CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Environmental degradation is an issue of growing concern not just in Kenya but globally. This is

so since the effects of degradation affect not just the people in the immediate vicinity but in the

whole ecosystem. There is growing debate about the effects that environmental degradation and

human activities have on the biosphere as well as the long-term effects of this degradation to

guaranteeing peace and security particularly human security and the general wellbeing of the

people.

The debate on the nexus between environment and human security has been highly politicized

not only in Africa but the world over. With the beginning of the Donald Trump regime in United

States of America (USA), environmental issues have been given a back seat in global politics

due to the desire by America to exploit natural resources for economic growth 1. Environmental

degradation is an issue that has been debated and over-politicized as well in Kenya. However,

the government has policies to ensure that the environment is able to withstand the current

population. Such policies include the paper bag ban that ensured the removal of plastic bags from

circulation in Kenya2. The charcoal ban also aimed at reducing the number of trees burned to get

charcoal by encouraging the use of other more sustainable sources of energy 3. The government

has taken strides towards environmental conservation. However, more still needs to be done

since environmental degradation continues to rise in the country4. This is evident in the many

1
Howard, P. H. (2017). Handbook of environmental degradation rates. CRC Press.
2
Kenya plastic bag ban comes into force. (2017). BBC News. Retrieved 27 December 2017, from
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41069853
3
Mary Njenga (2018). The Conversation: Banning charcoal isn’t the way to go. Kenya should make it sustainable.
Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/banning-charcoal-isnt-the-way-to-go-kenya-should-make-it-sustainable-
95610
4
Hoke, T. H., Mackenzie, C., Vance, G., Boyer, B., Canoutas, E., Bratt, J., ... & Waceke, N. (2015). Integrating
family planning promotion into the work of environmental volunteers: A population, health and environment
1
environmental hazards that are prone during heavy rains and during prolonged drought periods. 5

Population increase in the world over continues to rise and this will put pressure on the

environment which will in turn have an impact on human security, particularly food security.

The United Nations refers to environmental degradation as “the deterioration of the natural

environment through human activities and natural disasters”. 6 It is the reduction in worth of the

environment to meet its ecological and socio-economic needs. While human security refers to the

quality of life of the people of a society. “Anything which degrades their quality of life

threatening their very survival, such as demographic pressures, diminished access to resources

and so on, becomes a threat to that security.

Human security broadens the scope of security analysis and policy from territorial security to the

security of people. The 2012 United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution stresses the

role of “Member States in identifying and addressing widespread and cross-cutting challenges to

survival, livelihood and dignity of their people”. In other words, threat(s) to – and values under

threat in – people’s lives are the key starting point of a human security approach. Human security

is identified as the state of wellbeing of the individual in all aspects of security 7. It brings more

focus on the security of the individual rather than the traditional concept of security that focused

on military security. The state is therefore tasked with the role of ensuring the holistic welfare of

its citizens as per the UNDP Human Development Report (1994) pp4.

This research shall therefore focus on how environmental degradation has affected the human

security of people in Kenya. The study shall not only look at the causes of environmental

initiative in Kenya. International perspectives on sexual and reproductive health, 41(1), 43.
5
Ibid pp. 45
6
United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, UNCSD (1997). UN, Washington, USA
7
Anand, S., & Sen, A. (2017). Sustainable Human Development: Concepts and Priorities (paper written in
preparation for the 1994 Human Development Report). UNDP Human Development Report Office. Accessed, 1.
2
degradation in Kenya but also how it has a direct impact human security and human wellbeing. 8

Research shall also look at the concept human security and try create a nexus with environmental

degradation. The definition of the tenets of human security as elaborated by the United Nations

Development Program’s Human development report. Ultimately, the research will shed light on

how environmental degradation in Kenya has affected human security in the context of the

human development report of 1994.

1.1.1. The Study Area.

Mau Forest is a forest complex in the Rift Valley of Kenya. It is the main indigenous montane

forest in East African region covering 273,300 hectares. 9 The forest area has some of the highest

rainfall rates with the largest drainage basin in Kenya.10 Numerous rivers originate from the

forest, including Southern Ewaso Ng'iro, Sondu, Mara and Njoro and all these rivers feed Lake

Victoria, Lake Nakuru and Lake Natron.11

The forest has been traditionally occupied by Ogiek people, whose hunter-gatherer routine is

sustainable.12 However, due to arrival of other ethnic groups, huge parts of the forest area have

been cleared for settlement.13 Human activities, especially logging, have led to deforestation of

more than a quarter of the area since 1973. 14 In 2008, the inauguration of the Sondu-Miriu hydro

8
Mary Njenga (2018). The Conversation: Banning charcoal isn’t the way to go. Kenya should make it sustainable.
Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/banning-charcoal-isnt-the-way-to-go-kenya-should-make-it-sustainable-
95610
9
BirdLife IBA Factsheet https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Forest Accessed on 12/5/2018
10
Ibid
11
BirdLife IBA Factsheet https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Forest Accessed on 12/5/2018
12
Ibid
13
Ibid

Kanyinke Sena. "MauForest: Killing the goose but still wanting the golden eggs" (PDF). IWGIA
14

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Forest
3
power plant was postponed due to low water levels, that are said to be resulting from the

destruction of Mau Forest.15

Figure 1.1 The Map of Mau Forest Complex

Source: Kenya Forest Services

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Daily Nation, July 22, 2008: Selfish interests threaten Mau forest Archived 2008-11-23 at the Wayback Machine.
15

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Forest Accessed on 12/5/2018

4
Today’s world is an insecure place for human survival on many fronts. Human activity on the

environment has generated adverse effects that threaten the very existence of basic life. The

growing concern on the effects of environmental degradation on human security dominates

discussions on the local, regional and international security arena.

Particularly, the events unfolding from the Mau Forest have become the center stage of

environmental reform policy in Kenya. Over the past three decades, the Mau Forest has

undergone significant land use changes due to increased human population demanding land for

settlement and subsistence agriculture.

The encroachment has led to drastic and considerable land fragmentation, deforestation of the

headwater catchments and destruction of wetlands previously existing within the fertile upstream

parts. The effects of human activity in the region are beginning to take a toll on populations,

evident from the diminishing river discharges during periods of low flows and deterioration of

river water qualities as a result of pollution from point and non-point sources. Additionally, the

effects of climate change and variability, intertwined with dwindling land and water resources

has given rise to insecurity and conflicts associated with the competition for limited natural

resources.

The development of research on the rise of human security as both a concept and a discourse, has

created a wide opening for interrogation of the links between environmental degradation and

human security. Shockingly, there has been very little direct attention to this area of research.

Whereas there has been some conversation on the relationship between climate change and

conflict16, and on the relationship between biodiversity conservation and violence 17, there has

been little emphasis on the broader implications of environmental degradation on human

Myers, N. 1993. Ultimate security: The environmental basis of political stability. New York: W. W. Norton
16

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c828/5765a4b49e6d6579590c5b335e46540990c9.pdf accessed on 11/28/2018

5
security, including how increased human security can potentially mitigate environmental change.

Scanty literature is especially available on the threats posed on human security in Mau region

resulting from the disappearing natural water reserves.

This study therefore attempts to examines the nexus between the changing land and water flow

regimes in the Mau Forest and demonstrates how these variables affect the security of

populations in the region. From a theoretical and practical perspective, the study provides

recommendations that will progressively shape the ongoing debate on environmental reform

policy in Kenya.

1.3. Research Questions

1. What are the trends and causes of environmental degradation in Mau Forest in Kenya?

2. What impact has environmental degradation had on human security in Mau Forest in

Kenya?

3. What measures has the Kenyan government explored in its efforts to counter human

insecurities in Mau Forest in Kenya as a result of environmental degradation?

1.4. Research Objectives

The main objective of this study is to discuss the threats to environmental degradation to human

security in Africa with a focus on the diminishing natural water reserves of Mau forest in Kenya.

Matthew, Richard A. 2002. In defense of environment and security research. Environmental Change and Security
17

Project Report 8 (Summer): 109–124.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c828/5765a4b49e6d6579590c5b335e46540990c9.pdf accessed on 11/28/2018
6
1.4.1. Specific Objectives

1. To study and analyze the trends and causes of environmental degradation in Mau Forest

in Kenya.

2. To assess the impact of environmental degradation on human security in Mau Forest in

Kenya.

3. To evaluate the measures that have been explored by Government of Kenya in its efforts

to counter human insecurities in Mau Forest in Kenya as a result of environmental

degradation

1.5. Literature Review

This section presents the major studies carried out on the subject areas under study. This is with a

view of establishing the major talking points in these studies as well as delineating the literature

gaps in the existing literature.

7
1.5.1. Environmental Degradation as a Human Security Threat

The limitations imposed by local environmental conditions and their natural unpredictability

were powerful determining factors of the security of people and civilizations throughout most of

human history:18 droughts, frosts, storms, animals and other environmental agitations were

significant causes of disease, mortality and societal disturbance. In the present modern cultures,

industrial development, trade, technology, the use of fossil fuels, and higher levels of social

organization and professional specialization have all deteriorated the constraints that local

ecologies place on human security.19 Over the same period, the population globally has increased

from one billion to more than six billion people, and most people now live longer, consume

more, and are well educated than in preceding generations. 20 Despite of all this progression, the

threats that changes in environment pose to human safety have not been eliminated.

The scale of pollution and consumption in contemporary societies has led to large drops in prime

forest cover; land, coastal and marine degradation: biodiversity losses; water pollution and

depletion of fish stocks; climate change including rising see levels and the contamination of

individuals, floras, and faunas by chemicals and dangerous substances.21

The emergent threat from environmental degradation has been lent credence from various

authorities on the subject. The then United Nations Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon stated that;

Richard A.et al. (2010) Global Environmental Change and Human Security: An Introduction The MIT Press
18

Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c828/5765a4b49e6d6579590c5b335e46540990c9.pdf
19
Ibid
20
Ibid
21
Ibid
8
 “deteriorating environment can threaten much that has been accomplished by the

mankind in the course of the last several decades. It undermines our struggle against

poverty. And finally, it can even threaten international peace and security.”22

The idea that accelerating levels of industrialization and urbanization, and the attendant depletion

of non-renewable natural resources will have a devastating effect on future livelihoods’ ability to

sustainably guarantee their human security has permeated the scholarly and policy discourse.

Ban-Ki-Moon’s views have been echoed in numerous literature on the effects of environmental

degradation on human security. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 23 is candid in

its linkage of human activities to extreme fluctuations in temperature, droughts and floods as

well as the melting of icebergs. Its views are informed by years of study on forestry, among

other areas. This study benefits from this IPCC research due to its linkage of forest cover and

human security.

By 2050, forest cover in developing areas will have shrunk to alarming levels due to forest fires,

pests and climactic events among them drought, wind and floods. 24 However, the direct cause is

by such human activities as wood harvesting, urbanization, forest grazing, industrialization and

large-scale farming. Most of these activities do circumvent the domestic legal frameworks of

African countries. Numerous studies on the various ways in which Africa is losing her

biodiversity and environmental abound.

22
The United Nations Bulletin, Number 2 of 2007
23
IPCCC, Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar4/wg3/ar4_wg3_full_report.pdf P 555.
24
IPCCC, Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, P 556.
9
A Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)25 report in an aptly titled document The Magnitude

of the Problem, observes that Africa's forests and woodlands, one of the continent's most

important resources, are being depleted at an alarming rate. The document underscores the role

played by trees in protecting the environment; as principal sources of rural energy and providing

countless medicinal and industrial products used in both the home and in small-scale industry.

They often supply food and feed, are the main source of building materials in the countryside

and are a direct source of employment and income for many rural Africans. By inference, it

follows that the depletion of forest cover generates unemployment, leads to a deterioration of

health and nutrition standards, thus becoming a human insecurity challenge. FAO’s insight shed

light on the possible detriments of Mau Forest depletion, something that is the focus of this

study.

FAO’s summations are echoed in a study carried out by Olang and Kundu 26 who directly link

dilapidations of ecosystems to loss of income, increasing unemployment rate, and unequal

distribution of wealth. They broaden the definition of the terms environmental degradation and

livelihood by contextualizing the occurrences in Africa. According to them, nearly 4 million

hectares of this resource is declining annually, largely in West Africa where Cameroon, Côte

d'lvoire and Nigeria are witnessing the most destruction. According to Olang and Kundu, the

cause of deforestation is mainly clearing for agriculture but uncontrolled logging, gathering for

fuelwood, fire and overgrazing are also taking their toll.

A study by IRIN27 reveals that Uganda’s deforestation levels are also worsening as is the case in

West Africa. From the 1990s, an annual decrease of 2% has resulted in the decline of Uganda’s
25
See a comprehensive uploaded document on FAO’S website at http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5318E/x5318e02.htm

Olang, L. O., and Kundu, P. M., “Land Degradation of the Mau Forest Complex in Eastern Africa: A Review for
26

Management and Restoration Planning”, Environmental Monitoring, pp. 245-262, Edited by E. Ekundyao, published
online, November 2011, Retrieved on 3rd December 2018.
10
forests. This authoritative study observes that regions previously malaria-free are now witnessing

a steady rise in temperatures-a conducive climate for this disease. IRIN further notes that

Uganda’s main cash crop-coffee, is threatened with extinction due to these rising temperatures.

Therefore, Uganda’s forex earnings from coffee are in danger of being wiped out by

deforestation. This study benefits from this study by IRIN as it has exposed the wide-ranging

disadvantages of malicious deforestation and the extrapolation of this study in the Mau is

therefore necessary.

Balaban28 presents the human insecurity challenge posed by environmental degradation.

According to him, the African continent is becoming water-scarce and that the increase in

desertification will bring with it the increased occurrence of infectious diseases. He further posits

that deepening degradation will make scarce natural resources such as water, pasture, arable

land, thus deepening societal conflicts in these African countries, and that some of these regions

experiencing conflict might provide operation bases for violent extremist groups- a culmination

of which is going to be failed states. 29 This is an insightful study by Balaban that provides

valuable information on the linkage between environmental degradation and the resultant threat

to human security. In its examination of the Mau Forest, this study seeks to advance these

arguments by Balaban.

IRIN, “Uganda: Alarm Over High Rate of Deforestation,” retrieved from hhttp://en.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?
27

ReportId=70892.

Milos
28
Balaban, Environmental Degradation as a Security Threat, retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229049258_Environmental_degradation_as_a_security_threat pp. 1-11.
29
Balaban, Environmental Degradation, P. 5.
11
Muigua30 underscores the vital role played by the environment in guaranteeing the enjoyment of

a right to life. As an issue that has emerged as a global issue demanding address, environmental

degradation has prompted a re-examination of the traditional conceptions of traditional security

approaches. As the globe transitioned from focusing on regime security as the sole referent point

of international peace and security, there was a focus on threats other than military threats.

According to Rita,31 the importance of environmental security as one key of human security

cannot be overstated. In her study, she elucidates on the role played by environmental security

as gathered in the concerted efforts to ensure an ecological balance between nature and human

development. From her study, it emerges that an ecocentric approach to sustainable development

needs to be enmeshed in national and global development discourses. It therefore follows that

diminishing natural resources are part of this threat, a situation that was not adequately covered

in Rita’s study. This study therefore seeks to accommodate this in the African and the Kenyan

context in particular.

Eswaran and Reich32 have carried out a study on the effects of land degradation in North and

West Africa on food security and agricultural production. To them, most of the Mediterranean

countries are highly susceptible to desertification and that the dense populations and immense

population pressure of West Africa are contributing to deforestation, overgrazing and in the

worsening situation as livelihoods dependent on the environment are slowly but surely

Kariuki Muigua, “Achieving Environmental Security in Kenya,” retrieved from http://kmco.co.ke/wp-

30

content/uploads/2018/08/Environmental-Security-in-Kenya-30th-April-2018-Kariuki-Muigua-PhD-1.pdf, May
2018, P. 3

F. Rita, “The Environmental Security Debate and Its Significance for Climate Change,” The International
31

Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 43, Issue 3, 2008, pp.51-65 at p. 56.
32
Eswaran, H., R. Lal, and P.F, Reich., “Land Degradation: An overview. in Responses to Land Degradation”. 2nd.
International Conference on Land Degradation and Desertification. Khon Kaen, Thailand: Oxford Press, New
Delhi, India 2010, pp 2-30
12
descending into poverty. A similar situation is portrayed in a study by Mark and Kudakwashe 33

who state that right from the 1980’s, there has been a seemingly irreversible trend in the land use

and land-cover patterns as revealed by sustained upsurge in cultivated areas and the attendant

decline in natural woodland, and grassland in the world as well as in Zimbabwe. Their study

further reveals that land is becoming a scarce resource due to immense agricultural and

demographic pressure in Zimbabwe and this is resulting into an accelerated rate of

environmental degradation.

Muiruri34 acknowledges the important role played by forests in regulating climates, checking of

desertification and in key resource providers to communities who depend on it. It is on this basis

that forests have been thrust at the Centre of environmental conflicts as different communities

compete for a share of the resources that lie within.

1.5.2. The Human Security Challenge with the Degradation of the Mau.

Nabutola35 documents the economic and social consequences of the depletion of the Mau

ecosystem. One direct impact cited by Nabutola is the collapse of wildlife tourism due to the

diminishing water levels of the major lakes which are habitats of diverse flora and fauna. He

cites the example of Lake Nakuru National Park and Maasai Mara National Game Reserve as

such examples. Further evidence of the economic impact of the collapse of this vital ecosystem is

the prevalence of drought in Narok area, a situation that is leading to large scale losses by the

Maasai whose livestock is being decimated by these harsh weather conditions. At the societal

Mark, Matsa and Kudakwashe, Muringaniza. Rate of Land use/ Cover Change in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe:
33

Drivers for Change. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa vol. 12 (2010) No. 3
Simon Mungai Muiruri, “The Impact of Environmental Degradation on Security: A Case Study of Mau Forest,”
34

Masters Thesis, 2016, p.

Wafula Nabutola, “The Mau Forest in the Rift Valley: Kenya’s Largest Water Tower: A Perfect Model for the
35

Challenges and Opportunities of a Sustainable Development Project?” pp 1-24, 2010

13
level, Nabutola cites the displacement of families who are now forced to search for other sources

of livelihoods besides the forest. There is also an emerging human-wildlife conflict as well as

conflicts between communities as this Forest’s scarce resources are now sought after in a zero-

sum game. Nabutola’s study is valuable to this study in its exposition on the causes and impact

of the degradation of the Mau. The human security angle is however glossed over, something

that this study seeks to address. This study therefore picks up from Nabutola’s study.

Chaudhry36 documents the colonial and post-colonial assault of the Mau. He notes that the

deliberate efforts of successive governments to resettle landless people. The desire to gain

political mileage by placing communities of a certain political/ethnic leaning propelled the

excision of large areas of the forest the result of which was the intermittent ethnic clashes in the

Rift Valley.37 Chaudhry38 notes the uninspiring efforts to evict and reforest amid more excisions

of the forest over the years. The result has been receding water tables of underground aquifers,

and as the integrity of the soil protection properties of the forest diminish due to deforestation,

there arises large scale soil erosion, siltation and sedimentation that has resulted into loss of

agricultural productivity.39 As the figure below suggests, the situation is dire for the Mau and a

failure to check this human encroachment will be disastrous for this ecosystem.

Shazia Chaudhry, “Climate Change and Human Security in Africa: A Case Study of the Mau Forest Complex,
36

1963 – 2012,” Masters Thesis, p. 161.

This is one of the causes of the ethnic conflicts as cited in 80 The Ndung’u Report, 2003, p. 23, Retrieved online, 3
37

November 2018.
38
Shazia Chaudhry, Climate Change and Human Security in Africa, 2014, p. 206
39
H, Oyieko, “Assessment of Vegetation Cover and Biodiversity Hotspots in the Mau Forest Complex”, Report by
the Prime Ministers Task Force on the Conservation of the Mau Forest Complex, National Museums of Kenya
Biodiversity team, Nairobi, March 2009.
14
Boitt 40undertakes a study on the Impacts of Mau Forest catchment depletion on the Great Rift

Valley Lakes in Kenya. From his study, it is evident that Mau Forest, the largest water catchment

area at 273,300 hectares is source of dozens of rivers and catchments areas to Lakes Victoria,

Baringo, Nakuru, Natron, Naivasha and Turkana. It is also evident from this study that Mau’s

depletion rate between 1989 and 2010 was 7%. This insight is valuable as there is statistical

evidence presented to show the steady decimation of the forest. The study further outlines the

supposed role of the Mau Complex to the greater East African economy. The study however

delimits itself to geospatial survey of the drastic decline of the forest. This study therefore

proceeds from the crisis presented in this study by Boitt to lay bare the human insecurity brought

about by this degradation.

41
The statistics provided in Boitt’s study are bettered in Gichora et al’s study. They note that

Kenya’s forest cover stands at 1.7% against the international threshold of 10%. From their study,

the Mau is Kenya’s ultimate water tower has been shrunk drastically over the years to reduce

Kenya’s environmental sustainability.

Climate change has also been highlighted in existing literature. Scholars have alluded to the

disrupted harvests and erratic crop yields, high prevalence of destructive floods and droughts. 42

There have been recording of prolonged frost and hailstorms that is ravaging tea farms in the

Mau. Populations of rare species of wildlife such as the Yellow Back Duikers, the bongo and

elephants are now easily accessed as man forays deeper into the forest. A Status Report on the

Mark Kipkurwa Boitt, Impacts of Mau Forest Catchment on the Great Rift Valley Lakes in Kenya, 2016, pp. 137-
40

145.
Mercy Gichora, Frank Masai, Joseph Kiema and Christine Baari, Forests and Woodlands (Chapter Five), retrieved
41

online at https://www.nema.go.ke/images/Docs/Regulations/KenyaSoECh5.pdf pp84-107.

42
Chaudhry, Nabutola, Kinda have for instance documented the decline of Kenya’s largest and most important water
tower. Similar accounts are also found in The Prime Minister’s Task Force as cited above.
15
Mau43 details the 39% decline in the land area of the Mau Forest and the resultant impact. This

study has established that the environmental degradation of the Mau Forest will have a drawback

effect on Kenya’s economy; in worsened water supply, and energy generation, loss of tourist

earnings, soil erosion, that will have grave consequences for the agricultural and pastoral

communities.

1.6. Theoretical Framework

This study will adopt the Basic Needs Approach (BNA), employed by Social Scientists to

measure conditions of poverty. It outlines the absolute minimum resources that are necessary for

sustainable livelihoods. This approach advances the concept of a poverty line that denotes the

amount of resources (income) that is necessary for the enjoyment of a quality of life. This

approach focuses on a community’s needs, the deficiencies in such a community that hinder the

satisfaction of basic human needs. It focuses on mobilizing essential groups who are deficient. It

ascribes specific names and resources required in candid, clear terms thus avoiding any

ambiguity. 44

Advanced by the International Labour Organization in 1976, this theory had its antecedents in

previous writings of the Cocoyoc Declaration of 1974 and the What Now-Another Development?

It proposed that the overriding goal of any societal, national or international developmental

policies should focus on the satisfaction of basic needs. According to the ILO, the minimum

requirements of a typical family include adequate food, shelter and clothing. Alongside these are

the essential services that ought to be availed at the societal level. These include safe drinking

water, health and educational facilities. Besides these, the family requires sanitation, public
43
Maasai Mau Forest Status Report 2005, op cit, p. 18
44
Richard Jolly (October 1976). "The World Employment Conference: The Enthronement of Basic
Needs". Development Policy Review. A9 (2): 31–4
16
transport and cultural facilities. The individual was to also be entitled to access employment and

decision-making avenues. This implies a self-reliance and participation approach in ensuring that

decisions aimed at empowering communities take into consideration their immediate basic

needs.

Galtung45 avers that the BNA focuses on structures (that facilitates access to goods and services),

processes (where interactions among the various actors takes place) and capabilities. Galtung

fronts this approach as a way of fostering development by developing the human-centered

approach to all development. This theory is linked to his theory of Cultural Violence which

identifies symbolic violence as a form of conflict faced by communities due to disparities

between the actual and ideal. By inference, it can be said that this approach views local as well as

global environmental problems as affecting poor people most. To advance this further, this

approach regards local environmental concerns such as pollution and waste disposal,

deforestation and soil degradation as causing a direct effect on the less privileged members of

society. By focusing on the environmental degradation of the Mau, it becomes clear that Water

pollution and contamination, air pollution, domestic solid waste, industrial hazardous waste, soil

degradation and desertification, deforestation and loss of biodiversity are some local

environmental concerns which affect the immediate communities to the forest.

This theory has been critiqued for being overly top-down, ascribing which conditions are

required by “experts” in an albeit paternalistic way that disregards the unique individual and

communal preferences. This theory is however chosen for its strong points, especially in this

context of environmental degradation. It aptly explains the causes and effect of the degradation

of the Mau. Basically, this challenge is as a result of man’s desire for subsistence and that the

Johan Galtung, “The Basic Needs Approach,” retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/346432819/The-

45

Basic-Needs-Approach-pdf p. 3
17
fact that there are no adequate options for subsistence away from the Mau, communities are

resorting to exploiting the only resource within their reach-the forest. It also follows that an

approach at development must address the human insecurity challenges that are driving such

destructive practices. The diagram below illustrates it thus;

Figure 2.1: The Basic Needs Approach

Source: Owlcation

1.7. Justification of the Study

Policy Justification

The research findings of this study will hopefully be useful to policy makers as it will provide

information that will assist during policy making and formulation of environmental policies and

especially those addressed by this study. The findings will hopefully be beneficial especially in

helping policy makers design strategies and mechanisms to combat human insecurities realized

18
as a result of diminishing natural water reserves, a form of environmental degradation in Mau

Forest to be specific and in Africa at large.

Academic Justification

The findings of this research will contribute to a wide range of knowledge that will be used to

enrich the already existing literature on the areas of research that the study will focus on. These

areas include: Examining and analyzing the trends and causes of environmental degradation in

Kenya: Assessing the impact of environmental degradation on human security in Mau Forest in

Kenya and evaluating the measures that have been explored by Government of Kenya in its

efforts to counter human insecurities in Mau Forest in Kenya as a result of environmental

degradation.

1.8. Hypotheses

1. H₀ Over population and poverty are the major causes of environmental degradation in the

Mau Forest.

2. H₁ Environmental degradation have been a threat to human security in the Mau Forest in

Kenya.

3. H₂ Politicization of the issues around Mau Forest in Kenya has weakened efforts to

counter human insecurities due to degradation of the environment.

1.9. Research Methodology

This section provides a guide on how the findings of the study will be achieved. It will cover the

description of the study design, sampling techniques, scope and limitations of the study, types

19
and sources of data, data collection instruments and procedures as well as the analysis of data

collected.

1.9.1. Research Design

Mixed methods combining quantitative and qualitative methods will be adopted as the research

design for this study. Observation method will also be useful to assess the extend in which the

environment particularly water resources have been affected by degradation around Mau as the

region under investigation.

1.9.2. Data Collection Techniques

Tools and instruments that will be used to collect data include questioners and interview guides.

Interview Guides will be administered to practitioners, policy makers and some of the area

leaders within the Mau Forest region area leaders, while questioners will be administered to local

residents.

1.9.3. Target Population

The residents (including area leaders) of Mau region where the effects of degradation have been

felt will be targeted to provide their experiences and perhaps suggest ways to mitigate on the

challenges arising as a result of diminishing water reserves in the region. various practitioners

familiar with issues of environmental degradations will also be considered to weigh in as far as

the topic of study is concerned.

1.9.4. Sampling Techniques

The researcher will employ purposive sampling and cluster random sampling techniques to

determine individuals to administer the data collection instruments to. Practitioners, key policy

20
makers and some of the Mau regions area leaders will be determined through purposive

sampling. Residents and area leaders will be determined through cluster random sampling.

1.9.5. Types and Sources of Data

The researcher will use both primary and secondary data. Primary data basically concentrate on

respondents’ opinions and experiences concerning the area of investigation This will be achieved

through the administration of data collection tools to the already sampled population. Relevant

secondary data such as books, journals reports, academic studies, government documents and

policies will be used.

1.9.6. Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study will attempt to discuss the threats to human security due to environmental challenges

in Africa with a focus on environmental degradation in Mau Forest in Kenya. The study will

examine and analyze the causes of environmental degradation in Kenya, to assess the impact of

environmental degradation in Mau Forest in Kenya and evaluate the measures that have been

employed by Kenyan government in it’s efforts to counter the rising human insecurities in Mau

Forest in Kenya as a result of environmental degradation. The researcher acknowledges that

there will be limitations to the study. Logistical challenges due to financial constraints are among

the major limitations anticipated and the researchers hopes to mitigate that through proper budget

planning. Other limitations anticipated will be lack of cooperation among the respondents,

cultural biases, unreliable data and language barrier.

1.9.7. Data Analysis

21
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) will be used as an aid in the analysis of

quantitative data which will be presented accurately using graphs and pie charts, while content

analysis will be used to analyze qualitative data.

1.9.8. Validity and Reliability

Reliability checks confirm whether the results of an instrument are stable and consistent and it’s

the extent to which a given measuring instrument produces the same result each time it is used.

This study will achieve reliability through the assembly and coding of information gathered to

ensure that only credible information was used. Moreover, the researcher will be keen to identify

and document the opinions of respondents and authorities in the field of study without any biases

and subjectivity.

Validity measures whether individual results of an instrument are meaningful and allows the

researcher to draw good conclusions from the sample population being studied. It's also a degree

to which results attained from analysis of data that actually represent the phenomenon under

study. Content validity will be realized through proper “inspection” and “sieving” of the

information. Various themes, as guided by the objectives of the study will be adopted providing

the benchmarks for which to admit or reject information.

1.9.9. Ethical Consideration

The researcher will observe research ethics in various ways. Firstly, the researcher will ensure

that formal consent from the institution is sought and that a letter from the supervisor is always

produced during data collection. This will be in an attempt to give confidence to the respondents

that the study will be indeed for academic use and not for any personal or negative motives.
22
Professional authorization from National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation

(NACOSTI) will also be sought as it is a requirement for any researcher before collecting

primary data in Kenya. Secondly the researcher will make sure to avoid Plagiarism and fraud by

confirming that all other authors’ publications and works are acknowledged. Confidentiality and

Anonymity will be maintained by guaranteeing respondents to keeping the information

confidential. No names will be mentioned if that will be the wish of the respondents. Thirdly the

researcher will undertake preliminary tests and obtain all the background information to avoid

imparting any harm to subjects during the actual data collection period.

1.9.10. Chapter Outline

This research is divided into six chapters with each chapter covering a specific topic area as

follows;

Chapter One: This is the introduction, providing a background to the study. It grounds this study

within the global context-as an issue requiring concerted policy and practical attention as well as

a research problem that demands scholarly study to fill the gap in literature. This chapter further

lists the statement of the problem, research questions, objectives of the study, justification of the

study, literature review and literature review including the research methodology. The rest of the

chapters will be organized as follows:

Chapter Two: Objective two will be expounded as chapter two of this research study where the

researcher will examine and analyze the trends and causes of environmental degradation in

Kenya.

Chapter Three: This chapter will focus on the Kenyan context through assessing the impact of

environmental degradation on human security in the Mau Forest.

23
Chapter Four: Under this chapter, policy dynamics will be discussed at length as the researcher

will evaluate measures that have been explored by Government of Kenya in its efforts to counter

human insecurities in Mau Forest in Kenya as a result of environmental degradation.

Chapter Five: Inferences for data collected will be analyzed and presented in various ways under

this chapter.

Chapter Six: This is the concluding chapter of this study, containing a summary of the study as

well as conclusions based on the observations made in the previous chapter. Recommendations

are also made on the way forward followed by suggested areas for further studies.

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27
 The Threat of Environmental Degradation to Human Security in Africa: A Case of the
Diminishing Water resources in the Mau Forest in Kenya

The main objective of this study is to discuss the threats of environmental degradation on human
security in Africa with a focus on the diminishing water reserves of Mau Forest in Kenya.

Specific Objectives
1. To study and analyze the trends and causes of environmental degradation in Kenya.
2. To assess the impact of environmental degradation on human security in Mau Forest in
Kenya.
3. To evaluate the measures that have been explored by Government of Kenya in its efforts
to counter human insecurities in Mau Summit in Kenya as a result of environmental
degradation.

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A: BIO DATA
Tick or Fill Where Appropriate:
a) Name {optional} ______________________________________________
b) Gender: {Male or Female} ________________________________________
Please tick where it applies
c) Age: 18-24 [] 25-34 [] 35-44 [] 45 and above []
d) Marital Status_____________________________________________________
e) Highest Level of Education___________________________________________

SECTION B: CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

1. What are the economic activities that you involve yourself in?
2. What are some of the environmental destruction activities that are carried out in your
area?

3. Human beings are the main agents of environmental degradation in your area?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
4. If YES, briefly describe?
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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

28
 5. If No, briefly describe other agents?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Causes of environmental degradation in Mau Forest
Likert scale (S.A –Strongly Agree, A-Agree, N-Neutral, D-Disagree, S.D-Strongly
Disagree)

S.A A N D S.D
Inland forest cover loss/ depletion

Land use change. (e.g., catchment zone)

Forests encroachment
Deforestation
Industrialization (Setting up of industries)

SECTION C: THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON HUMAN

SECURITY IN THE MAU FOREST IN KENYA
7. Environmental degradation is a threat to human security?
Yes [ ]
NO [ ]
8. Impact of environmental degradation on human security in Mau region in Kenya.

S.A A N D S.D
Low agricultural production during droughts

Reduced livestock pastures, water thus reducing livestock

production
Infestation/ outbreaks of livestock diseases.
Changing trends for fresh produce Production
Trans-boundary conflicts due to competition for a trans boundary
resources, e.g. water and pasture, number of people displaced/
livestock loss
Epidemic (diseases) during excess and low rainfall e.g. malaria,
avian flu, cholera, malnutrition
Increased human wildlife conflict due to scarce resources and
competition for natural resources
Reduced aquatic and marine plants (food for fish)

29
9. The government has implemented the following initiatives to counter human threats due
to environmental degradation in the Mau Forest in Kenya.

ENVIRONMENTAL INITIATIVES S.A A N S.D D

Promotion of environmental education
Activities by local governments and citizens'
groups
Scientific and technological contributions in
conservation of Natural environment (e.g Use
of charcoal as a by-product of other materials
and not trees)
Greenhouse gas prevention measure
Conservation of biodiversity

10. Do you know of any initiative by the government of Kenya to address human insecurity
as a result of environmental degradation?
Yes [ ]
NO [ ]
11. If yes? Briefly name them:
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30
APPENDIX II–INTERVIEW GUIDE

Tick and Fill as Appropriate:

a) Name (optional) __________________________________________________________
b) Gender: {Male or Female} _________________________________________________
c) Highest Level of Education_________________________________________________
d) Name of the Organization___________________________________________________
e) Position_________________________________________________________________
1. In your own opinion what factors do you think facilitate environmental degradation in the
Mau Region?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. What are the possible causes that impact environment and derail socio-political and
economic growth?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. In line with industrialization and Kenya vision 2030 what do you think are the possible
effects to environment?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Do you think the security of our future generation is threatened?
Yes [ ]
No [ ]
5. Explain your answer Above;
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. What are some of the initiatives adopted by the government to address human insecurity
as a result of environmental degradation?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Do you think government agencies are doing enough to curb environmental insecurity?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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8. What recommendation can you make to avert threats caused by environmental
degradation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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31