1) Czech scholar Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper “On linguistic aspects of translation”

(1959/2000):
· intralingual translation (rewording) – an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
other signs of the same language;
· interlingual translation (translation proper) – an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of some other language;
· intersemiotic translation (transmutation) – an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of signs of non-verbal sign systems.
4) Realia possess a definite semantic structure. They consist of:
· denotative;
· connotative;
· local national, cultural semes
Кожух 1.верхній одяг з овечої шкури з хутром усередину( sheepskin coat with fur inside)
2. Ознака заможності( symbol of richness) 3. Одяг українця (Ukrainian clothes);
5) The difference between idiomatic and non-idiomatic verbal images has been established
by Ch.Ballie, he singled out 3 groups:
· perceptible, concrete images arousing imagination and drawing pictures.
· weakened or emotional images in which emotions prevail the concrete content. очі,
як зорі; струнка, як тополя;
· dead images, in which imagery and perception have become obliterated. лампочка
горить, дощ іде, час біжить, рушниця стріляє.

6) Catford elaborated two kinds of shifts: level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts can be
subdivided into 4 types :
· structural shifts
· class shifts
· unit shifts or rank shifts
· intra-system shifts

7) Newmark: He considers two types of translation: semantic and communicative.

Communicative translation is strictly functional and usually the work of a team.
Semantic translation is linguistic and encyclopaedic and is generally the work of one
translator.
8) Baker compares cohesion and coherence as being important networks in a text.
Cohesion - The network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which provide formal
links between various parts of a text.
• Reference
• Substitution
• Ellipses
• Conjunction
• Lexical Cohesion
Coherence - The network of semantic relations which organize and create a text by
establishing continuity of sense.

9) Nida introduced 3 basic factors of differences in translation:

• the nature of the message
• the purposes of the author, the translator
• the type of audience
10) Who made the best classification of equivalence
One of the most crucial and definitive approaches to understanding equivalence was worked
out by U. Nida and Taber and expounded in Nida's comprehensive study 'Toward A Science
of Translating».
11) The level of faithfulness of translation is mostly predeterminded be some factors :
• the purpose of tr.
• the skill of the translator
• the type of the text
12) The smallest unit of language is a word
13) Ways of rendering realia
• Transcription\transliteration
• Hyperonimic renomination
• Descriptive paraphrase
• Combined renomination
• Loan translation ( calque)
• Transposition on the connotative level
• Assimilation
• Contextual explanation of realia
• Situational correspondence
14) The methods of conveying English vowels in Ukrainian
• the position of the phoneme in the English word/proper name;
• The environment of the phoneme;
• The origin of the proper name;
• The tradition (if any) of conveying the name in Ukrainian, when the name is common in the
two languages e.g. of Biblical origin;

15) (Realia specific objects characteristic to this specific area when dialects comprise only
specific structure, lexis and phonology of that area to denote well-known subjects.)
Difference between realia and dialect words — the fundamental difference between them
(realities) and dialectisms is that the geographic information of the realities is related to the
marked object, it is information about specific objects and phenomena of a certain
geographical area. The local marking of dialectisms is information about specific linguistic
means of designating well-known subjects.

16) Works
J. Catford - A linguistic Theory of translation
U. Nida - Toward a Science of Translating
Newmark - Approaches in Translation; A Textbook of Translation
Koller - Introduction to Translation Studies
Komissarov - Theory of Translation
Barkhudarov - Language and Translation
Vinay and Darblenet - A Comparative French English Stylistics
Jacobson - On Linguistic Aspects of Translation

17) Ways of rendering of phraseologisms/Idioms

• By Choosing Absolute/Complete Equivalents
• Translation of Idioms by Choosing Near Equivalents
• Translation by Choosing Genuine Idiomatic Analogies
• By Choosing Approximate Analogies
• Descriptive Translating of Idiomatic and Set Expressions

18) Köller identifies five types of equivalence:

• denotative,
• connotative,
• text-normative,
• pragmatic
• formal equivalence.
Whereas the first two types are preoccupied with extralinguistic content and stylistic effects
respectively, text-normative equivalence focuses on text types and behaviors. The last two
types, pragmatic and formal, resemble approaches by Nida, Newmark and others by being
targeted at the receiver and aesthetics of the text respectively.
19) Чим відрізняється metaphor and phraseological metaphor
The main difference between metaphor and phraseological metaphor is the fact that metaphor
impress a reader with semantic strangeness and phraseological metaphor is perceived as usual.
20) Practical transcription – is an interlinguistic operation as it deals with two languages -
the sound of the source language word are rendered by the letters of the target language :
Anchorage – Анкоридж, Oakland – Окленд
21) Septuagint – the translation of the Bible from Hebrew into Greek
Vulgate – the first Latin translation of the bible from Hebrew performed by St. Jerome
Wycliffe Bible – the first translation of the complete Bible into English William
Tyndale’s New Testament – first printed Bible
22) The term skopos was introduced into translation by Hans Vermeer

23) Two main trends of Soviet School of Translation : радянський і нерадянський

24) Idioms
a man can die but once – від смерті не втечеш; раз мати народила, раз і вмирати; раз козі
смерть; двом смертям не бути, а одної не минути
many hands make work light - де згода, там і вигода; гуртом і чорта побереш; гуртом і
батька добре бити; громада – великий чоловік
haste makes waste| the more haste the less speed – тихше їдеш – далі будеш, поспішиш –
людей насмішиш; хто спішить – той людей смішить
measure twice and cut once – сім раз одміряй, а раз відріж
(translating idioms be choosing near equivalents)

25) When considering the structure of an image we may distinguish:

• Tenor – the actual
meaning of the image, what is being talked about, existing denotative meaning;
• Vehicle – the object
with which the tenor is compared, connotations;
• Ground – common
feature of the compared concepts;
• Relationship between
the two;
• Comparison technique
(type of trope);
• Grammatical and
lexical peculiarities of comparison.

26) Catford identifies translation studies as a branch of comparative linguistics.

27) 4 types of equivalence (Schveitser) :

• Denotative
• Syntactical
• Connotative
• Pragmatic

28) Latysher transformation

• Morphological
• Syntactical
• Stylistical
• Semantical
• Mixed lexico-semantical
and syntactic-morphological

29) Antonymic translation represents a way of rendering when an affirmative unit in ST is

conveyed via a negative one in sense but identical in content in TT or vice versa (Take your
time. – Не поспішай.)

30) ?Ways of translating intertextual units — domestication and forenization

31) 4 requirements for translation by Nida:

• Making Sense
• Conveying the Manner
and the Spirit
• Having a Natural and
easy Form
• Producing a similar
response

32) Ways of rendering the meaning of nationally biased units of lexicon:

• By Transcrip
• By Transcrip
Meaning
• By Descripti
• By Translati
Nationally Biased Lexicon
• By Ways of W
• Translating

33) Realia – mono- or polilexemic units the lexical meaning of which includes
traditionally established complex of ethnocultural information which is alien to the
objective reality of the TL and which is realised only within the limits of a binary
opposition. e.g. дбати про скриню, запити могорич, подати рушники, на
панщину ходити (гонити), піднести (дати) гарбуза.

34) Ways of conveying the lexical meaning of genuine internationalisms:

• Literal Trans
• Translating v
• Translating b
• Descriptive T
• Translating b

Ways of conveying the lexical meaning of loan internationalisms:

• direct transl
form
• with the help
substitutions arising from the national peculiarities of the target language
• with the help

Quotes

"the emphasis is no longer made on how equivalence can be achieved, but more so on what
kind of equivalence can be achieved, and in what contexts»

"Translation equivalence occurs when a SL and a TL text or item are relatable to (at least
some of) the same features of substance (the type of substance depends on the scope of the
translation, for total translation it is situation-substance; for phonological translation it is
phonic-substance; for graphological translation it is graphic-substance).»

"Translation equivalence occurs when a SL and a TL text or item are relatable to (at least
some of) the same features of substance (the type of substance depends on the scope of the
translation, for total translation it is situation-substance; for phonological translation it is
phonic-substance; for graphological translation it is graphic-substance).»

"Catford elaborated two kinds of shifts: level shifts and category shifts. Level shift, according
to him are expressed by grammar in one language and lexis in another while category shifts
can be subdivided into 4 types. These are structural shifts (involve shift in grammatical
structure), class shifts (comprise shifts from one part of speech to another), unit shifts or rank
shifts (where translation equivalent in TL is at a different hierarchical linguistic unit of
sentence) and intra-system shifts (taking place when the SL and TL possess approximately
corresponding systems but where the translation involves selection of a non-corresponding
term in the TL system)."

"Nida distinguished "between the expressive, informative and imperative functions of text,
adding that the reader will often be totally reliant on context to determine how to interpret a
particular text"