An application of the preceding concept is seen
in the environmental analyses of the assemblages
in the Luisian sediments of the Miocene of the
San Joaquin Valley (Fig. 8). Here the area of
greatest specimen abundance agrees rather well
with the area of greatest number of species. In a
few places, areas of high foraminiferal number
show few species and in other areas there are
abundant species and low foraminiferal numbers.
From a comparison of the faunal analyses with
the lithologic character, it appears that the former
relation exists mostly in sand and shale areas,
whereas the latter occurs at localities in which
silica is prominent.
PORCELANEOUS EORAMINIEERA
Diverse porcelaneous species of Foraminifera,
especially the Miliolidae, are characteristic of the
intertidal zone and the inner part of the conti-
nental shelf of modern oceans (Fig. 5) (Bandy,
1956; Bandy and Arnal, 1957). Deep-water
rl
species of Pyrgo are not uncommon but abundant
diverse populations of Quinqueloculina, Trilo-
culina, etc., are usually excellent indices of near-
shore conditions.
1924 ORVILLE L. BANDY AND ROBERT E. ARNAL

\
cP

lidOALINGA

• CITY
o OIL WELL X -^

^ OIL FIELD

LUISIAM ^^
idER ©F '"^
FECI
20 MILES

FIG. 7.—Average number of foraminiferal species represented in Luisian of San Joaquin basin. Isopleths for
10, 20, and 30 species; oil fields represented by solid areas.

Only very rare specimens of the Miliolidae
occur in the Middle Tertiary of the San Joaquin
Valley; hence, this criterion was not applicable
there. They may have been present in the original
shallow-water sediments and then destroyed dur-
ing the leaching, erosion, and reworking processes
which readily affect shoal sediments with minor
fluctuations in sea-level. As discussed in the sec-
tion on paleotectonics, the San Joaquin Valley
was undergoing tremendous tectonism during the
Middle Tertiary.
ARENACEOUS TORAMINIFERA
High percentages of arenaceous species occur in
some brackish-water areas and at some localities
on continental shelves and in deep cold waters.
Those genera with simple interiors such as Am-
mobaculites are frequently very abundant in
 CONCEPTS OF FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY 1925

FIG. 8.—Average values for foraminiferal number (number of specimens per gram) represented in Luisian of San
Joaquin basin. Isopleths are for values of 20, 100, and 500 specimens per gram; oilfieldsshown by solid areas.

shoal brackish waters (Bandy, 1956), whereas
genera with complicated interior structures such
as Cyclammina are most characteristic of bathyal
depths (Akers, 1954). Shoal brackish waters
which are stagnant are more prone to the develop-
ment of abundant arenaceous populations than
well aerated waters (Lowman, 1949). More
recent studies by the members of the Allan
Hancock Foundation, exemplified by the work of
Zalesny (1959), show dominant and abundant
populations of arenaceous species on the conti-
nental shelf, especially near the sewage outfalls
along the coast of southern California.
Occurrences of simple arenaceous species is not
a good criterion of environment of deposition
per se, but should be accompanied by additional
evidence. Simple arenaceous species occur in
various environments, not yet completely inves-
 1926 ORVILLE L. B.^NDY AND ROBERT E. ARNAL

L— 119°
LOWER MOHNlAh •^

ARENACEOUS = PL- TONDC

CALCARl ]TH^ RATI
'i
V
\

•--f--7-i 0 £S 20
^^^^^if^m^

Ci^JkiM t?

FIG. 9.—Arenaceous-planktonic-calcareous benthonic relations for lower Mohnian by use of trigon method
of presentation (Krumbein, 1954). Ar.—arenaceous species; C. B.—calcareous benthonic species; PI.—planktonic
species. Oilfieldsshown by solid areas.

tigated. It is possible that calcareous species of a
fauna may be dissolved by post-depositional
leaching of the sediment, leaving only arenaceous
species. This suggests dissolution as one cause of
fossil faunas restricted to arenaceous species.
In the lower Mohnian (Tortonian) sections of
the Miocene, there are rather widespread areas of
unclassified arenaceous species between Bakers-
field and Coalinga (Fig. 9). The species involved
are mostly members of the genus Haplophrag-
modes, representing simple types of arenaceous
Foraminifera. Krumbein's trigon method (1954)
was used in presenting the relations of the three
categories, arenaceous, planktonic, and calcareous
benthonic species. It is significant that the general
trends of these categories are sufficiently uniform
 CONCEPTS OF FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY
to be amenable to this type of analysis. Generally,
the arenaceous category defines the shoaler areas
of early Mohnian time.
PLANKTONIC SPECIES
Plank tonic Foraminifera are abundant in re-
cent sediments of the outer shelf and the upper
bathyal zone. At greater depth, they may con-
tinue to increase in abundance as in the Gulf of
Mexico today (Bandy, 1956), or they may de-
crease markedly as along the Pacific Coast of
North and Central America (Bandy and Arnal,
1957). An abundance of planktonic species may
indicate open-sea conditions or a trend toward
open-sea conditions. They may also indicate areas
of high organic production inasmuch as there is a
direct zooplankton-phytoplankton-nutrient rela-
tionship.
An example of the application of this criterion
to a geologic problem is seen in the distribution of
early Mohnian Foraminifera in the San Joaquin
Valley (Fig. 9). Planktonic species amount to
more than half of the total population in a zone
around the southern end of the Valley. This
generally circumscribes the deeper area of the San
Joaquin Mohnian sea and suggests that this zone
is correlative with the upper bathyal and outer
shelf zone of this part of the Miocene. It is cor-
roborated by biofacies analyses.
BIOFACIES BASED ON SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTAL
ADAPTATIONS OF MODERN AND FOSSIL
HOMEOMORPHS
Homeomorphs are species which are similar and
related. Isomorphs are those species which are
similar and not related (Galloway, 1933). In
either case it appears that species of a general
group have responded in similar ways under sim-
ilar environmental conditions. Certainly, serious
consideration must be given to the probability
that similar adaptations between fossil and
modern forms that are morphologically alike may
be true, especially if several species are involved.
In addition, species known only from the geo-
logic past may be interpreted on the basis of
consistent association with species which have
representatives living today in a known habitat.
By use of this concept as a basis, faunas were
combined into biofacies according to a depth of
probable occurrence as follows.
1927
Water Depth
Biofacies in Feet
¥.sl\ia.nxiQ (^Ammobaculites) <100
Inner Shelf {Nonionella group) 100± 100
Middle and Outer Shelf (Hanzawaia, Buliminella
CMr/ff group dominant) 350 ± 200
Upper Bathyal (5(?/mwo group dominant) 1,000+ 600
Middle Bathyal {Uvigerina group dominant) 2,000+ 1,000
Lower Bathyal (Pullenia-Siphogenerina group
dominant) 4,000 ± 2 ,000
Abyssal (Gyroidina soldanii group dominant) 6,000+2,000
Some examples of estuarine biofacies occur in
the Middle Tertiary sediments of the San Joaquin
Valley and are recognized by the presence of
Ammohaculites faunas. This genus is a dominant
and characteristic form in many modern brackish
estuarine areas.
Inner shelf biofacies include Buliminella elegan-
lissima and several species of Nonionella, and
Elphidium. These genera are abundantly rep-
resented in shoal inner shelf habitats of many
areas of the world.
The middle and outer shelf biofacies are com-
posed of species such as Buliminella curia, Episto-
minella subperuviana, and various species of
Hanzawaia. Their modern counterparts are Buli-
minella cf. bassendorfensis, Epislominella vitrea,
and species of Hanzawaia, all of which are re-
ported by several authors on the continental shelf
of the Gulf of Mexico. Epislominella bradyana is
very similar to E. subperuviana and it occurs
dominantly from outer shelf to bathyal depths
along the Pacific Coast.
Upper bathyal species include many species of
Bolivina, Baggina, and Vahulineria, the modern
representatives of which are found in the tropical
Pacific off Panama and in the region around the
Philippine Islands.
Middle bathyal forms include Cyclammina, a
preponderance of species of costate Uvigerina,
together with more coarsely ornamented species
of Bolivina, and Epislominella pacifica. These also,
have modern homeomorphs and representatives
along the west coast of North and Central Amer-
ica.
Lower bathyal forms include most of the
species of Siphogenerina, Gyroidina, Pullenia
miocenica, and many others. In the tropical
Pacific Ocean, associates of Siphogenerina raph-
anus, together with Pullenia bulloides, and Gyroi-
dina soldanii occur in abundance, typical forms
being found between depths of 3,624 and 16,368
feet (Chapman, 1910).
.Abyssal biofacies include many variations of
Gyroidina soldanii, together with Anomalina
1928 O R V I L L E L. B A N D Y A N D R O B E R T E . A R N A L

GYROICf. ARENACEOUS
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF BIOFACIES

FIG. 10.—Luisian biofacies located along profile A-A' (Fig. 12), comparing generalized
benthonic groups with inferred paleobathymetry.

californiensis, Bulimina corrugata, a n d Cibicides
wUllerstorfi.
A generalized example of t h e representation of
the frequency distribution of biofacies of the
Luisian together with water-depth interpretations
is shown in Figure 10.
M I X E D FAUNAS
F a u n a l contamination or mixed faunas are pro-
duced by displacement of specimens down slopes
into deeper waters and by the reworking of older
faunas into younger assemblages. Displacement
of faunas h a s resulted in considerable mixing of
assemblages in modern seas, especially on a n d a t
the base of steep slopes (Phleger, 1951; B a n d y ,
1953). I n t h e Middle Tertiary, depth assignments
were based on the deepest elements in each fauna,
t h u s minimizing t h e chance of erroneously infer-
ring depths from displaced faunas. Percentages of
shoal faunas m a y be computed to delineate dis-
placed faunas (Fig. 11) as exemplified in analyses
of t h e Luisian stage in the San Joaquin Valley.
Reworking of faunas introduces three distinct
paleogeological problems in addition to t h e con-
fusion of stratigraphic interpretations. A group of
species m a y be reworked from older beds into an
environment (1) shallower t h a n , (2) t h e same as,
or (3) deeper t h a n t h a t which they represent. If
known index species occur in b o t h reworked and
existing faunas, or if the preservation character-
istics differ between the two, a solution is rela-
tively easy. If n o t , then other methods must be
applied. I n the first case mentioned, deeper-water
species reworked with shallower-water species
commonly a p p e a r as a distinct group with an
absence of assemblages representing depths inter-
mediate between the two. If the shallow species
had been displaced into deep water, those species
a t intermediate depths also would have been dis-
placed in all probability into deeper water. I n the
second case, unless there is a recognizable differ-
ence in fossil indices or preservation, a solution is
unlikely. I n the third case, by using the deeper-
water species of a fauna for paleoecological
analyses, the correct environment will be indi-
cated, b u t there m a y be considerable difficulty in
distinguishing between reworking and displaced
shoal species. F o r purposes of paleoecology, then,
the first case is the one most likely to cause serious
errors of interpretation; however, this situation is
commonly recognizable on the basis of one of the
criteria given.
PALEOBATHYMETRY
After assignment of species to approximate
depth ranges, faunal groupings m a y be made and
these then serve a s the basis for assigning values
for b a t h y m e t r y to successive stratigraphic stages
in each well of the area investigated. For example,
in the Luisian stage of the San Joaqufn Valley, a
 CONCEPTS OF FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY 1929

FIG. 11.—Displaced faunas of Luisian stage for San Joaquin basin. Isopleths represent
percentages of total benthonic foraminiferal assemblage.

paleobathymetric reconstruction based on this
type of evidence (Fig. 12) agrees with the general
indications of the other trends considered earlier.
This particular map represents averaged values
for the entire stage, which provides the deepest,
or nearly the deepest possible biofacies for the
entire stage, regardless of whether a specific area
began as shallow and ended deep or vice versa. For
this reason, it may be desirable to compute
analyses for the beginning of one stage to the
beginning of the next. It is interesting to note the
suggestion of submarine canyons near Bakers-
field, perhaps the more important channels feed-
ing coarser sediments into the deeper basin at
the southwest.
PALEOTECTONICS
The vertical component of tectonic movements
which have affected, the floor of the basin from
one stage to another may be calculated by deter-
1930 ORVILLE L. BANDY AND ROBERT E. ARNAL

120° ~r7
119

PALE©iATHYMETRY^g^^Q^TAFT
CONTOURS :N FEL^^
"''° ^£LOW SEA LEVEL
0 20 MILES

Fig. 12.—Paleobathymetry of Luisian stage for San Joaqufn basin. Isobaths in feet,
representing average depth of water for stage.
mining the interrelations of changes in depth of of the preceding stage, the amount of subsidence
water and sediment thickness from one stage to is the same as the thickness of the section; (3) if
the next (Bandy, 1953). Progressive movements the depth indicated by the facies at the end of one
may be computed as follows (Fig. 13): (1) if the stage is less than the depth suggested at the end
depth of water indicated by facies at the end of of the preceding stage, the amount of shoaling is
one stage is greater than the depth at the end of then subtracted from the sedimentary thickness
the preceding stage, the amount of deepening is to obtain the subsidence figure; and (4) if, in the
added to the sedimentary thickness to obtain the last case, the amount of shoaling indicated is in
total subsidence; (2) if no change of depth (facies) excess of the sedimentary thickness, the excess of
occurs between the end of one stage and the end shoaling represents the approximate uplift. An
 CONCEPTS OF FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY 1931

h a b i t a t s ; arenaceous populations including Cy-

WATER / \\ WATER // clammina a n d related forms occur in the b a t h y a l
1 N^ ^ y^ / / zone; a n d d e p t h ranges of modern representatives
and of homeomorph Tertiary species a r e used in
calibrating fossil Foraminifera into seven major
biofacies ranging from estuarine to deep bathyal
or abyssal depths.
WATER /\\ WATER // F a u n a l Contamination duc to displacement m a y
2 V / \i\ J^y be minimized b y using t h e deepest b a t h y m e t r i c
SUBSIDENCE indicator species in each sample. Contamination
SEDIMENT'' — « ^ (Jue t o reworking m a y be recognized b y differ-
ences in preservation a n d incongruous mixtures of
index species of different ages.
WATER /i Application of the foregoing mutually corrobora-
3 \ / \[?>Tr:r~^,.^-:^':./ five methods of paleoecology h a s permitted t h e
^ r,„,„^.„^ reconstruction of paleobathymetric a n d paleo-
SUBSIDENCE . . . . . . ^
SEDIMENT ' ~-~~-^ tectonic conditions m t h e San Joaquin basin.
Generally, t h e San Joaquin was a p r o m i n e n t
-| 1~^N; Z^ shoaling seaway during much of t h e later Ter-
y / ^^^'^?7Tyu:r^::0^ tiary, with continuous tectonic activity suggested
\ / ^'^^'if^^^^^'-''^ throughout t h e Middle Tertiary. Structural
\ ^ ^ / SEDIMENT--^ UPLIFT ^ j i . j • .i • ^ n i
=^ trends developed in this way appear t o parallel
FIG. 13.-Method of computing paleotectonism. (1) significant oil-producing trends.
Where water depth increases from one stage to next,
add amount of deepening to stratigraphic thickness to REFERENCES
obtain total subsidence. (2) If water depth remains same _ "Ecoloric Asoects and Strati
from one stage to next, amount of subsidence is approxi- ^J^'^^'."'•.**-.• ^^^*' ,~S % ^ ^ P ? " ^ ^'^'J ^ " a t i -
^ 1 \fr°:^'''-^ x. ••' . . , „^„„„ !xsj( •.!,„ graphic Significance of the Foramimfer Cyclammma
mately thickness of section for that stage 3) If the %^aiata Brady," Jour. Paleon., Vol. 28, pp. 132-52.
water depth decreases from one stage to next, amount T J . , , „ „ rt r 10=2 "T? 1 _ ^ T> 1 1 ;
of shoaling is subtracted from strati|raphic thickness to BANDY O L-, 19^3, Ecology and Paleoecology of
obtain value for subsidence. (4) If, as in number 3, Some New Cahforma Foraminifera. Part I. The Fre-
\ c u ,. • *>,„„ „^,„^:„™„l„v^^,:,^„a=•, quency Distribution of Recent Foraminifera off Call-
amount of shoaling is more than stratigraphic thickness, („ „;„ T>„.t TT 17 „ „ • -C 1 V -J tC U -J
then excess of shoaling represents approximate uplift. 1,°™: i ^ T h e V n ^ a T S ' S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
82;200-03.
, 1954, "Distribution of Some Shallow-Water
example of the application of this concept in t h e Foraminifera in the Gulf of Mexico," U. S. Geol.
s t u d y of Luisian sediments (Fig. 14) shows con- Survey Prof. Paper 254-F.
siderable subsidence between Bakersfield a n d -, 1956, "Ecology of Foraminifera in Northeast-
ern Gulf of Mexico," ibid.. Prof. Paper 274-G.
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Q u a n t i t a t i v e foraminiferal trends of signifi- GALLOWAY, J. J., 1933, A Manual of Foraminifera. The
Principia Press, Inc., Bloomington, Indiana.
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are most a b u n d a n t in biofacies indicative of t h e LOWMAN, S. W . , 1949, "Sedimentary Fades in Gulf
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Ammobaculites occur in estuarine a n d related , 1954, "Distribution of the Foraminifera in the
 1932 O R V I L L E L. B . 4 N D Y A N D R O B E R T E. A R N A L

VERTICAL MOVEMEN
0 20 MILES Z / UJIJ-JV—^ iiqo

FIG. 14.—Paleotectonics of Luisian stage for San Joaqufn basin. Uplift represented by dashed isopleths, cross-hatched
areas, and arrows pointing North; subsidence represented by solid isopleths and arrows pointing South.

Northeastern Gulf of Mexico," ibid.. Vol. H I , No. 10,
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PHLEGER, F . B , 1951, "Displaced Foraminifera Faunas,
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, 1951, "Ecology of Foraminifera of Northwest
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RESIG, JOHANNA, 1958, "Ecology of Foraminifera of
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SAID, RUSHDI, 1949, "Foraminifera of the Northern
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SVERDRUP, H . U . , JOHNSON, M . VV., AND FLEMING,
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WALTON, W . R . , 1955, "Ecology of Living Benthonic
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ZALESNY, E . R . , 1959, "Foraminiferal Ecology of
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