Approaches and Methods 2019

THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHODOLOGY

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODOLOGY

Background
APROACH:
THEORY OF LANGUAGE:
• Structural linguistics (based on a structural view of the language)

Language was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning,
the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types.

“STRUCTURAL” referred to :

A. Elements in a language thought of as being linearly produced in a rule_governed way.

B. Language samples could be described at any structural level of description (phonetic,

phonemic, etc)

C. Linguistic levels though of as being systems within systems-pyramidally structured

• Learning a language implies mastering the elements or building blocks for language and
learning the rules by which these elements are combined

• Language : primary medium: oral

• oral speech is language

• language is primarily what is spoken and only secondarily what is written

• priority :Speech

THEORY OF LEARNING:
Process oriented theory_ Behaviourism (habit formation)

Human beings are organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviors

Behaviours depends on:

• stimulus

• response

• reinforcement

Language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response

chains

Psychological Foundation of Audiolingualism:

Foreign language learning is a process of mechanical habit formation

Presentation of items in spoken form before seen in written form

Teaching of grammar inductive rather than deductive

Meanings can be learned only in a linguist and cultural contester and not in isolation.

DESIGN
OBJECTIVES: product-oriented (acquisition of the language elements)

Short-range objectives:

• training in listening comprehension

• accurate pronunciation

• recognition of speech symbols

• ability to reproduce speech symbols in writing

Long-range objectives: use the language as a native speaker.

Focus on oral skills (in the early stages) with gradual links to other skills.

Oral proficiency: Accurate pronunciation and grammar and the ability to responde quickly and
accurately in speech situations.

(Speaking skills dependent on accurate perception of sounds, fluency in using key grammatical
patterns, and knowing enough vocabulary to use with these patterns)

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SYLLABUS: based on linguistic matter (grammar, phonology, etc)

• Linguistic syllabus containing key items of phonology, morphology, syntax

arrangement of items according to the order of presentation (also specified)

A lexical syllabus of basic vocabulary items (specified in advance)

• Language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing

• Presentation of Language: Entirely orally at first , written in later stages.(students are taught to
read and write what they had learnt to say orally) (written representations withheld from the
learner in early stages)

TYPES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING ACTIVITIES

• Aim of the activities: Acquisition of language

• Kind of activities:

1. Dialogues.

• Purpose: training students in memorization

• Enphasis on correct pronunciation, stress, rythme and intonation.

2. Drills

• Types

• Focus on grammatical patterns taken from the dialogues (repetition for fixation of structures and
pronunciation, the only vocabulary used was the necessary used in the dialogues.

LEARNER ROLES

View of learners: Organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct
responses. (tabula rasa)

Roles of learners: reactive role, respond to stimuli,

• have little control over the content, pace or style of learning:

• not encourage to initiate interaction because this may lead to mistakes

Tasks: listening to the teacher, imitating accurately , responding to and performing controlled
tasks ( they learn a new form of verbal behavior , so it doesn’t matter if they understand what they
re repeating)

TEACHER ROLES

Characteristics: The teacher´s role is central and active, it’s a teacher-dominated -method.

Tasks:

• Model the target language

• Control the direction and pace of learning

• Monitor and correct the learners performance (mistakes must be erradicated)

ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

AIM: to assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner (the material is designed
only for the teacher, students can’t study by themselves)

Teacher-oriented

In elementary phases:

• Textbooks are not used in the elementary phases because the exposure to the printed word
distracts attention from the aural input (learners are focused on listening, repeating and
responding)

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• Important material: tape recorders, audiolingual equipment, language laboratory (for further drill
work controlled error-free practice of structures)

PROCEDURE
• Extensive oral instruction focused on immediate and accurate speech

• Little provision for grammatical explanation or talking about the language

• Target language-use as the media of instruction

• Translation or use of the native tongues is discouraged

THE DECLINE OF AUDIOLINGUALISM

Criticism:

a) Theoretical Foundations were attacked as being unsound both in terms of language theory
and learning theory

b) Practical Results: the students were unable to transfer the acquired skills to real
communication outside the classroom

Many found the experience of studying through audilingual procedures to be boring and
unsatisfying

Audiolingualism was widespread in the 60’s

Changes in linguistic theory

Chomsky; his theory revolutionized American linguistics. He focused the attention to mental
properties people bring to learn languages.

Everything was called into question: patterns practice , drilling , memorization, they were not
resulting in languages competence.

crisis in the USA-confusion

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The Communicative Approach

Background
1960’s British Applied Linguists:

Need to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on the mastery of the structures.

A return to the traditional concept that utterances carried meaning in themselves and express the
meanings and intentions of the speakers and writers who created them.

The Council of Europe supported the development of CLT_ It was an organization for cultural and
educational cooperation. They gave high priority to articulate and develop alternative methods of
language teaching.

1971. Experts investigated the development of language course based on studies of the needs of
European language learners

Wilkins: proposed a functional or communicative definition of language that could serve as a

bases for developing communicative syllabuses

He made an analysis of the communicative meaning that a language learner need to understand
and express

Described two types of meanings

a) notional categories (concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency)

b) categories of communicative function (requests, denials, offers, complaints)

Council of Europe developed the Thereshold Level Syllabus( a set of specifications for a first-level
communicative language syllabus.

Council of Europe: develop

Communicative approach,

Communicative Language teaching,

Notion_functional approach,

Functional Approach;

Their Aim:

a) to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching

b) Develop procedures for the teaching of the 4 language skills that acknowledge the
interdependence of language and communication.

Different Views of Communicative Language Teaching

• CLT is an integration of grammatical and functional teaching

• (Litlewood) CLT pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of

language

CLT uses procedures where learners work in pairs or groups employing available language
resources in problem solving tasks.

APPROACH
Theory of Language: based on a functional view

Language is viewed as communicative competence, acquiring the linguistic means to perform

different kinds of functions

Goal of Language Teaching: Develop communicative competence

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Theoretical Base CLT

1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning

2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.

3. the structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

4. the primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse

Developers of CLT: Hymes, Halliday, Widdowson, Brumfit, Johnson, Savigno, Canale and Swan.

Halliday elaborated a theory of the functions of language

He described seven basic functions that language performs for children learning their first
language

1. the instrumental function using language to get things (give me , i want)

2. The regulatory function using language to control de behavior of others(don’t, do)

3. The interactional function using language to create interaction

4. The personal function using language to express personal feelings and meanings

5. The heuristic function using language to learn and discover

6. The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination

7. The representational function using language to communicate information.

Theory of learning

In some CLT practices we can see elements of an underlying learning theory:

1. The communication principle: activities that involve real communication promote learning

2. The task principle : Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks
promote learning

3. The meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful for the learner supports the
learning process

These principles refer to the conditions needed to promote second language learning rather than
to the processes of language acquisition

Johnson and Littlewood consider as learning theory a skill-learning model of learning according to
which the acquisition of communicative competence in a language is an example of skill
development.

This involves a) a cognitive aspect: involves the internalisation of plans for creating appropriate
behavior. These plans derive from the language system conventions governing speech.

b) a behavioral aspect: involves the automation of these plans so that they can be
converted into fluent performance in real time .This occurs through practice.

(There’s not a clear cut theory fo learning. There’s nothing written about it . we can only speak
about principles which are conditioned oriented and process oriented.)

DESIGN
Objectives: process oriented (not defined)

• Language teaching will reflect the particular needs (1)of the target learners in the fields of
reading, writing, listening and speaking, each approached from a communicative view

(1) for this reason is difficult to define the objectives. the general objectives cannot be specified in
further detail)

• Curriculum or instructional objectives will be based on the learner’s proficiency level and
communicative needs.

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SYLLABUS
Wilkins describe a NOTIONAL syllabus specifying

a) semantic-grammatical categories

b) categories of communicative function

The syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list (e.g. a list of grammar items) with
another (a list of notions and functions) It specified products, rather that communicative
processes.

• The Council of Europe developed the Threshold Level English (syllabus) which included

1. the objectives

2. situations

3. topics

4. functions

5. notions (time, frequency,) and the vocabulary and grammar

(again there was no selection or gradation)

It attempted to specify what was needed in order to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of
communicative proficiency in a foreign language.

At present there are several proposals and models for what a syllabus night lookk like in
communicative language teaching

Yalden makes the following classification of current communicative syllabus types

1. Structures plus functions

2. functional spiral around a structural core (not purely communicative)

3. structural, functional, instrumental (where the language is used for specific purposes)

4. functional

5. notional

6. internacional

7. task-based

8. learner generated

Some designers of communicative syllabuses base syllabus design on task specification and
task organization. For them a communicative syllabus should be a purely procedural one, one
which lists, in more or less detail , the types of tasks to be attempted in the classroom and
suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same kind.

( others say that the syllabus concept should be abolished altogether because only leaners can be
aware of their own needs.)

(others lean to a grammatically based syllabus around when notions, functions and
communicational activities are grouped)

LEARNING AND TEACHING ACTIVITIES

• Aim: to develop communicative skills

• Activities should enable learners to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum

engage learners in communication

requiere the use of such communicative processes as information sharing ,

negotiation of meaning and interaction

• Activities often focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or involve
negotiation of information and information sharing.

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• Littlewood distinguished a) functional communication activities (e.g.problem solving, following

directions, come to an agreement, etc

b) social interaction activities (e.g.discussions, role plays, dialogues, )

LEARNER ROLES
a) Negotiator between the self, the learning process and the object of learning

b) Joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and actives.

The learner should contribute as much as he gains and thereby learn in an interdependent way.
(He is responsible for his learning. Students are expected to interact primarily with each other
rather than with the teacher, cooperative learning (failure or success is jointly obtained)

TEACHER ROLES
Breen and Candil

TWO main roles

A. Facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom and between
these participants and the various activities and texts

B. Act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group

Secondary roles

A. organizer of resources and resource himself

B. guide within the classroom procedures and activities

C. researcher and learner

Other roles

a) Needs Analyst the teacher assess students’ needs and plans group and individual instruction
that responds to the learners needs.

b) Counselor the teacher is expected to facilitate the communication process between the
speaker and the hearer through the use of paraphrase, confirmation and feedback. (an
effective communicator)

c) Group Process Manager It is the teacher’s responsibility to organize the classroom as a

setting for communication and communicative activities. During an activity the teacher
monitors, encourages and suppresses the inclinations to supply gaps in lexis , grammar and
strategy but takes notes of such gaps for later commentary and communicative practice. At
the conclusion of group activities the teacher leads in the debriefing (questioning the students
about the tasks they have just completed) of the activity, pointing out alternatives and
extensions and assisting groups in self correction discussion.

THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

They have the primary role of promotion communicative language use (because they influence the
quality of classroom interaction and language use)

A. Text-based Materials textbooks including activities used to initiate conversation (pair work
activities)

B. Task-based Materials a variety of games, role plays , simulations and task based
communication activities in the form of one-of-a kind items exercise handbooks , cue cards,
activity cards, pair communication practice materials and student-interaction practice
booklets

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C. Realia authentic, from-life materials including language-based realia, such as signs,

magazines, advertisements and newspapers or graphic and visual sources, such as maps,
pictures, symbols, graphs and charts (around which communicative activities can be built.)

Objects can be used to support communicative exercises such as a plastic model to assemble
from directions.

PROCEDURE

It is not possible to describe a typical classroom procedure because communicative principles

can be applied to the teaching of any skill at any level and because of the wide variety of
classroom activities and exercise types. Traditional procedures are not rejected but are re
interpreted and extended. (needs more investigation)

CONCLUSION

CLT is best considered aun APPROACH rather than a method.

Although there is consistency at the levels of language and learning theory, at the level of design
and procedure there can be individual interpretations and variation.

Nowadays CLT is being criticas for several reasons

First, the adoption of a communicate approach should consider such issues as teacher training,
materials development and testing and evaluation.

Another point is that answers should be found to questions such as:

• whether a communicative approach can be applied at all levels in a language program

• whether it is equally suited to ESL and EFL situations

• whether it requires existing grammar-based syllabuses to be abandoned or merely revised

• how such an approach can be evaluated

• how suitable is it for non-native teachers

• how can it be adopted in situations where students must continue to take grammar-based tests.