MODULE - I Individual

Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology

Notes 3
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates; they differ from each
other in some way or the other. Hence the job of the psychologist is to identify and
understand this uniqueness in individuals. Such a similarity or difference between
persons reveals individual differences. It happens in our day-to-day life when we
see people around us. A question comes to mind; how and why people appear similar
or different to each other? For example when we think about their physical appearance,
we often ask ourselves why some people have dark or fair complexion, why some
people are tall and some are short, why some are thin and why some are very fat.
When we think about their psychological characteristics we often come across people
who are very talkative or less talkative, some laugh too much whereas others take
much time even to smile, some are very friendly whereas some prefer to be alone.
The present lesson tries to answer all such queries which can bother us in our everyday
life. In psychology, these are called individual differences referring to the extent
and kind of variations or similarities among people on some of the important
psychological aspects such as intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude. This
lesson will also help us understand how to assess such similarities or variations
among individuals.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
• describe the nature of individual differences;
• understand how to assess individual differences;
• discuss the nature and definition of intelligence and tools to measure it;
• explain the nature and definition of aptitude and tools to measure it;
• explain interest and tools to measure interest; and
• discuss the nature of personality and describe the different techniques used in
personality assessment.

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Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
3.1 NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
It has been observed that if we collect information about people’s characteristics
from a large sample and examine the pattern of distribution (as shown in Fig.-3.1)
we find that a large majority of the people fall in the middle range while a small
Notes
proportion lies in extreme categories. For example, most of the people fall in the
category of average height and very few are very tall or very short. This holds true
for many more characteristics including intelligence and other psychological
attributes.

Fig. 3.1 Distribution of height of a large sample of persons

The fact that people are different from each other is a very common observation.
The differences in psychological characteristics are often consistent and form a stable
pattern. By ‘consistent’, we mean that people tend to show regularity in their behaviour
and their patterns of behaviour do not change very frequently. This consistency and
stability in behaviour is unique to every person. People develop their unique traits/
characteristics and patterns of behaviour due to their genetic make up and the
environment in which they are brought up. Once we know these differences
systematically we can utilize the capabilities of people efficiently for their healthy
development. Knowing about the specific characteristics of a person is necessary in
order to extend support and utilize his or her potential to optimal level.

Individual differences occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental factors.

We inherit certain characteristics from our parents through genetic codes. The
phenotype or the expressed forms of our characteristics depend on contributions of
the socio-cultural environment. This is the reason why we are not exactly like our
parents and our parents not exactly like our grandparents. We do share similarities
with our parents in respect of many physical attributes like height, colour of eyes,
shape of nose etc. We also inherit certain cognitive, emotional and other characteristics
from our parents like intellectual competence, love for sport, creativity etc. However,
our own characteristics develop largely by the support from the environment which
we inhabit.

The environment is responsible as how we are reared, the kind of atmosphere at

house, whether it is liberal or strict, the type of education that we get, what we learn
from people, around us, books, cultural practices, peers, teachers and media All
these aspects refer to ‘environment’ which help in developing our potentials.

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MODULE - I Individual
Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
Environment, by providing models and other opportunities, helps us develop many
traits and skills. Our inheritance alone cannot decide what we become but our
environment also contributes. We know the example of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar,
who was born in a very poor family but, with the right education and environment,
became a great lawyer and also designed the Constitution of India. The latest and
Notes most well known example would be of our former President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
You can also remember many such examples, who did not become great because of
inheritance but because of the environment. Now you know that our genetic codes
vary. At the same time, surrounding environment also differs from person to person.
It sets limits or defines a range by offering different opportunities. That is why the
pattern of development of each of us is different from others. It makes us think why
we are similar in certain ways and different in others.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

1. Explain the term ‘individual differences’.

3.2 ASSESSING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures for evaluating
personal qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These procedures describe
people by specifying how they are different from or similar to other individuals.
Such assessments are frequently done by most of us when we make judgments such
as ‘nice’, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘attractive’, ‘ugly’, ‘genius’ and ‘idiot’ etc. Such judgments
can be erroneous many times. Scientific psychology tries to systematize these
procedures so that assessment can be made with minimum error and maximum
accuracy. Psychologists have developed ‘tests’ to assess these characteristics. A
psychological test is a structured technique used to generate a carefully selected
sample of behaviour.
In order to be useful for the purpose of drawing inferences about the person being
tested, it is necessary that the test should be reliable, valid and standardized. A test is
reliable if it measures a given characteristic consistently. For instance, if you assess
something the scores on separate occasions should be more or less similar. Thus a
person, if found to be of average intelligence on one occasion should also appear of
average intelligence if tested after two weeks. If a test tells two different values
while assessing the object on two occasions then it will be called unreliable. A test
of intelligence can be called reliable only when a person scores high or low
consistently on both the occasions. A good test is found to have high reliability.
The validity of a test refers to the degree to which it assesses what it intends to
assess. A valid test of personality gives a measure of a person’s personality and
predicts behaviour in situations where that aspect of personality is pertinent.

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Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
Finally, in order to be useful, an assessment tool should be standardized.
Standardization involves establishing the procedure of administration of a test to all
persons in the same way under the same conditions. It also involves establishing
group norms so that an individual’s score can be compared with those of others in a
defined group. It is very important because a test score is only a relative score. It
does not provide an absolute value as found in physical measurement. Standardization Notes
ensures uniformity and objectivity in administration and makes the results
interpretable.

Psychologists have developed tests to measure different human characteristics. In

schools, we use achievement tests which measure what people have learnt.
Psychologists frequently use tests of ability and personality. The tests of ability tell
what an individual can do when he or she is at his/her best. Ability tests measure
capacity as potential rather than achievement. Tests of intelligence and aptitude come
under this category. Aptitude refers to the ability to learn a particular kind of skill
required in a specific situation. Personality tests measure the characteristic ways of
thinking, feeling or behaving.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2

1. Define psychological assessment. Explain the need for psychological assessment.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss in brief the main properties of a psychological test.

3.3 NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT

You often come across the term intelligence in everyday life. We generally use this
term whenever we find somebody doing something very good which goes beyond
our expectation. Intelligence is one of the psychological terms used quite frequently
in various settings (e.g. school). Who can be called ‘Intelligent’? The one who gets
highest marks in exams? That person who earns many educational degrees? Is the
doctor more intelligent, or the engineer or the lawyer or the artist? One may answer
these questions in different ways depending on the meaning of intelligence.
Intelligence is much more than getting degrees. Intelligence refers to “multifaceted
abilities of people”. It gets expressed in many ways. It comes in many forms. Some
people are good in studies, some are good in repairing machines, some are good in
acting and some are great in sports. People are very good in one subject and average
in some other. The most important thing is that ‘intelligence’ is ‘functional’. It is
‘used’ to do something and to achieve something.

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MODULE - I Individual
Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
In psychology, the term intelligence has been defined in many ways. One of the
earliest definitions of intelligence was given by Binet and Simon in 1905 who defined
it as the “ability to judge well, to understand well, and to reason well”. One of the
most popular definitions of intelligence was given by Wechsler who defined it as
“the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
Notes rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”.
Gardner defined intelligence as “the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion
products which are valued within one or more cultural settings”. He used the term
‘Multiple Intelligences’ and advocated that there are eight types of intelligences
such as Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinaesthetic,
Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
Though the first attempt to measure intelligence was made by Sir Francis Galton a
more systematic approach was developed by Alfred Binet, a French Psychologist. In
1905, Binet gave the concept of Mental Age (MA) which refers to an individual’s
level of mental development relative to the environment in which he/she lives. The
term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was first devised by William Stern, a German
psychologist, in 1912. IQ is defined as mental age divided by chronological age, and
multiplied by 100: (IQ = MA/CA × 100). For example if the mental of a child is 12
and his/her Chronological age is 8 then the IQ of the child would be 150. The
intelligence test developed by Binet was revised subsequently and in 1916 the test
was given the name of Stanford - Binet test of intelligence. One of the most popular
and widely used tests of intelligence is Wechsler Scales of Intelligence. These scales
have been designed for individuals of different age groups such as Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) for children between the age of 6 and 16 years.
Intelligence tests are of two kinds Individual test and Group test. An individual test
of intelligence can be administered to a single individual at a given time whereas a
group test is administered to more than one individual at a time. On the basis of
nature of items, intelligence tests are Verbal, Non-verbal, and Performance Tests. A
verbal test requires understanding of written words. Hence it can be administered to
literate individuals only. In non-verbal test, pictures or illustrations are used as item
of the test. Performance tests are made up of certain concrete tasks. Both non-verbal
and performance tests can be administered to literate and illiterate individuals.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3

1. What do you understand by the term intelligence?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What is IQ?
_______________________________________________________________

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Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
3.4 APTITUDES AND INTERESTS, AND THEIR ASSESSMENT
You may have come across people who are very proficient in one task but not that
much in another task. Some of your friends may be very good in mathematics but
very poor in social science. Such people possess special abilities or characteristics
in a particular field but relatively low in other field. In psychology, this is called Notes
aptitude. An aptitude is a combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s
capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill, after training. These qualities
can be harnessed by appropriate training. In other words, if a person does not have
the special abilities required to become a musician, such as discrimination between
pitch, tone, rhythm, and other aspects of musical sensitivity, he/she would not be a
good musician, even after sufficient training.
There are salient differences between intelligence, aptitude, and achievement.
Intelligence relates to the ability of a person to do certain thing at a given time.
Aptitude refers to the potential ability of an individual to perform a task, which
generally consists of a combination of abilities. Achievement involves performance
at any given point of time in a particular subject (e.g. mathematics) with which you
have been made familiar.
Aptitude tests are used for predicting success in a vocation such as clerical aptitude,
mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, typing aptitude, etc. Each of these tests usually
contains a number of sub-tests. Several multiple aptitude test batteries have been
developed to assess aptitude, such as Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), the General
Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB).
Psychologists have constructed a number of tests to measure interest for children
and adults. There are vocational interest tests which help identify the interest of a
person in particular vociational areas. There are also general interest inventories.
Vocational interest tests are paper-pencil tests that assess a person’s interest and
match them with success in various occupations.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.4

1. Define aptitude.
_______________________________________________________________
2. What do you understand by aptitude batteries?

3.5 NATURE OF PERSONALITY

We all use the term ‘personality’ in day-to-day life. In psychology personality is
thought as a person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour pattern which remains
consistent across situations and over a period of time.

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MODULE - I Individual
Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
The term personality has been defined in diverse ways. Allport in 1937 gave a very
popular definition of personality which is still referred to by scholars. According to
him “personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.

Notes Psychologists have approached personality from different perspectives. Each of these
perspectives explains some aspects of personality. Now let us study in brief about
some of these perspectives:

I) The trait perspective tries to describe personality in terms of various traits.

Some times the traits are grouped into clusters. These clusters are called “types”.
For instance introversion and extraversion are two types of personality traits.
II) The psychodynamic perspective calls attention to the unconscious needs and
conflicts as well as the influence of earlier stages of development on our lives.
Sigmund Freud, a noted psychologist, provided the core concepts for this
perspective.
III) The socio-cultural perspective highlights the importance of the social and
cultural environment. In view of this theory, our personality and behaviour patterns
are acquired through interaction with others and adoption of social and cultural
norms.
IV) The humanistic perspective emphasizes the enormous potential for freedom
and growth present in each one of us. It is a view which is optimistic and
emphasizes-on positive aspects of life and potentialities.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.5

1. Define personality. Describe any two perspectives on personality?

3.6 TECHNIQUES OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

In the field of personality assessment the major focus is on the study of the nature
and intensity of various characteristics, which are generally reflected through the
behaviour of the individual in a given situation. Personality assessment measures
are classified into three categories.

A. Objective or Self report measures of personality.

B. Projective or Indirect measures of personality.
C. Situational measures of personality.

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Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
A. Objective or Self-Report Measures of Personality

In measures of this kind, the person is asked to report about himself/herself on a set
of statements organized in the form of a questionnaire or inventory. The nature of
the statement can be either closed ended or open ended. In the case of closed ended
statements, rating scales or optiional answers are given whereas in the case of open- Notes
ended statements, the person is free to describe himself or herself. A number of tests
have been developed to assess different trait domains of personality. Some of the
self-report measures of personality, which are widely used to assess personality, are
being discussed below.

(i) Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness- Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-

PI-R): This test is currently one of the most popular personality assessment
tools being used across the world. This test has been developed by Costa and
McCrae (1992) and is based on Five-Factor Model of Personality. The test has
been developed based on longitudinal studies over 15 years. It provides scores
on five major dimensions of personality. These five dimensions and facets are as
follows: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness.
(ii) Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF): This test was originally
developed by Raymond B. Cattell, Karen Cattell and Heather E. P. Cattell in
1949. Since then, the test has undergone four revisions in 1956, 1962, 1967-69,
and 1988-93. Currently the fifth edition developed by Conn & Ricke (1994) is in
practice. This test is popularly known as 16 PF and is used for age group of 16
and above. It yields scores on 16 primary traits such as social boldness, dominance,
vigilance, emotional stability and rule consciousness.It also measures five global
factors, which are Extraversion, Anxiety, Tough-Mindedness, Independence and
Self-control.
(iii)In India a number of self- report measures of personality have been developed.
Some of these modified versions are Bell Adjustment Inventory by Mohsim and
Hussain, Maslow Security-Insecurity Inventory by Singh and Jamuar, Maudsley
Personality Inventory of Eysenck in Hindi by Singh and Jodhpur Multiphasic
Personality Inventory by Joshi and Malik, amongst others.
B. Projective or Indirect Measures of Personality
Projective or indirect measures of personality are widely used personality assessment
tools. Unlike the self-report measures where the individual is provided with structured
test stimuli, in projective tests the individual has to respond to unstructured or
ambiguous stimuli. The basic assumption behind using unstructured test stimuli in
projective tests is that the individual projects his/her latent or unconscious feelings,
needs, emotions, motives etc. on to the ambiguous stimulus. The responses of the
individual in the form of projection reflect the nature of his/her personality.

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MODULE - I Individual
Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
Some popular Projective Technique are Rorschach Ink Blot Test, Thematic
Appreception Test and Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank.
C. Situational or Observation Measures of Personality.
Another technique to assess personality is to observe the behaviour of the individual
Notes in purposefully designed situation. Such tests are more effective in the assessment
of leadership, dominance, responsibility, extraversion-introversion etc. One of the
first situational tests was developed by Hartshorne, May, and their associates (1928,
1929, 1930) for the Character Education Enquiry (CEE). This test measures traits
like altruism, honesty and self-control. However, situational measures of personality
came into light during World War II when the United State Office of Strategic Services
(OSS) used situational tests for selection of military personnel for critical overseas
assignments. One of the variants of this test is Situational Stress Test in which the
individual has to react to various stressful, frustrating, or emotionally disruptive
situations where his helpers are obstructive and uncooperative.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.6

1. What is a self-report measure of personality?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the use of projective technique in measuring personality.
_______________________________________________________________
3. What do you understand by situational or observational measure of personality?
_______________________________________________________________

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• The study of individual differences focuses on the extent and kind of variations
or similarities among people on some of the important psychological aspects
such as intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude.
• Individual differences occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental
factors. The differences in psychological characteristics are often consistent and
form a stable pattern. This consistency and stability in behaviour is unique to
every person.
• Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures for evaluating
personal qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These procedures
describe people by specifying how they are different from or similar to other
individuals.
• A test should be reliable, valid and standardized. A test is reliable if it measures
a given characteristic consistently. The validity of a test refers to the degree to

28 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
which it assesses what it intends to assess. Standardization involves establishing
the procedure of administration of a test to all persons in the same way under the
same conditions.
• Intelligence refers to “multifaceted abilities of people”. In psychology the term
intelligence has been defined in many ways. Binet and Simon in 1905 defined it Notes
as the “ability to judge well, to understand well, and to reason well”.
• One of the most popular definitions of intelligence was given by Wechsler in
1939. He defined intelligence as “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual
to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment”.
• Gardner used the term ‘Multiple Intelligences and advocated that there are eight
types of intelligences such as Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical,
Bodily-kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
• The first systematic effort to assess intelligence was made in 1905 by Alfred
Binet, a French psychologist, who gave the concept of Mental Age (MA).
• The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was at first devised by William Stern, a
German Psychologist, in 1912. IQ is defined as mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100. IQ= MA/CA × 100.
• There are several Intelligence Scales developed by Wechsler such as Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults.
• There are salient differences between intelligence, aptitude, and achievement.
Intelligence refers to the ability of a person to do a certain thing at a given time.
Aptitude refers to the potential ability of the individual to learn to perform a
task. Achievement involves performance at any given point of time in a particular
subject (e.g. mathematics) with which you have been made familiar.
• Aptitude tests are used for prediction of success in various kinds of vocations
such as clerical aptitude, mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, typing aptitude,
etc. Several multiple aptitude test batteries have been developed to assess aptitude.
The most widely used is Differential Aptitude Test (DAT).
• Personality refers to a person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour patterns
which remain consistent across situations and over a period of time. Allport
defined personality as the “dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
• Psychologists have approached personality from different perspectives. These
viewpoints can be grouped in to four major types: Psychodynamic perspective,
Socio-cultural perspective, Humanistic perspective, and Trait perspective.
• Personality measures are classified into three categories: Self report measures,
Projective measures, and Situational measures.

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MODULE - I Individual
Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology

TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term “individual differences”?
Notes 2. Define Intelligence. Name any two Intelligence Tests.
3. Explain the differences between Intelligence, Aptitude and Achievement.
4. Identify the major perspectives towards the understanding of personality.

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

3.1
1. Extent and kind of variations or similarities among people on psychological
characteristics. They occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
3.2
1. Use of specific procudures employed in evaluating personal qualities, behaviours
and abilities of individuals.
2. Reliability, validity, standardization.
3.3
1. Aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and deal effectively with the environment.
2. Intelligence quotient is mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by
100 IQ = MA/CA × 100
3.4
1. Combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire
some specific skill or knowledge after training.
2. Are developed to assess aptitude eg. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) and General
Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
3.5
1. Person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour pattern which remains consistent
across situations and over a period of time. Trait perspective, biological
perspective, psychodynamic perspective, socio-cultural perspective, humanistic
perspective (any two).

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Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
3.6
1. Person is asked to report about himself / herself on a set of statements.
2. Individual has to respond to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli. The responses
in the form of projection reflect the nature of his/her personality.
Notes
3. Behaviour of individual is observed in purposefully designed situations.
Hints for Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 3.1
2. Refer to sections 3.2 & 3.3
3. Refer to section 3.4
4. Refer to section 3.5

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 Understanding Individual Differences MODULE-III
Developmental Processes

Notes

15
UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERNCES: THE CASE OF
INTELLIGNCE

Think about any characteristic of people around you and you will immediately
notice that they differ from each other. They differ not only in bodily features like
height, skin colour, weight, vision and hearing ability etc. but also in the psychological
attributes. In our everyday experience we find that people differ in their motivation,
approach to problems, interest and ability to learn. The study of these individual
differences forms an important field of psychology. Assessing intelligence,
personality, interest, creativity and other attributes with the help of psychological
tests has become an established practice. In selecting people for jobs, diagnosing
of mental handicap and monitoring psychological development have provided
impetus to develop a variety of tests to suit different groups of people (e.g. children,
adults, educated, illiterate). The term IQ has now become a common word and
people often want to know their IQ and personality. This lesson will help you to
learn about the basic features of psychological assessment and understand the
nature and assessment of intellectual ability.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
• understand the meaning of psychological assessment;
• describe basic features of psychological tests used in assessment;
• explain the concept of intelligence;
• describe some of the tests of intelligence; and
• suggest various uses of psychological tests.

PSYCHOLOGY 61
 MODULE -III Understanding Individual Differences
Developmental Processes

15.1 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures employed in
evaluating the personal qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These
Notes procedures describe people by specifying how they are different from or similar to
other individuals. Such assessments are frequently done by most of us when we
make judgments such as ‘nice’ ‘good’ ‘bad’ ‘attractive’, ‘ugly’, ‘genius’ and
‘idiot’. Needless to say that such judgments are quite often found erroneous on
many occasions. Scientific psychology tries to systematize these procedures so
that assessment can be made with a minimum error and maximum accuracy.
Psychologists often call these procedures as ‘tests’. A psychological test is a
structured technique used to generate a carefully selected sample of
behaviour.

In order to be useful for the prupose of drawing inferences about the person being
tested or examined it is necessary that the test should be reliable, valid and
standardized. Let us understand the meaning of these terms. A test is reliable if
it measures something consistently. For instance if you assess something the
scores obtained on separate occasions should be same. If a scale tells two different
values while assessing the same object on two occasions, it will be called unreliable.
A test of intelligence can be called reliable only when a person scores high on both
the occasions.

The validity of a test is the degree to which it measures what it intends to

measure. A valid test of personality gives a measure of a person’s personality
and predicts behaviour in situations where that aspect of personality is found
important.

In order to be useful an assessment tool should be standardized. Standardization

involves establishing the procedure of administration of a test to all persons
in the same way under the same condition. It also involves establishing norms
so that an individual’s score can be interpreted. Norms involve comparison of a
score of a person with those of others in a defined group. Standardization
ensures uniformity and objectivity in the process and conditions of administration.
It makes the results of a test interpretable.

Psychologists have developed a variety of tests to measure different human

characteristics. In schools we use achievement tests which measure what pupils
have learned. Psychologists frequently use tests of ability and personality. The
tests of ability to tell what an individual can do when they are at his/her best. These
tests measure capacity as potential rather than achievement. Tests of intelligence
and aptitude come under this category. Aptitude refers to the ability of a person to
learn a particular kind of skill required in a specific situation. Admission tests of

62 PSYCHOLOGY
 Understanding Individual Differences MODULE-III
Developmental Processes

IIT or PMT is an aptitude test. Personality tests measure the characteristic ways
of thinking, feeling and behaving.

15.2 THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE Notes

There are very few things which are so obvious and illusive as ‘intelligence.’ The
differences in intellectual achievement are expressed in performance. For instance
if we take the marks in school examination of 10th grade students it will yield a
distribution in which most people show moderate level of performance and very
few are on the extremes showing extremely high (excellent) or extremely low
(very poor) level of performance. The same is true about intelligence. Fig. 15.1
presents such a distribution. We can see that the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which
has been used as an index of intelligence varies in degrees and very few people
have extraordinary level of intelligence. Similarly, very few people come in the
categories of profound and severe retardation.

Fig. 15.1: Distribution of IQ scores as expected in a large sample

However, when we try to define and measure intelligence it proves to be a knotty

problem. Intelligence is abstract in nature. Therefore our access to it is guided by
our own theoretical view point. We can not approach and have access to it
independent of our theoretical or conceptual models. At present psychologists
have many such models which provide diverse views of intelligence. The diversity
in defining intelligence is so perplexing that many psychologists have come to define
it in terms of “what an intelligence test measures”. This complexity is partly due to
the fact that many of the intelligence tests were developed before defining of what
is being tested. In this connection one may recall the story of the first published
intelligence test. Binet and Simon in 1905 were asked by the French Minister of
Public Instruction to help in teaching mentally retarded children. These psychologists
considered it necessary to measure intelligence for identifying these mentally retarded
children. They tested children with the help of a test and compared their scores
with the average score obtained by normal children at each age level. Children
who were two mental-age years behind their chronological age were considered
as “ retarded.”

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 MODULE -III Understanding Individual Differences
Developmental Processes

Subsequent to the publication of Binet ’s first test of intelligence voluminous research

on intelligence has been undertaken across the globe. This has resulted in several
theoretical views. Before we proceed towards presenting some of these view
points it may be mentioned that most researchers relate intelligence to the following
Notes broad classes of abilities:

(a) adapting to new situations and changing task demands,

(b) learning or profiting optimally from experience or training, and

(c) thinking abstractly using symbols and concepts.

Here it should be made clear that the term ‘ability’ refers to the currently available
power to perform something. The various view points about intelligence may be
put into two broad categories namely psychometric or factor theories and process
oriented views. Factor theories try to identify the factor (s) constituting intelligence,
and process theories describe intelligence in terms of the specific tasks, processes
or operations involved in intellectual functioning. Let us examine some of the major
view points on intelligence.

15.3 FACTORIAL VIEW POINT ON INTELLIGENCE

The composition of intelligence whether it is unitary or multi componential has
been a matter of curiosity. Using a correlational technique named factor analysis
several researchers have tried to uncover the structure of intelligence.

Intelligence as a General (G) Factor

Spearman proposed that we possess one general intelligence factor (g) and many
specific factors (s) which are specific to particular abilities. The g factor runs across
all types of abilities. It is expressed in the ability to understand abstract relations.
This view is depicted in Fig. 15.2.

G
1
2

Fig. 15.2: Sperman’s model of intelligence

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Multiple Factors of Intelligence

Thurstone proposed that intelligence consists of 7 factors namely, verbal

comprehension, word fluency, number, space, associative memory, perceptual
speed and induction (or general reasoning). He developed a test of perceptual Notes
speed and induction (or general reasoning). He developed a test of Primary Mental
Abilities (PMA) to measure these factors.

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Fig. 15.3: Thurstone’s model of intelligence

15.4 THE STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT

With a view to provide a comprehensive measure of intelligence Guilford has

proposed another view point. He terms it as the structure-of-intellect (SI) model.
This model classifies intellectual traits along main three dimensions.

Operations: What a person does? Operations include cognition, memory,

divergent production (creativity), convergent production, and evaluation.

Contents: This refers to the nature of the materials or information on which

operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters,
numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural and Figural (information
about person’s behaviour, attitudes, needs etc.)

Products: This refers to the form in which information is processed by a person.

Products are classified into units, classes, relations, system transformations
and implications.

Thus it is clear that the factorial viewpoint presents a view of intelligence in terms
of trait organisation. The variety of traits thus identified is perplexing. Here, the
readers should remember that the traits identified through the technique of factor

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analysis are simply an expression of the degree of relationship among behavioural

measures. They are descriptive categories. The trait organisation is influenced by
the experiential background of the people who are performing the task. The
differences found across groups, socio-economic levels and types of school
Notes curricula in trait organisation lend support to this view. Looking at the plethora of
research using factor analysis Anastasi has rightly concluded that human intelligence
consists of “that combination of cognitive skills and knowledge demanded,
fostered, and rewarded by the experiential context within which the individual
functions.”

15.5 INTELLIGENCE AS A PROCESS

This view point is related to cognitive science tradition. In particular the information
processing model is very relevant to it. It traces the processes of acquisition,
representation and use of information in undertaking intellectual activities. Let us
learn about some of the models emphasising the process view of intelligence.
Triarchic Theory
After rejecting the factorial or psychometric approach Robert Sternberg analysed
intelligence in three aspects i.e. componential, experiential and contextual. The
componential aspect includes those processes which are employed by a person
taking a test in responding to the items of standardised intelligence tests. Its
constituents include meta component or higher order control processes,
performance component, acquisition component and transfer component. The
second aspect namely experiential one refers to the way people’s mental world
and the outer or external world are related to each other. It adds creativity to the
notion of intelligence. In reality a person’s intelligence shapes his or her experiences.
Also, the experience which one has influences intelligence. The third aspect of
intelligence is contextual. It refers to the way individuals share their environments,
adapt to them and try to get maximum from the available resources. It is also
called practical intelligence.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Haward Gardner has argued that there are multiple intelligences. He says that
intelligence is not a single entity, rather there are multiple intelligences each distinct
from others. He has so far identified eight types of intelligence: linguistic, logical,
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and
natural . The value of these is determined by their relevance to culture in which
people live. Different cultures assign different degrees of importance to each of
these intelligences.

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INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.1

Choose the correct alternative:
Notes
(i) Scores of a large group of persons on intelligence test will show distribution in
which majority will get:
a) low scores
b) moderate scores
c) high scores
d) extremely high scores
(ii) The first test of intelligence is associated with:
a) Binet
b) Spearman
c) Terman
d) Raven
(iii) Who has stated that intelligence consists of multiple factors?
a) Thurstone
b) Guilford
c) Vernon
d) Sternberg
(iv) The view which conceptualizes intelligence in terms of operations, contents
and products is known as:
a) systems model
b) structure of intellect
c) hierarchical model
d) G factor model

15.6 INTELLIGENCE IN THE NON-COGNITIVE

DOMAINS
As can be seen from the preceding analysis the major concern of studying
intelligence has been with the rational and cognitive domain. In recent years many

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other aspects have been explored. It would be interesting to briefly refer to some
of them. One such concept is of wisdom. It comprises a unique blend of cognitive,
interpersonal, social and personality attributes. It is achieved as a result of
successfully negotiating the conflict between integrity and despair or as a result of
Notes transcendence of preoccupation with one’s self. It is knowledge that effectively
integrates emotional and cognitive components. Another related concept is that of
prudence of “practical wisdom”. It emphasizes on the practical achievement of
personal goals, plans and intentions. It is characterized by a flexible and applied
concern for the practical contingencies, specially in the face of uncertainty.
Social intelligence has also received attention by the researchers. It represents
the efforts of an individual to solve the problems of daily life and work toward the
desired goals. Finally, the most recent notion is that of emotional intelligence. It
is defined as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and
action. People high on emotional intelligence show greater degree of emotional
self awareness, manage emotions well, harness emotions productively, have
empathy and handle relationships effectively. It has been observed that success in
jobs and in the different walks of life depends more on emotional intelligence than
IQ. While childhood is a critical time for its development, emotional intelligence is
not something fixed at birth. It can be nurtured and enhanced throughout adulthood.

15.7 INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Let us familiarise with some intelligence tests. These tests may be classified into
verbal and non-verbal (performance) and individual and group tests. The
performance tests are used for the assessment in case of illiterates and people with
certain types of physical handicap. Individual tests are those which can be
administered on one person at a time and group tests can be administered
simultaneously on several persons. Some information about certain important
intelligence tests is presented below.

1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

The test developed by Binet and Simon for the children in French schools was
adopted and revised by Terman and his associates at Stanford University and was
published in 1916. Since then this individual test has been revised several times.
Now we have the fourth edition of Stanford-Binet (S-B IV) scale. It has 15 tests
selected to represent four major cognitive areas: verbal reasoning, abstract/visual
reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory. The tests are
administered in a mixed sequence. The age range covered is 2 Years to 18+. Its
administration involves two stages. In the first stage the examiner gives the
vocabulary test which helps in determining entry level for all the remaining tests. In

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the second stage the examiner establishes a basal level and a ceiling level for each
test in terms of actual performance. The basal level is reached when four items on
two consecutive levels are passed. If this does not occur at the entry level, testing
continues downward until a basal level is reached. The ceiling level is reached
when three out of four or all four items on two consecutive levels, are failed. This Notes
is where testing with that particular test is discontinued for the individual.

In earlier edition of this test the scores were interpreted in terms of intelligence
Quotient (IQ) as per the following formula:

MA
IQ = ×100
CA

Here MA stands for mental age and CA stands for chronological age. The concept
of IQ has been very popular as an index of intelligence. But in recent years it is
being criticised. Now there is a move to develop and use other indices of
intelligence.

In the recent version of the test Standard Age Scores (SAS) are given for all the
15 tests. The record booklet of the test provides a chart for plotting a profile of the
test taker’s SAS performance on each test administered. The use of the term IQ
has now been completely abandoned. The test allows examiners to assess separate
abilities appropriate for specific testing purposes.

2. The Wechsler Scales

These scales developed originally by David Wechsler deal with the groups of
adults, school-age children and pre-schoolers. They are used as measures of general
intelligence as well as a possible aid in psychiatric diagnosis. The current version
of the test includes Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R), which
covers the age span of 16 to 74 years; the Wechsler intelligence Scale for children-
Third Edition (WISC-III) intended for children aged 6 years to 16 years and 11
months, and the Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised
(WPPSI) which covers the range of 3 years to 7 years and 3 months. Out of the
17 different kinds of sub tests 8 are common to all three scales (5 verbal and 3
performance sub tests). The information sub test is the first verbal sub test to be
administered in all three scales. The performance subtests of these scales typically
require manipulation of various objects, such as puzzles and blocks, or the visual
scanning of printed materials like pictures or symbols. Some researchers have
proposed short forms of these scales, the raw scores on each of the subtests are
transformed into standard scores with means of 10 and an SD of 3. All the subset
scores are thus expressed in comparable units. An examinee’s performance is
evaluated in terms of the appropriate age norms.

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3. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)

This is a performance test designed to measure g factor or general intelligence.

The items consist of a set of matrices, or arrangement of design elements into rows
Notes and columns from each of which a part has been removed. The task is to choose
the missing insert from given alternatives.

The easier items require accuracy of discrimination; the more difficult items involve
analogies, permutations and alternations of patterns, and other logical relations. It
is available in three forms differing in the level of difficulty:

(i) The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) is suitable for the ages of 6 and
80 years
(ii) The Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) is for younger children and for
special groups.
(iii) The Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) is for adolescents and adults,
4. Draw-A-Man Test

Developed initially by Goodenough, this nonverbal test requires the the test taker
to draw or make a picture of a man. Credit is given for the inclusion of individual
body parts, clothing details, proportion, perspective, and similar features, Moderate
reliability and validity have been reported for this test. In India Pramila Phatak has
developed norms for this test.

15.8 USES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Since tests are used as a tool in vital decision making about jobs, promotions,
school or college admissions there emerge many problems of ethical and procedural
kind which require that the use of tests should be controlled. It is recommended
that the test is given or administered by a qualified examiner. Also, the scores
should be properly used. The general familiarity with the test content should be
prevented. This may invalidate the test results. The examiners are required to
make advance preparations to maintain uniformity in the procedure. Testing
conditions should be proper. The examiners are required to arouse the test takers’
interest in the test, elicit their co-operation, and encourage them to respond in an
appropriate manner.

At present, intelligence tests are used in many settings to help in a number of

activities like selection of people for various jobs, diagnosis of mental handicap,
guidance and counselling, and research in the area of intellectual development. A
brief description of these uses is as follows.

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Personnel Selection

It’s a matter of common experience that people differ in the degree of

competencies, abilities and interests. Success in a job depends on the fact
whether the person applying for a job possesses the qualities required in Notes
undertaking a particular job. In this way the process of selection becomes one
of matching the characteristics of the applicants with job requirements.
Intelligence is considered as something basic to success in all kinds of jobs.
As a result in most of the procedures of personnel selection assessment of
intelligence constitutes an important component. With the help of intelligence
tests applicants’ intelligence level is assessed and the results are used by the
employer in the process of decision making about the applicants.

Diagnosis of mental Handicap

People differ in their intellectual abilities, Those who have a very low level
of intelligence are known as mentally handicapped. Such persons experience
difficulty in adjusting with the demands of their external environment. They
need special care and training. Infact many of them can not communicate or
express their needs and have difficulty even in taking care of themselves.
Intelligence test along with certain other indicators is commonly used to
estimate the degree of mental handicap.

Guidance and Counseling

Career of vocational guidance is assuming an important role in the context of

education. With the expansion and diversification in our country’s educational
scenario, selection of a course and career is becoming a tough task for the students,
teachers and parents. In this context, psychologists use intelligence tests to assess
the capability of the people and use this information in deciding about the choice of
career options.

15.9 EXPLAINING DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN

INTELLIGENCE
While differences in intelligence are obvious the reasons of there differences are till
matters of debate. In particular researchers have tried to examine the contributions
of genetic or hereditary and environmental factors toward variation in IQ. Studies
indicate that the scores of more closely related people are quite similar. In particular
the evidence from the studies of adopted children and of identical twins separated
early in life and raised in different homes show this trend. The studies of
environmental deprivation and enrichment have indicated the effects of
environmental factors on IQ. Interestingly females are found to score higher

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than males with respect to verbal abilities while males tend to score higher in
visual-spatial abilities. Such differences may reflect the evolutionary history
of human species.

Notes Another important issue about the group differences relates to the cultural
bias of intelligence tests. It has been argued that many of the tests have been
developed in western cultural context. As a result children familiar with
western cultural context score higher than those who are not familiar with it.
This is why some efforts have been made to develop culture fair test
like Cattell’s Culture Fair Test of Intelligence.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 15.2

Choose the correct alternative:

(i) Which one of the following does not deal with non-cognitive aspect of
intelligence:
a) practical intelligence
b) social intelligence
c) emotional intelligence
d) process model of intelligence
(ii) Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is derived using the following formula:
a) MA/ CA + 100
b) MA/ CA×100
c) CA/ MA × 100
d) CA/ MA + 100
(iii) Wechsler test provides a measure of:
a) specific abilities
b) verbal ability
c) processes of intelligence
d) general ability
(iv) An intelligence test must have the following
a) norms

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b) validity
c) reliability
d) all of the above
Notes
(v) Intelligence tests do not help in:
a) guidance
b) personal selection
c) measurement of learning
d) measurement of problem solving ability.

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• Psychological characteristics are normally distributed in the population.
Thus majority of the people are found moderately intelligent and a limited
number is found to have very low or very high level of intelligence.
• The study of individual differences is practically important. Intelligence
is viewed in many ways depending on the theoretical view point adopted.
Some psychologists view it as a trait while others view it as a process.
• The trait approach has also yielded different views. Thus we have single
(general) factor, multiple factors, and hierarchical views. On the whole,
intelligence appears to be a combination of cognitive skills and knowledge.
• The process view of intelligence considers it in terms of various cognitive
processes. Also, there is realization that intelligence is of multiple kinds. The
notion of social and emotional intelligence have opened new areas of research.
• Intelligence is assessed with the help of psychological tests which are reliable
and valid measures of a sample of behaviour. The first test of intelligence was
developed by Binet which was subsequently standardized at Stanford
University. The tests may be verbal or performance and can be administered
individually or on a group.
• Special tests have been developed for children and the handicapped people.
These tests are often used in personnel selection, guidance, diagnosis of mental
retardation and research.
• The Indian psychologists have adapted several tests are often used in personnel
selection, guidance, diagnosis of mental retardation and research. The Indian
psychologists have adapted several tests but much is still desired.
• Psychologists have also developed tests to assess achievement, aptitude and

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personality.

Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Show your acquaintance with the different ways in which the concept of
intelligence is used by psychologists.
2. Describe the properties of a psychological test used in
assessing intelligence.
3. Describe one test of intelligence and indicate its possible uses.

ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

15.1
i) B ii) A iii) A iv) B
15.2
i) D ii) B iii) D iv) D
v) C

HINTS TO TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Refer section 15.3
2. Refer section 15.4
3. Refer section 15.4 and 15.5

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