J. Construct.

Steel Research 29 (1994) 55-70

Local Buckling of Steel Sections under Cyclic Loading

George C. Lee ~ & E. T. Lee b

aSchool of Engineering and Applied Sciences, bDepartment of Civil Engineering,

State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14260-1900, USA

ABSTRACT

In order to understand the influences of local buckling under cyclic loading

conditions, experimental studies were carried out on W8 x 10 A-36 structural steel
members subjected to selected monotonic, cyclic and non-proportional loading paths
under combined axial force and bending moment. Test results show that strength of
the member deteriorates after local buckling. The critical deformation capacity for
the cyclic loading condition is lower than 60% of the value for the monotonic pure
bending condition. The influence of local buckling on the behavior of pure bending
for monotonic and cyclic loading condition is small, but the one under monotonic
bendin9 with a large initial axial strain as well as the one under combined bending
and axial for both monotonic and cyclic loading condition is serious. A simple
analytical model, based on the stress resultant plasticity model developed earlier at
the University at Buffalo for predicting cyclic post-local buckling behavior, has been
proposed. This model utilizes the cyclic post-local buckling moment-curvature
relationship, and can describe the strength and the stiffness deterioration which are
the important factors in the cyclic post-local buckling behavior of thin-walled
structural members.

1 INTRODUCTION

Post-local buckling behavior is a very important factor in seismic design

of steel structures. It describes and controls the structural behavior up to
the final collapse state. Since local buckling of plate elements does not
mean the end of the load-carrying capacity of a structural member, locally
buckled members can be subjected to additional loading while undergoing
inelastic deform~.tion. Typically, post-local buckling responses are asso-
ciated with the reduction in the stiffness of the member.
55
J. Construct. Steel Research 0143-974X/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science Limited, England.
Printed in Malta
56 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

Under cyclic loading conditions such as those introduced by earthquake

ground motions, the local buckling is initiated in the compression flange.
However, it disappears and reappears in subsequent cycles. If lateral
buckling is not critical, cracks eventually develop in the zone of maximum
inelastic deformation. Rapid deterioration in beam capacity is shown to
be associated with the induced inelastic curvature of flanges. 1 Test results
reported in Ref. 1 clearly show that under cyclic and alternating loads, the
local buckling of beams is more critical than material low-cycle fatigue.
Tests using steel I-section members having a wide range of web and flange
slenderness ratios j 12 have confirmed that local buckling is more severe
under cyclic loading. The critical deformation capacity under cyclic
loading condition is lower than half of the value under the monotonic
loading condition. 8'1°'11 Furthermore, beam-column tests under cyclic
loading show that the deterioration is much more severe due to the effect
of axial l o a d s . 2'7'13 The moment-rotation relationships for H-section
cantilever beam-columns also indicate that their strength and ductility are
affected by the values of the width-to-thickness ratio of the flanges, z
The observed increase in beam plastic moments due to cyclic strain
hardening are typically 15-20% but increases of up to 40% have been
reported. 3'14'~5 In general, the extra strength is beneficial to a structure
designed not considering strain-hardening. However, in optimally design-
ed frames it may be unwelcome because it may alter the intended
formation of plastic hinges. Increases in flexural strengths above the plastic
m o m e n t due to strain-hardening tend to be larger in columns because the
cross-sectional area required to support the axial load decreases. Test
results have shown that strain hardening is more predominant in frames
where plastic hinges are designed to form in the columns rather than in
the beams. 4
It is welt established that the yield stress of structural steel increases with
strain rate although much of the experimental data is for monotonic
tensile tests. Almuti and Hanson 16 compared the dynamic inelastic
flexural response of steel beams to the static response and found no
significant differences.
Beams with larger slenderness ratios for flange and web show more
rapid rates of deterioration of load carrying capacity, stiffness, and energy
dissipation per cycle.13 Energy absorption capacity becomes smaller with
the increase in the values of width-to-thickness ratio and slenderness ratio.
Energy absorption capacity is affected by the material properties especially
yield stress ratio. 17 For steel sections, the range of deterioration is a
function of the slenderness ratio of the beam flange and the yield strength
of the steel. 18 Researchers found that deterioration was associated with a
 Local bucklin9 of steel sections under cyclic loadin 9 57

decrease in the total area of the section. Bertero et al.19 investigated the
behavior of beam-column subassemblages under repeated loading. They
concluded that for an efficient earthquake-resistant design, energy
absorption capacity and especially energy dissipation of the beam-
column subassemblages, rather than strength, should be used as the basic
criterion.
However, for small width-to-thickness ratios of plate elements and when
out-of-plane deformations are prevented, 3'2° the influence of local buck-
ling on the behavior of beams and beam-columns was very small. It is
observed that, under cyclic loading the flanges only buckle in alternate
cycles. This does not substantially reduce the load-carrying capacity of the
assemblage. 2~
The above-mentioned studies are concerned with local buckling under
cyclic loading. However, there are no systematic results on cyclic local
buckling of steel sections under combined axial force and bending moment
applied nonproportionally. An experimental program on this subject,
recently completed at the State University of New York at Buffalo, is
described in this paper.

2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

2.1 Experimental set-up and procedures

Figure 1 shows details of the test set-up. In these experiments, eight

specimens of W8 x 10 (bit ratio:9"61) were tested under monotonic and
cyclic loading conditions of pure bending, bending plus axial, and bending
with initial constant axial load or strain. The specimen was selected so that
local buckling of beam flange occurred under relatively large inelastic
deformation. The length of all specimens was 577"85 mm (22.75 in). Two
actuators used in this tests were MTS models 244.51 and 244.41 with
capacities 445 kN (100 kips) and 890 kN (200 kips), respectively (one for
bending and the other for axial force). Experiments were controlled either
by strain gages mounted on the flange and on the web of the specimen or
by displacement increments. Half and quarter bridge connection strain
gages were installed in the middle of both flanges and in the middle of web,
respectively. Because strain gage control is more accurate than displace-
ment control, the strain gage control was used in tests of pure bending and
bending with an initial axial load. In combined bending and axial load
tests, the displacement control was used. In tests with initial axial loads,
the axial loads (P/Py=0.3) were applied first and then followed by
58 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

All dimension are in metres

7
1324
Concrete reaction block

+ ~- Actuators
+
Loadin~ beam I
+
-[-Specimen

7 Concrete reaction block

±
Fig. 1. Test set-up.

repeated applications of bending moment. Initiation of local buckling

was determined from visual observations and strength measurements.
All tests were conducted at room temperature using a strain rate of
25-200 microstrains/s. At each step the strain value data, including all
other data, were saved in a main controlled computer system. At each
strain limit, three cycles were applied. Material properties of the speci-
men were same as the nominal values (Young's modulus:
2-0326 x 108 kPa (29 500 ksi), axial initial yield stress: 261 820 kPa (38 ksi),
and Poison's ratio:0"35). A summary of the test program is given in
Table 1.

2.2 Test results

Test results show that the deterioration of the strength due to local
buckling, particularly due to web local buckling, occurred immediately
after the flange local buckling. Flange or web fracture after many cycles
of local buckling was not observed.
Before the commencement of local buckling, the hysteresis loops in
all cases were remarkable stable in shape under repeated loading cycles
and the moment-curvature relationship exhibit straight line bounds to
which the non-linear portions approach asymptotically. These straight
line bounds are approximately parallel to each other. It can be seen
that cyclic hardening and cyclic softening did not take place in these
tests.
 Local buckling of steel sections under cyclic loading 59

TABLE 1
Test Program

Type of specimen W8 x 10
Number of total specimens 8
Type of loading Figure
(specimen nos)
Pure bending Monotonic 2,3
(M 1, M2)
Cyclic 2,3 (C1, C2)
Bending + const. Monotonic 4
axial(e/er = 0"3) (M3)
(non-proportional) Cyclic 4
(C3)
Bending + axial Monotonic 5
(M4)
(proportional) cyclic 6(C4)

2.2.1 Pure bendin9 tests

The moment-curvature relationships of monotonic and cyclic tests are
shown in Figs 2 and 3. The monotonic response consists of a high stiffness
region, a region of plastic plateau, and a region of continuous decrease in
stiffness and the load carrying capacity of the member. There is a major
difference between the monotonic test results in the high stiffness region
and in the beginning portion of yield plateau. This behavior may be
attributed to the presence of welding residual stresses. As shown in the
figures, the results of four tests for the pure bending condition are almost
identical. The strength deterioration and stiffness deterioration after local
buckling on the behavior under both monotonic and cyclic loading

I0
T

"~" V: Loca~9 u c ~

-40-

-410
41011 "4,ml 0 IkO01 ~ |,~1
Curvature
Fig. 2. Moment-curvature relationship.
60 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

80

40-

e~
o

-,40-

Curvature
Fig. 3. Moment--curvaturerelationship.

condition was small, and buckling does not accelerate the reduction in
moment. Maximum moments of the monotonic test were 49"946 (442) and
51.415 kN m (455 kips in), respectively. After local buckling in the cyclic
loading test, only one unloading cycle was observed. This is due to the
inaccuracy of strain gages readings resulting from out-of-plane distortion
of the plate elements.

2.2.2 Bending with initial axial loads ( P/Pr = 0"3) tests

The moment-curvature relationships of the monotonic and cyclic tests are
shown in Fig. 4. In the monotonic test, as soon as the local buckling
happened, the member was crushed due to the large axial load effects. The
strength deterioration and the stiffness deterioration after local buckling

o
8
o

'-~OOt5 ,-0,901 -'0~1~ 0 O,OOW O.OOl 0.0015

Curvature
Fig. 4. Moment-curvature relationship.
 Local bucklin9 of steel sections under cyclic loadin9 61

on the behavior of monotonic loading condition were large, but those on

the behavior of cyclic loading condition were small because after m a n y
cycles the initial axial load was reduced to zero.
The full plastic m o m e n t of a wide-flanged section bent about its strong
axis can be estimated by 22'23

Mpc = M p for 0<P<0.15P r

11(, for O.15Pr<P < P r

If a member is monotonically subjected to the combined action of bending

m o m e n t and axial force, the available plastic m o m e n t capacity is reduced
from the full value of Mp to a lesser value designated as Mpc. In this test,
the m a x i m u m m o m e n t of the monotonic test is 47.121 kN m (417 kips in).
The reduced plastic m o m e n t Mpc of the monotonic loading due to the
initial axial load effect is reduced to 93% of the monotonic pure bending
test in comparison with 0.83 given by the above equation.

2.2.3 Bendin 9 and axial tests

The m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e relationships for the monotonic and cyclic tests
are given in Figs 5 and 6(a), respectively. The beam-columns were tested
under constant amplitude cycling. The strength deterioration and the
stiffness deterioration after local buckling on the behavior of both mono-
tonic and cyclic loading conditions were large due to the axial load effect.
In this test, the m a x i m u m m o m e n t of the monotonic test was 45.878 kN m
(406 kips in). The reduced plastic m o m e n t Mpc of monotonic loading due

rio

46

~ - " 36

15

10

O
0.~
Curvature
Fig. 5. Moment~urvature relationship.
62 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

-IW , ,

(a) .u,,, -,,, -U~Curvature t ~ u,, tin15

" /¢'/7

-IIII~ .41111 ~ I ~ Ull Ullll

(b) Cttrvature
Fig. 6. Moment-curvature relationship.

to the axial load effect was reduced to 90% of the monotonic pure bending
test. During several cycles following the onset of flange buckling, the
buckled regions grew considerably in size and deterioration in both the
load carrying capacity and the stiffness can be noticed. After local
buckling, the rate of deterioration in strength, stiffness and hysteresis
energy decreased accordingly. In Fig. 6(a), different responses of the
strength and stiffness deterioration rate were obtained in two opposite
directions. This is due mainly to the slightly unsymmetric geometry of the
specimen at the connection. However, the trends in the two directions are
generally the same. 6

2.2.4 Observations on local bucklinff

As the cyclic loading was reversed in direction (Figs 7 and 8), the right
flange buckled and the left flange was straightened. Whereas in the
 Local buckling of steel sections under cyclic loading 63

Fig. 7. Photograph of local buckling for monotonic pure bending.

Fig. 8. Photograph of local buckling for cyclic pure bending.

following reversal, the left flanges buckled and the right flange was
straightened. Test results showed that all buckles occurred inwards in the
top flange while all buckles occurred outwards in the b o t t o m flange.
Buckle size increased under the constant amplitude cycling because of the
low cycle fatigue.
64 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

Most of the flange local buckling happened at 100-177 mm (4-7 in,

around ¼ point of the member from the loading beam) and web local
buckling occurred after the flange local buckling. This may be due to the
presence of residual stresses in the region of end plate from the welding
process. As shown in Figs 7 and 8, the wave length after the test finished was
around 152 mm (6 in) in every locally buckled flange. The test shows that
even though the flange element is unstiffened, local buckling of the flange and
web occurred at almost the same time, because before buckling a lot of
cracks developed in the web near the flange where local buckling did occur.
One important observation made in this experimental program is that
when the specimen returns to the original position after local buckling
happened at one flange, the next local buckling would happen at the other
flange due to the residual plastic curvature. This phenomenon indicates
that when comparing local buckling behavior under cyclic loading condi-
tion the beginning loading point is important. Another important observa-
tioo of the experimental program was that the flange corresponding to the
first local buckling has more deterioration than the other flange. This has
resulted in unsymmetrical hysteretic loops after local buckling. This
phenomenon is also reported in Ref. 2.

2.3 Evaluation of test results

Figure 9 shows the critical curvature normalized by the curvature of

monotonic pure bending test. The local buckling for the cyclic pure
bending condition happened much faster (around 60%) than the one for

!
O~ Purl k~cing nor,o)

<~ u ~.re Ixr ~ (cy~

B~"t~r~Ntiol~ial (m~o)
Beml~ng+l ti~
~o~ ~"
\
Bendi~i+~al (c ~¢)
~ °"
o
11 C1 M3 M4 C4 C2 C3
Specimen numbers
Fig. 9. Normalizedcritical curvatures.
 Local bucklinq t~[steel sections under cyclic loadin9 65

the monotonic pure bending loading history. Monotonic bending with

axial load and initial axial load and cyclic bending with axial load and
initial axial load are below 50%.
In order to evaluate deterioration in strength, stiffness, and dissipated
energy, the measured quantities are compared with calculated values which
are the best possible prediction of the undeteriorated response. Figure 10
shows the normalized stiffness deterioration of each cyclic test. The member
stiffness of the last cycle's unloading process after local buckling is compared
with the previous cycle's stiffness (or elastic stiffness). The normalized
stiffness deterioration is as follows: (i) pure bending=0.9 and 0.947, (ii)
bending with initial axial load (non-proportional loading)=0"937, (iii)
bending with axial load (proportional loading)= 0.7784 (first cycle), 0.7458
(second cycle), and 0.6981 (third cycle). Figure 10 also shows that under
cyclic loading condition the initial constant axial load has no significant
effect on stiffness deterioration, but the bending and axial loading condition
has a serious stiffness deterioration because of the axial load effect.
The accumulated energy or total energy absorbed by the members at
local failure is plotted against the accumulated plastic curvature for each
test in Fig. 11. This figure provides some quantitative information on the
energy absorbing capabilities of the various loading conditions. Figure 11
also shows that the deformation capacity can be explained by the linear
function regardless of the loading condition and that the axial load effect is
significant.
In order to evaluate the cyclic energy deterioration, the area enclosed by
the moment-curvature curve has to be calculated. In Fig. 12, the rate of

1
Pure k

Pure k n d ~
Ben ~'~+lnltial a) ~1(0,~

5rd

Bendin ~-Axid
~u
;/J¢4
0

C1 C4 C2 C3
Specimen numbers
Fig. 10. Normalized stiffness deterioration.
66 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

$5-

~ u

0.012 D.DI|
Accumulated plastic curvature
Fig. 11. Accumulated energy versus accumulated plastic curvature.

7J

72 ~

7.1:

ic,,I
e.7

~o

Cycles after local buekling

Fig. 12. Dissipated energy of each cycle after local buckling.

hysteresis energy deterioration of each cycle after local buckling occurred

is shown. Experimental result showed that the dissipated energy deteriora-
tion rate has three different stages which is a similar trend to that of the
piecewise linear diagram of Ref. 6.

3 ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

In order to model analytically the post-local buckling characteristics, two

surface plasticity model for structural steel were first considered in order to
evaluate of the general plastic section modulus. Tseng and Lee 24 proposed
 Local buckling of steel sections under cyclic loading 67

a two-surface model to describe the inelastic cyclic behavior of metal based

on the existence of a yield surface and a memory surface which represents
the maximum stress state the material ever experienced. They have stated
that the motion of the yield surface is deviatoric stress space is related to
the direction of the deviatoric stress rate. It was assumed that during
translations the individual surfaces do not intersect, but are consecutively
in contact and push each other. The generalized plastic section modulus
based on Tseng-Lee model is determined by

in which h, the shape parameter, can be determined through experimental

results under cyclic loading. 6 is the distance between the stress point on
the load surface and the matching point on the bound surface during
the course of plastic loading, t~in i is the corresponding distance between
these two points at initial plastic loading. Yang 2s modified the Tseng-
Lee model in the stress resultant space. The formulation has a stress
resultant and strain relationship instead of a stress and displacement
relationship. In the stress resultant plasticity model, H, the plastic
section modulus, denotes (EA)p,(GA/~)p, and (EI)p. H, the plastic section
modulus associated with the bound surface, denotes (EA)°p,(GA/c~)°p, and
(EI)°p.
For the cyclic post-local buckling behavior, the reduction factors such
as Qa and Qs are correlated with the generalized plastic section modulus,
such as (EA)r,(GA/~)p,(EI)f, to simulate the stiffness deterioration. Qa and
Qs are reduction factors of stiffened and unstiffened plate elements, which
are defined in the AISC Specification. 26 The reduced generalized section
modulus such as the bending, the axial, and the shear stiffness due to the
local buckling, was proposed in Ref. 12:

= (Et) {cl QoQ }

= (EA) {C2 Q.

(GA/ct)pb = (GA/~)p { C3 Q. }

where C1, C2, and C 3 a r e the stiffness deterioration constants and will be
calibrated by the experimental results. (EI)pb,(EA)~b and (GA/~)pb indicate
the deterioration of the plastic section modulus after local buckling
occurred, and (EI)p,(EA)p and (GA/~t)p indicate the plastic section
modulus.
68 G. C. Lee, E. T. Lee

Figure 6(b) gives the analytically predicted cyclic post-local buckling

behavior under combined bending and axial load which is to be compared
with Fig. 6(a). A relatively good correlation can be observed. A compari-
son (Figs 6(a) and (b)) of dissipated energy for each cycle after local
buckling is shown in Fig. 12. A linearized deterioration rate of dissipated
energy for each cycle shows a good approximation of the experimental
result.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The behavior of short structural steel members subjected to selected

monotonic, cyclic and non-proportional loading paths under combined
axial force and bending moment is experimentally investigated. Test results
show that flange local buckling under cyclic loading condition occurred in a
smaller curvature than that under monotonic loading condition. From the
test, the accumulated energy of each test and the rate of hysteresis energy
deterioration of each cycle after local buckling occurred were obtained and
compared. An analytical method is presented to predict the cyclic post-local
buckling behavior of steel members. The proposed method can describe the
strength and the stiffness deterioration which are the important factors in the
cyclic post-local buckling behavior of thin-walled structural members. The
energy dissipation capacity of individual structural members in seismic
design can be approximately predicted by using this method.

REFERENCES

1. Bertero, V. V. & Popov, E. P., Effect of large alternating strains of steel beams.
J. Structural Division, ASCE, 91(ST1) (1965) 1-12.
2. Mitani, I., Makino, M. & Matsui, C., Influence of local buckling on cyclic
behavior of steel beam-column. In Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, New Delhi, 1977, pp. 3175-80.
3. Popov, E. P. & Pinkney, R. B., Cyclic yield reversal in steel building
connections. J. Structural Division, ASCE, 95(ST3) (1969) 327-53.
4. Wakabayashi, M., Matsui, C., Minami, K. & Mitani, I., Inelastic behavior of
steel frames subjected to constant vertical and alternating horizontal loads. In
Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Rome,
1973, pp. 1194-97.
5. Krawinkler, H. & Zohrei, M., Cumulative damage in steel structures subjected
to earthquake ground motions. Computers & Structures, 16(1-4) (1983) 531-41.
6. Zohrei, M., Cumulative damage in components of steel structures under cyclic
inelastic loading. Dissertation presented to Stanford University, in 1982, in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
 Local bucklin9 of steel sections under cyclic loading 69

7. Vann, W. P., Thompson, L. E., Whalley, L. E. & Ozier, L. D., Cyclic behavior
of rolled steel members. In Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Rome, 1973, pp. 1187-93.
8. Suzuki, T. & Ono, T., An experimental study on inelastic behavior of steel
members subjected repeated loading. In Proceedings of the 6th World Confer-
ence on Earthquake Engineering, 1977, pp. 3163-8.
9. Matsui, C. & Mitani, I., Inelastic behavior of high strength steel frames
subjected to constant vertical and alternating horizontal loads. In Proceedings
of the 6th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1977, pp. 3169-74.
10. Udagawa, K., Takanashi, K. & Tanaka, H., Restoring force characteristics of
H-shaped steel beams under cyclic and reversed loading, Part I: Rotation
capacity of plastic hinge under cyclic loads at constant deflection amplitudes.
Trans. AIJ, 264 (1978) 51-9 (in Japanese).
I I. Udagawa, K., Takanashi, K. & Tanaka, H., Restoring force characteristics of
H-shaped steel beams under cyclic and reversed loading, Part II: Strength
deterioration of beams under random deflections. Trans. AIJ, 265 (1978)
45-52 (in Japanese).
12. Lee. E. T., Inelastic cyclic behaviour of locally buckled plastic hinges of steel
members. Dissertation presented to the State University of New York at
Buffalo, in 1992, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.
13. Tann, W. P., Thompson, L. E., Whalley, L. E. & Ozier, L. D., Cyclic behavior
of rolled steel members. In Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, 1973, pp. 1187 93.
14. Popov, E. P. & Stephen, R. M., Cyclic Loading of Full-Size Steel Connections.
Steel Research for Construction, AISI, Bulletin No. 21, New York, 1972.
15. Popov, E. P. & Bertero, V. V., Cyclic loading of steel beams and connections.
J. Structural Division, ASCE, 99(ST6) (1973) 1189 204.
16. Almuti, A. M. & Hanson, R. D., Static and dynamic cyclic yielding of steel
beams. J. Structural Division, ASCE, 99(ST6) (1973) 1273-85.
17. Yoshizumi, T. & Matsui, C., Cyclic behavior of steel frames influenced by
local and lateral buckling. In Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo-Kyoto, 2 9, Aug. 1988.
18. Ballio, G. & Calado, L., Local buckling of steel sections under cyclic loads. In
Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Lisbon, Portugal, 7-12, Sept. 1986, pp. 7.2/57-7.2/64.
19. Bertero, V. V., Popov, E. P. & Krawinkler, H., Beam column sub-
assemblages under repeated loading. J. Structural Division, ASCE, 98(ST5)
(1972) !137-59.
20. Lee, G. C. & Galambos, T. V., Post-buckling strength of wide-flange beams. J.
Mechanics Division, A SCE, 88(EMI), (1962) 59-75.
21. Popov, E. P. & Pinkney, R. B., Reliability of steel beam-to-column connec-
tions under cyclic loading. In Proceedings of the 4th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, 1969, Santiago, Chile, B-3, pp. 15 30.
22. American Society of Civil Engineers and Welding Research Council, Plastic
Design in Steel, A Guide and Commentary (ASCE Manual No. 41), ASCE, New
York, USA, 1971.
23. Galambos, T. V., Structural Members and Frames, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N J, USA, 1968.
70 G. C. Lee. E. T. Lee

24. Tseng, N. T. & Lee, G. C., Simple plasticity model of two-surface type. J.
Engng Mechanics, ASCE, 109(3) (1983) 795-810.
25. Yang, C., Inelastic behavior of steel members under non-proportional load-
ing. Dissertation presented to State University of New York at Buffalo, in
1990, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy.
26. AISC, Manual of Steel Construction, Load & Resistance Factor Design.
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, USA, 1986.