EE-862: Power System Operation

& Control
Fall-2020

School of Electrical Engineering & Computer

Science (SEECS)

1
 Economic Load Dispatch
PROBLEM FORMULATION
• Economic scheduling is a cost-effective mode of allocation of
generation among the different units in such a way that the
overall cost of generation should be minimum.
• This can also be termed as an optimal dispatch.
• Let the total load demand on the station = PD
• The total number of generating units = n.
• To allocate the total load PD among these ‘n’ units in an
optimal way to reduce the overall cost of generation.
• Let PG , , be the power generated by each
individual unit to supply a load demand of PD
 PROBLEM FORMULATION

Input–output curve of a steam turbine generator

3
 PROBLEM FORMULATION

Cost-curve expression
 PROBLEM FORMULATION

• C1

• C2

• CN
 PROBLEM FORMULATION
• This system consists of N thermal-generating units connected
to a single bus bar serving a received electrical load P load
• The input to each unit, shown as Ci, represents the cost rate
of the unit. The output of each unit, Pi, is the electrical power
generated by that particular unit. The total cost rate of this
system is, of course, the sum of the costs of each of the
individual units. The essential constraint on the operation of
this system is that the sum of the output powers must equal
the load demand.
• The problem is to minimize CT subject to the constraint that
the sum of the powers generated must equal the received
load. Note that any transmission losses are neglected and any
operating limits are not explicitly stated when formulating this
problem
 PROBLEM FORMULATION
The objective function is to minimize the
Objective function overall cost of production of power generation

Therefore, the generation cost of the ith unit is a function of real-

power generation of that unit and hence the total cost is expressed as

7
 PROBLEM FORMULATION
The sum of real-power generation of all the
Equality constraints various units must always be equal to the
total real-power demand on the system.

Equation is known as the real-power balance equation when

losses are neglected.

8
 PROBLEM FORMULATION
Each generating unit should not operate
Inequality constraints above its rating or below some minimum
generation. This minimum value of real-
power generation is determined from the
technical feasibility.

9
 Solution: Lagrange function
• This is a constrained optimization problem that
may be solved by using advanced methods
• In order to establish the necessary conditions for
an extreme value of the objective function, add/
subtract the constraint function to the objective
function after the constraint function has been
multiplied by an undetermined multiplier known
as the Lagrange function

10
 Solution
• The necessary conditions for an extreme value of the
objective function result when we take the first
derivative of the Lagrange function with respect to
each of the independent variables and set the
derivatives equal to 0. In this case, there are N + 1
variables, the N values of power output, Pi, plus the
undetermined Lagrange multiplier, .
• The derivative of the Lagrange function with respect
to the undetermined multiplier merely gives back the
constraint equation.
• On the other hand, the N equations that result when
we take the partial derivative of the Lagrange function
with respect to the power output values one at a time
give the set of equations shown as Equation
11
Solution

12
Solution

13
 Solution

• In Equation each of these derivatives represents the

individual incremental cost of every unit.
• Hence, the condition for the optimal allocation of the total
load among the various units, when neglecting the
transmission losses, is that the incremental costs of the
individual units are equal.
• It a called a co-ordination equation.

14
 Solution
• After getting the optimal solution, in the case that the
generation of any one unit is below its minimum capacity
or above its maximum capacity, then its generation
becomes the corresponding limit.
• If the generation of any unit violates the minimum limit,
then the generation of that unit is set at its minimum
specified limit and vice versa. Then, the remaining
demand is allocated among the remaining units as for
the above criteria.
• In the solution of an optimization problem without
considering the transmission losses, we make use of
equal incremental costs, i.e., the machines are so loaded
that the incremental cost of production of each machine
is the same.

15
 Example
Determine the economic operating point for the following
three units when they are delivering a total of 850 MW
power

Input–output curve

Input–output curve

16
Input–output curve

Solution
Before solving this problem , the fuel cost of each unit must be
specified.

Let the fuel costs be

17
 Example

Then
C1P1
C2P2
C3P3

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 Example

The condition for an optimum dispatch

dC1/P1
dC2/P2

dC3/P3
• The total Generation
Solving for λ

Then solving for P1, P2, and P3

Check constraints

• Each unit is within its high and low limit

• The total output summed for all three units
meets the desired 850 MW requirement
 Example
• Let the price of coal decreases to 0.9 $/MBtu. The fuel
cost function for unit 1 becomes
C1P1

Check constraints
• Each unit is within its high and low limit
• The total output summed for all three
units meets the desired 850 MW
requirement

21
In order to solve for the most economic dispatch while meeting
unit limits, we use

Unit 1 is set to its maximum output and unit 3 to its minimum

output. The dispatch becomes

22
 From the equation we see that λ must equal the incremental
cost of unit 2 since it is not at either limit. Then

λ = dC2/P2 when P2 is 200

Calculate the incremental cost for units 1 and 3

λ = dC1/P1 when P1 is 600

λ = dC3/P3 when P3 is 50
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 • Note that the incremental cost for unit 1 is less than λ,
so unit 1 should be at its maximum.

• The incremental cost for unit 3 is not greater than λ, so

unit 3 should not be forced to its minimum.
• To find the optimal dispatch, allow the incremental cost
at units 2 and 3 equal to λ as follows:

dC2/P2

dC3/P3

24
 This dispatch now meets the conditions

dC1/P1

dC1/P1 is less than λ while dC2/P2 and dC3/P3 are

both equal to λ

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• THE
LAMBDA
ITERATION
METHOD

26
 Steps
1. Guess the initial value of λ
2. Calculate

3. Check

4. If increase value of λ

5. If decrease value of λ

6. Go to Step 2
 Problem
• The incremental fuel costs for a plant consisting
of two units of 100 MW each are
𝑑𝐶1
• = 0.012𝑃𝐺1 + 2
𝑑𝑃𝐺1
𝑑𝐶2
• = 0.015𝑃𝐺2 + 1.5
𝑑𝑃𝐺2
• The minimum load on each unit is 10MW and
the total load to be supplied is 150MW.
• Determine the Economic Operating Schedule
 Solution
• Assume λ = 3
3−2
• 𝑃𝐺1 = = 83.33MW
0.012
3−1.5
• 𝑃𝐺2 = = 100MW
0.015
• 𝑃𝐺1 +𝑃𝐺2 = 183.33 MW > 𝑃𝐷
• Decrease λ
• Assume λ = 2.7
2.7−2
• 𝑃𝐺1 = = 58.33MW
0.012
 Solution
2.7−1.5
• 𝑃𝐺2 = = 80MW
0.015
• 𝑃𝐺1 +𝑃𝐺2 = 138.33 MW < 𝑃𝐷
• Increase λ
• Assume λ = 2.75
2.75−2
• 𝑃𝐺1 = = 62.5MW
0.012
2.75−1.5
• 𝑃𝐺2 = = 83.33MW
0.015
• 𝑃𝐺1 +𝑃𝐺2 = 145.83 < PD
 Solution
• Increase λ
• Assume λ = 2.78
2.78−2
• 𝑃𝐺1 = = 65MW
0.012
2.78−1.5
• 𝑃𝐺2 = = 85.33MW
0.015
• 𝑃𝐺1 +𝑃𝐺2 = 150.33 > PD
• Decrease λ
• Assume λ = 2.778
 Solution
• Increase λ
• Assume λ = 2.788
2.778−2
• 𝑃𝐺1 = = 64.83MW
0.012
2.778−1.5
• 𝑃𝐺2 = = 85.2MW
0.015
• 𝑃𝐺1 +𝑃𝐺2 = 150.03 > PD

• (𝑃𝐺1 +𝑃𝐺2 ) - 𝑃𝐷 = 150.03-150 = 0.03 < ϵ

• Where ϵ is assumed to be 0.1
 ECONOMIC DISPATCH VIA BINARY
SEARCH
 A very useful lambda iteration algorithm sometimes called the
“binary search”
 Avoids oscillations and always succeeds in finding the optimum
economic dispatch.
 Calculate the incremental cost at the generation maximum and
minimum output for each generator.
 Then set λmin to the smallest value among the incremental costs
at generator Pmin values
 Set λmax as the largest value among the incremental costs at
generator Pmax values.
 If λ = λmin, then the lambda search algorithm would set all
generators to P = Pmin, and if λ = λmax, then the lambda search
algorithm would set all generators to P = Pmax.
 ECONOMIC DISPATCH VIA BINARY
SEARCH
Binary search starts with

which is halfway between each extreme

• Now calculate the generator output that corresponds to each

generator having this incremental cost.
• If the value λ1 is less than the incremental cost at Pmin, then just
set the generator output to Pmin,
 ECONOMIC DISPATCH VIA BINARY
SEARCH
• If the value λ1 is greater than the incremental cost at Pmax, then
just set the generator output to Pmax;
• Otherwise, calculate the P value for the generator from the
incremental cost function.
• Now add all generator outputs

Reduce lambda, so then

• The delta lambda value changes
by one half each iteration.
 ECONOMIC DISPATCH VIA BINARY
SEARCH

Increase lambda

Done

36
 ECONOMIC DISPATCH USING DYNAMIC
PROGRAMMING
• For large steam turbine generators the input–output
characteristics are not always smooth
• Large steam turbine generators will have a number of
steam admission valves that are opened in sequence to
obtain ever-increasing output of the unit
• As the unit loading increases, the input to the unit
increases and the incremental heat rate decreases
between the opening points for any two valves.
• However, when a valve is first opened, the throttling
losses increase rapidly and the incremental heat rate
rises suddenly.
• This gives rise to the discontinuous type of incremental
heat rate characteristic
• This type of input–output characteristic is nonconvex
• Hence, optimization techniques that require convex
characteristics may not be used
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38
• If nonconvex input–output curves are to be used, we
cannot use an equal incremental cost methodology
since there are multiple values of MW output for any
given value of incremental cost.
• Under such circumstances, there is a way to find an
optimum dispatch that uses dynamic programming
(DP)
• Using this approach, we do not calculate a single
optimum set of generator MW outputs for a specific
total load supplied—rather, we generate a set of
outputs, at discrete points, for an entire set of load
values

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 DYNAMIC
PROGRAMMING
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING is a mathematical technique dealing
with the optimization of multistage decision processes

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 DYNAMIC
PROGRAMMING

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach
Sub Problems or stages

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING: Backward
Recursion and Forward Recursion Approach

Find F(x): The minimum distance between node X and node Y

Shortest Distance = 7km

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

Example : Assumethere are three units in the system; all are on-
line. Their input– output characteristics are not smooth nor
convex. Data are as follows.

𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

The total demand is D = 310 MW.

This does not fit the data exactly, so that we need to interpolate
between the closest values that are available from the data, 300
and 325 MW
Scheduling units 1 and 2, we find the minimum cost for the
function

𝑓2 = 𝐶1 𝐷 − 𝑃2 + 𝐶2 𝑃2
Over the allowable range of P2 and for 100 ≤ D ≤ 350 MW
Save the cost for serving each value of D that is minimal and the
load level on unit 2 for each demand level

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 𝐶2

(D) 𝐶1 (D) 𝑓2 𝑃2

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This results in

𝐷 𝑓2 𝑃2

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 Now Minimize

𝑓3 = 𝑓2 𝐷 − 𝑃3 + 𝐶3 𝑃3
for 50 ≤ P3 ≤ 175 MW and D = 300 and 325 MW

Scheduling the third unit for the two different demand

levels only requires two rows of the next table

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 𝐶3

(D) 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑃3

The results show

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Between the 300- and 325-MW demand levels, the marginal
unit is unit 2.
(That is, it is picking up all of the additional demand increase
between 300 and 325 MW.)
Therefore, interpolate to find the cost at a load level of 310
MW or an output level on unit 2 of 110 MW.
The results for a demand level of 310 MW are

𝑃1 = 50
𝑃2 = 110 For a total cost 4286
𝑃3 = 150

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THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED

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 THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED

A large amount of power is being transmitted through the

transmission network, which causes power losses in the
network

Finding an optimal solution for economic scheduling problem

(allocation of total load among the generating units), it is more
realistic to consider the transmission L line losses, which are
about 5–15% of the total generation.

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 THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED

• Condition for optimality is different.

• Equal incremental fuel costs (IFCs) for all generating units
will not give an optimal solution.
Consider the objective function, minimize

subject to the following equality and inequality constraints

The real-power balance equation, i.e., total real-power

generations minus the total losses should be equal to the real-
power demand:
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 THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED

Equality constraint

Inequality constraint

The reactive-power constraints are to be considered since the

transmission line results in loss is a function of real and reactive
power generations and also the voltage at the station bus
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 THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED

Inequality constraint

The reactive-power constraints are to be considered since

the transmission line results in loss is a function of real and
reactive power generations and also the voltage at the
station bus

In addition, the voltage at each of the stations should be

maintained within certain limits:

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 THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED

 It is much more difficult to solve this set of equations than the

previous set with no losses since this second set involves the
computation of the network loss
 In order to establish the validity of the solution in satisfying the
constraint equation. There have been two general approaches to
the solution of this problem.
 The first is the development of a mathematical expression for the
losses in the network solely as a function of the power output of
each of the units.
 The other basic approach to the solution of this problem is to
incorporate the power flow equations as essential constraints in
the formal establishment of the optimization problem.
 This general approach is known as the optimal power flow.
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 MATHEMATICAL DETERMINATION

• In order to establish the necessary conditions for

an extreme value of the objective function, add/
subtract the constraint function to the objective
function after the constraint function has been
multiplied by an undetermined multiplier known
as the Lagrange function

In the above objective function, the real-power generations

are the control variables and the condition
63
 Solution: Lagrange function
• For Optimality

64
 Solution: Lagrange function

where represents the variation of total transmission

loss with respect to real-power generation of the ith station and

is called incremental transmission loss (ITL) of the ith station.

65
 Solution: Lagrange function

where rep is called the penalty factor of the ith station

The penalty factor of any unit is defined as the ratio of a

small change in power at that unit to the small change in
received power when only that unit supplies this small
change in received power.

66
 Solution: Lagrange function

where rep is called the penalty factor of the ith station

The condition for optimality when the transmission losses are

considered is that the IFC of each plant multiplied by its penalty
factor must be the same for all the plants: i.e

67
 Solution: Lagrange function
The following points should be kept in mind for the
solution of economic load dispatch problems when
transmission losses are included and co-ordinated

• Although incremental production cost of a plant is always

positive, ITL can either be positive or negative.
• The individual units will operate at different incremental
production costs.
• The generation with the highest positive ITL will operate at
the lowest incremental production cost.

68
 Solution: Lagrange function

For a small increase in received load by ΔP , the ith plant

generation is only changed by ΔPGi and the generations of the
remaining units are unaffected.
Let ΔPL be the change in transmission loss, the power balance
equation becomes

69
 Solution: Lagrange function
when is the incremental cost of the received power of

the ith plant and the penalty factor

This means that as ΔPGi increment has a larger proportion

dissipated as loss,

Approaches unity and the penalty factor ‘Li ’

increases without bound.
Thus, for a larger penalty factor ‘L ’, unit ‘i ’ should be operated
at low incremental cost implying a low power output.
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 Example
Determine the economic operating point for the following
three units when they are delivering a total of 850 MW
power by including losses

Input–output curve

Input–output curve

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Input–output curve

Include a simplified loss expression

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 Example: Steps for solution

Step 1: Pick a set of starting values for P1, P2, and P3 that sum to
the load.
Step 2: Calculate the incremental losses ∂ Ploss/∂ Pi as well as the
total losses Ploss.
The incremental losses and total losses will be considered
constant until we return to step 2.
Step 3 Calculate the value of λ that causes P1, P2, and P3 to sum
to the total load plus losses.
Step 4 Compare the P1, P2, and P3 from step 3 to the values used
at the start of step 2. If there is no significant change in any one
of the values, go to step 5; otherwise, go back to step 2.
Step 5: Done.
 Example: Using data from example 1

Include a simplified loss expression

dC1/P1
dC2/P2

dC3/P3
 Example: Using data from example 1

The condition for an optimum dispatch becomes

 Solution

Step 1: Pick the P1, P2, and P3 starting values as

Step 2: Incremental losses are

 Solution

Calculate total losses

Total losses are 15.6 MW

Step 3: We can now solve for λ using the following

 Solution

Step 3: Solve for λ

The resulting generator outputs are

Step 4: Since these values for P1, P2, and P3 are quite
different from the starting values, we will return to step 2.
 Solution

Step 2: The incremental losses are recalculated with

the new generation values

Total losses are 15.78 MW.

 Solution

Calculate total losses

Total losses are 15.78 MW

Step 3: We can now solve for λ using the following

 Solution

Step 3: Solve for λ

The resulting generator outputs are

Step 4: Since these values for P1, P2, and P3 are quite
different from the starting values, we will return to step 2.
 Solution

Step 3: Solve for λ

The resulting generator outputs are
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Transmission loss 𝑃𝐿 is expressed as a function of real-power

generations.
The power loss is expressed using B-coefficients or loss
coefficients.
The expression for transmission power loss is derived using Kron’s
method of reducing a system to an equivalent system with a
single hypothetical load.
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

The expression is based on several assumptions as follows

1. All the lines in the system have the same X/R ratio.
2. All the load currents have the same phase angle.
3. All the load currents maintain a constant ratio to
the total current.
4. The magnitude and phase angle of bus voltages at
each station remain constant.
5. Power factor at each station bus remains constant
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Derive an expression for the power loss of a system,

having two generating stations, supplying an arbitrary
number of loads through a transmission network as
shown in Fig

To determine the current in any line, (kth line), apply superposition

principle and determine the current passing through the line, Ik .
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Assume that the entire load current is supplied by generating

station-1 only as shown in Fig

Current in the kth line = 𝐼𝑘1

Current distribution factor

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

The current distribution factor of a transmission line w.r.t. a

power source is the ratio of the current it would carry to the
current that the source would carry when all other sources are
not supplying any current
If we assume that the entire load is supplied by the second
generating station only as shown in Fig
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Current in the kth line = 𝐼𝑘2

Current distribution factor

Because of assumptions (i) and (ii), the current distribution

factors will be real numbers rather than complex numbers
Assuming that the total load is being supplied by both stations n
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Current in the kth line = 𝐼𝑘

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Although the current distribution factors are real numbers, the

various source currents supplying total load will not be in phase,
i.e., 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are not in phase.

Let the source currents

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Although the current distribution factors are real numbers, the

various source currents supplying total load will not be in phase,
i.e., 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are not in phase.

Let the source currents

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Although the current distribution factors are real numbers, the

various source currents supplying total load will not be in phase,
i.e., 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are not in phase.

Let the source currents

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

By adding currrent phasors, we have

The currents are

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

The power loss in the kth line can be calculated

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

The power loss in the kth line can be calculated

If there are ‘l ’ number of lines in the system, total power

loss in the system can be calculated as
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

This expression can be written as

 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

The total loss as a function of real-power generations, 𝑃𝐺1 and 𝑃𝐺2

The coefficients 𝐵11 , 𝐵12 , and 𝐵22 are called loss coefficients
(or) B-coefficients and the unit is (MW) and is also considered to
be a constant in view of the assumptions made
The same procedure can be extended for systems having more
number of stations. If the system has ‘n’ number of stations,
supplying the total load through transmission lines, the
transmission line loss is given by
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

Since the transmission lines are symmetrical, loss coefficients

𝐵𝑝𝑞 and 𝐵𝑞𝑝 are equal
The B coefficients are loss coefficients and can be represented
in matrix form of an n-generator system as
 REAL-POWER GENERATION–DERIVATION

These coefficients are determined for a large system by an

elaborate digital computer program starting from the assembly
of the open-circuit impedance matrix of the transmission line,
which is quite lengthy and time consuming. Besides, the
formulations of B-coefficients are based on several
assumptions and do not take into account the actual conditions
of the system; the solution for the plant generations cannot be
expected to be the best for minimum cost of generation
 Determination of ITL formula

system consists of three generating units, i.e., n = 3, the

transmission loss is

ITL of Generator-1 is obtained as

 Determination of ITL formula

In general

IFC of the ith unit is

 Determination of ITL formula

Dividing the above equation by λ, we get

 Determination of ITL formula

To solve this allocation problem, solve the coordination Equation

for a particular value of λ iteratively starting with an initial set of
values of P (such as all 𝑃𝐺𝑖 set to minimum values) and get the
solution within a specified tolerance till all 𝑃𝐺𝑖 converge,
Check for power balance and if it is to be satisfied, then it is the
optimal solution.
If the power balance equation is not satisfied, modify the value of
λ to a suitable value and solve the co-ordination equation
 Example

The IFC and the loss coefficients

for two plants are given. Find the
real-power generations, total
load demand, and the
transmission power loss
For
 Solution

And transmission loss

For number of plants, n = 2, we have

The ITL of Plant-1 is

Penalty factor of
Plant-1:

The ITL of Plant-2 is

Penalty factor of
plant-2 is
 Solution

Condition for optimum operation is

1
 Solution

Condition for optimum operation is

2
 Solution

Solving Equations 1and 2

Solution
 Example
The cost curves and the loss
coefficient of two plants are

Determine the economical generation scheduling corresponding to λ

= 30 and the corresponding system load that can be met with. If the
total load connected to the system is 120 MW taking 4% change in
the value of λ, what should be the value of λ in the next iteration?
 Solution
The incremental costs are

Transmission loss

For two plants, n = 2

 Solution
Transmission loss For two plants, n = 2

The ITL of Plant-1 is

Penalty factor of
Plant-1:

The ITL of Plant-2 is

Penalty factor of
plant-2 is
 Solution

Condition for optimum operation is

1
 Solution

Condition for optimum operation is

2
 Solution

Solving Equations 1and 2

 Solution

For 4% change in value of λ

New load connected to system, PD = 120 MW

Change in load, ΔPD = 120 – 54.11 = 65.89 MW
 Solution
Here, change in load, ΔP > 0; hence, to get an optimum
dispatch decrease λ by Δλ

New value of λ = λ′ = λ – Δλ = 30 – 1.2 = 28.8

 Example
A system consists of two power plants connected by a transmission
line. The total load located at Plant-2 is as shown in Fig. Data of
evaluating loss coefficients consist of information that a power
transfer of 100 MW from Station-1 to Station-2 results in a total
loss of 8 MW. Find the required generation at each station and
power received by the load when λ of the system in 100/MWh. The
IFCs of the two plants are given
 Example

Total loss is

For n = 2,
 Example

Since power transfer of 100 MW from Plant-1 to Plant-2

𝑃𝐺1 = 100 MW),

𝑃𝐺2 = 0 𝐵22 = 0 𝐵21 = 0

 Example

Penalty factor of Plant-1 is

 Example

Penalty factor of Plant-2 is

Now, the condition for optimality is

Example
Example