Asia

JAPAN is also known as the land of the rising sun, Japan is an island country in
East Asia located in the northwest Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by the Sea of Japan
to the west and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea
and Taiwan in the south.
Japan comprises 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. It
stretches over 3,000 km northeast–southwest from the Sea of Okhotsk to the East
China Sea, The county's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido,
Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa.there are around 4,00 smaller islands that
make up Japan. Japan has the sixth longest coastline in the world.
Japan is one of the world’s most successful democracies and . Japan is the third
largest national economy in the world, after the United States and China, in terms
of nominal GDP,and the fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity, after
the United States, China and India.

Japan 2020 population is estimated at 126,476,461 people at mid year according to

UN data. Japan population is equivalent to 1.62% of the total world population.
Japan ranks number 11 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population.
Japan's capital Tokyo is one of the largest population cities in the world.
The climate of Japan is mostly temperate but varies greatly from north to south.
The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long,
cold winters and very warm to cool summers, Precipitation is not heavy, but the
islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter. In the summer, the region
sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures. The Central Highland has a
typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences
between summer and winter.
Coming to Japan, tourists cannot forget the cuisine of this place, Food is an
important part of Japanese culture and there are many unique aspects of Japanese
cuisine with large variety of dishes and regional specialties, Japanese cuisine is
known for its emphasis on seasonality of food, quality of ingredients and
presentation. Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use
traditional recipes and local ingredients. Seafood and Japanese rice or noodles are
traditional staple of Japanese cuisine, typically seasoned with a combination
of dashi, soy sauce, mirin, vinegar, sugar, and salt. Dishes inspired by foreign food
—in particular Chinese food—like ramen and gyōza, as well as foods like
spaghetti, curry, and hamburgers have become adopted with variants for Japanese
tastes and ingredients and some famous dishes: Sushi, Tempura, Ramen, Udon,
Yakitori, Kaisheki, and so on.
One of the social customs in Japan is drinking sake during the winter. This
legendary alcoholic beverage is made from rice. Sake represents the glory of
winter and the traditions of Japan. Another traditional drink of Japan is hot tea
which is customary year around unsweetened and without milk, used in
the Japanese tea ceremony. Anyone visiting a Japanese or Hibachi restaurant will
be served tea automatically.
Other social customs in Japan include seating for meals on the floor and enjoying
many cultural delights. It is customary to remove your shoes when entering a
building, to bow upon greeting.
There are many annual festivals in Japan, There are no specific festival days for all
of Japan; dates vary from area to area, and even within a specific area, but festival
days do tend to cluster around traditional holidays and Japan keeps itself grounded
in history and tradition by celebrating a variety of festivals throughout the year:
New Year, Setsubun, Hina matsuri, Children festival, shichi go san.
many customs that are different from those in the western world. The customs in
Japan have created many do's and don'ts that make travel to Japan very interesting.
Japan is a wondrous country filled with a rich cultural heritage and sightseeing.
Japan has sixteen such places of outstanding value, and all of them are important
tourist attractions. If you find yourself at loss when it comes to which Japanese
attractions you should visit while in the country of the rising sun, world heritage
sites are a safe bet that you’ll have a great time while learning about Japanese
culture, history, or seeing its natural wonders. -Shirakawa-go, Himeji castle,
Shiretoko national park… Japan is a feast to the eyes if you love sightseeing such
as Mount Fuji, Hiroshima, Yokohama Bay bridge, Japanese Alps, Miyajima, sinchi
chinatown,iwankuni.
Japan is a great country that I would love to live there someday, I’ve been
dreaming of to visit. There are lots of great places I can check out and learn from.
The things that attract me are there culture is very different and there are lots of
things for me experience.There are lots of activities I can enjoy during the day and
night. The food at Japan looks good, and sound very good. Everything over there is
an adventure.
Australian
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is an island continent in the
Southern Hemisphere, lying between Antarctica and Asia. It is surrounded by the
Indian Ocean to the west; the Timor, Arafura, and Coral Seas to the north; the
Pacific Ocean to the east; and the Tasman Sea and Southern Ocean to the south and
numerous smaller islands.
Much of the continent is low, flat, and dry. The area of the continent is 2.97
million square miles (7.69 million square kilometers). It is the largest country in
Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country by total area.Australia's capital is
Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney.
Australia is a highly developed country, with the world's fourteenth-largest
economy. It has a high-income economy, with the world's tenth-highest per capital
income. It is a regional power and has the world's thirteenth-highest military
expenditure.
Australia 2020 population is estimated at 25,499,884 people at mid year according
to UN data. Australia population is equivalent to 0.33% of the total world
population. Australia ranks number 55 in the list of countries by population. The
majority of the population lives in urban areas around the coast.
There are four seasons across most of Australia, with the tropical north
experiencing a wet and dry season. Summer runs from December to March
(average temperature 29°C), autumn throughout March to May, winter runs from
June to August (average 13°C) and spring from September to November
Due to the huge size of the country, Australia has serveral different climate zones.
The northern section of Australia has a more tropical influenced climate, hot and
humid in the summer, and quite warm and dry in the winter, while the southern
parts are cooler with mild summers and cool, sometimes rainy winters.
Coming to Japan, tourists in the tourist area cannot forget the cuisine of this place,
Australian cuisine refers to the food and cooking practices of Australia and its
inhabitants. As a modern nation of large-scale immigration, Australia has a unique
blend of culinary contributions and adaptations from various cultures around the
world, including British, European, Asian and Middle Eastern.
Australia frequently ranks among the most multicultural countries in the
world, and this shows in the vibrant food scenes  in our major cities. We love
curries, Mediterranean grub, and Italian food like pizza and pasta, and some
famous dishes in Austrailia : Witchetty grubs, Burger with beetroot, Barbecued
snags, Lamingtons, Barramundi, Meat pies, Pavlova
Tea was the hot beverage most commonly consumed in Australia throughout most
of its history from the time the earliest British settlers, though coffee has become
overall more common since the 1990s. Tea and biscuits or freshly home-baked
scones are common for afternoon tea between friends and family.
Although Australians often drink tea at home, it has been found that in out-of-
home establishments where tea and coffee are sold together, tea accounted for only
2.5% of total sales. In a land as diverse as Australia, there's a lot of local food to
put on your plate.
Australia is a land of dreams. From the sacred legends of the aboriginal
Dreamtime, when the great spirits conjured the coral reefs, rainforests, and
scorched red deserts, to armchair travelers who describe Australia as their dream
destination, the Land Down Under deserves all the hype. Australia is also a land of
staggering contrasts and spectacular beauty. Along the coast, you can explore
vibrant multicultural cities, vast sand islands, ancient rainforests, and one of the
planet's most awe-inspiring natural wonders - the Great Barrier Reef, Sydney
Opera House, PickGreat Barrier Reef Marine Park, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Blue
Mountains National Park, Melbourne, Bondi Beach
traditions and customs also have had a major influence on Australian society and
culture.
 Some of the most popular festivals that are celebrated in Australia are Adelaide
Festival, Melbourne International Comedy Festival, Byron Bay Bluesfest,
Parrtjima, Woodford Folk Festival, and Melbourne International Arts Festival.and
the traditions are adopted from far and wide; however, there are a few customs and
rituals that are purely Australian such as Boxing Day Test Cricket, Small Talk
with Cabbies, Meat Pies at the Footy, Muck Up Day, Schoolies. .
Australia is a great country that I would love to live there someday, I’ve been
dreaming of to visit. There are lots of great places I can check out and learn from.
The things that attract me are there culture is very different and there are lots of
things for me experience.There are lots of activities I can enjoy during the day and
night. The food at Australia looks good, and sound very good. Everything over
there is an adventure.

Africa
Italy, is a boot shaped country in south-south eastern Europe. Italy, also known as
the Italian Republic, is a country consisting of a peninsula delimited by the Alps
and surrounded by several islands. Italy is located in south-central Europe, and is
considered part of western Europe. It is one of the seven most industrialized
countries in the world. This lineup includes: United States, Russia, Germany,
England, Japan, China and Italy.
Italy has a major advanced capitalist mixed economy, ranking as the third-largest
in the Eurozone and the eighth-largest in the world.
Italy 2020 population is estimated at 60,461,826 people at mid year according to
UN data. Italy population is equivalent to 0.78% of the total world population.
Italy has the fourth-largest population in the European Union and Italy ranks
number 23 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population. An interesting
fact about the population of Italy is that it is neither growing nor shrinking.
the climate of Italy is highly diverse and depending on location, it's climate is about
86 degrees in the summer and about 54 degrees in the winter, in Southern Italy. In
northern Italy the climate is only slightly cooler then the rest of the country. The
Northern receives more precipitation then the rest of the country too. Climate of
the Po valley region is continental with harsh winter and hot summers, The coastal
regions have mild winters and warm and dry summers.
There is a saying that states ‘one either lives to eat or eats to live’ and Italy as a
country is ruled by the former. Italy is a culture that is rich and saturated in their
traditions of cooking. They take pride in their food and live by the credo that food
is only used if it is fresh, local and in season. There has been much debate on what
defines Italian food and through research one can see that Italian food is not typical
of a specific dish, rather that each region offers a new. Italian cuisine is noted for
its regional diversity, rich variation in flavors and is known as one of the most
popular dishes in the world, with strong influences abroad such as Panzenella,
Bruschetta, Focaccia Bread, Pasta Carbonara, Margherita Pizza,
Mushroom Risotto

Italy is known, to many, for its scenic landscapes and is said to be rich in both
cultural and historical significance.
Italian festivals are based on historical events and can include processions with
people dressed in period costume, contests between neighborhoods of the town,
flag-throwers, food, and fireworks. Summer is the height of the festival season, as
you travel in Italy, There are many festivals and festivities in Italy. Some of them
include Carneval, La Quitana, Festa della Mandonna Bruna,

Italy is considered by many to be a very beautiful and wonderful place. It is a

vacation spot for many people and is famous for many reasons. The Tuscany town
of Pisa is most often visited by tourists wanting to see or climb the Leaning
Tower, one of Italy's most well-known attractions. The ornate Romanesque tower
is one of Europe's most famous towers.Lake Commo, Amalfi Coast.

Italy is a great country that I would love to live there someday, I’ve been dreaming
of to visit. There are lots of great places I can check out and learn from. The things
that attract me are there culture is very different and there are lots of things for me
experience.There are lots of activities I can enjoy during the day and night. The
food at Italy looks good, and sound very good. Everything over there is an
adventure.
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia
in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including
adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area
The economy of Africa consists of the trade, industry, agriculture, and human
resources of the continent. As of 2019, approximately 1.3 billion people[1] were
living in 54 countries in Africa. Africa is a resource-rich continent. [3][4] Recent
growth has been due to growth in sales in commodities, services, and
manufacturing.[5] West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa and Southern Africa in
particular, are expected to reach a combined GDP of $29 trillion by 2050.
The current population of Africa is 1,347,333,004 as of Saturday, September
19, 2020, based on the latest United Nations estimates. Africa population is
equivalent to 16.72% of the total world population. Africa ranks
number 2 among regions of the world (roughly equivalent to "continents"), ordered
by population. The population density in Africa is 45 per Km 2 , The total land area
is 29,648,481 Km2 , 43.8 % of the population is urban (587,737,793 people in
2019), The median age in Africa is 19.7years.
Equatorial West and Central Africa have a monsoon climate defined by high
temperatures, soaring humidity, and heavy seasonal rains. East Africa also has
distinct dry and rainy seasons, while Southern Africa is generally more temperate.
The climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its
northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas
contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there
is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate.
Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists
of drylands and deserts.
Coming to Japan, tourists in the tourist area cannot forget the cuisine of this place,
African cuisine is diverse, delicious and if you desire, You are spoiled, not only
for choice; tasting the sumptuous dishes also open your eyes to the gateways to the
very cultural essence of the races on the continent.like Jollof Rice (West Africa),
Koki – Bean Cake, Couscous Royale (Tunisia, North Africa), Chicken Muamba
(Angola, Southern Africa), Shisa Nyama (South Africa), Alauda, zobo.
Africa is known for some amazing traditional festivals that showcase the rich and
diverse cultures found across the continent. But it is also home to a growing
number of modern-day festivals, created in the current era and celebrating the
vibrancy of music and arts in Africa now. Some are influenced by religion, and
offer visitors the opportunity to witness moments of great faith while gaining a
better understanding of the beliefs upon which a country's culture is built Timkat,
Cape Town International Jazz Festival,( South Africa), Fez Festival of World
Sacred Music, (Morocco), International Festival of the Sahara, (Tunisia)
Africa is a continent possessing numerous attractions, the most impressive,
spectacular and beautiful places in the whole of Africa: The great migration,
Tanzania, Table Mountain, South Africa. Djemaa el Fna, Morocco, Sossusvlei
Dunes,  Pyramids of Giza
Africa is a great country that I would love to live there someday, I’ve been
dreaming of to visit. There are lots of great places I can check out and learn from.
The things that attract me are there culture is very different and there are lots of
things for me experience.There are lots of activities I can enjoy during the day and
night. The food at Africa looks good, and sound very good. Everything over there
is an adventure.

1.what make a great tour guide?

Being a great tour guide comes down to going the extra mile. Great tour guides
aren’t just the most knowledgeable or the most entertaining. They do special and
unexpected things almost by instinct.The most memorable tour guides are the ones
who obviously love their jobs and their personalities always shine through. Great
guides know how to use their strengths and knowledge to make sure their guests
have the most amazing tour possible.

2. what should a tour guide prepare for the arrival at the airport

A tour guide should prepare flight detail of airlines, arrival hall , flight number,
arrival time, and customer information such as how many people, name list ,and is
there any special requirement handicap, wheelchair, activity program?

And prepare sign board with customer names for contract number of the driver that
will transfer customer to the hotel or the indicated point in the program, wear your
name on a tag badge.

When picking up at the airpoort: be present at least 20 minutes early at correct

arrival hall, check arrival time on the flight informtion board at the arrival hall,
stand at an easy spotted place at the gate, hold the sign board with the guest name.

3. Advantage- disadvantage of being a freelancer?

A freelancer is someone that is self-employed– i.e. they have created and are
running their own tours. The term freelancing can also mean someone who works
for a variety of different tour companies as an independent contractor.
Disadvantage: overhead costs, logistics, Lack of health benefits ( job insurance ),
Employee, Lack of income security, Limited locations, Not Steady or Reliable
Workloads, Distinguishing Between Work and Personal Time.
You’ll need to fight hard for these profits

Advantage: Build your business, Flexible Hours, Some people are simply happier
doing their own thing. Select the areas to work, (you can work from home or a
beach ).You get to keep all the profit, No office politics, No boss (You are free to
work (or not) as you please.)

The great thing about working for yourself is that the effort you put in is directly
proportional to what you get out. Don't expect to make millions at the start. It's
tourism! You're in a competitive market and it takes time to build a reputation. But
you can slowly grow your business and no one else but you will make it succeed or
fail. That's exciting.

4. Keys to develop a business plan in tourism?

A business plan is an essential tool in developing a sound strategy for starting your
business. Topics to be covered include:

• Executive Summary. This provides a summary of all the elements in your plan,
including marketing, the services you will provide, financing, and the potential
your business has for success in the marketplace.

• Customer Market Analysis. You will need to research the potential market for
your services, how you will find customers, and the cost of client acquisition.

• Competitor Analysis. Identify your chief competitors -- other tour guide

agencies with which you will be directly competing for customers and any edge
you can offer in services to make your firm stand out.

• Sales Forecast. You must estimate what your potential sales will be over the first
two to three years.
• Company Management. Identify all the major positions in the company, any
board of directors you will have and the specific skills each party brings to the
company to assist in its growth.

• Staffing. Describe the number of staff positions required and your plans to add
staff as the business grows.

• Financial Statements. These include a balance sheet, operating expenses, and all
other expenses, as well as business income. Typical information to be used to
figure these costs will include your estimates of:

- Variable costs: average cost per unit x forecasted sales per month

- Gross profits: revenue minus the variable cost

- Fixed costs: cost that will be continual costs

- Profit before taxes: gross profit minus fixed costs

- Taxes: profit before taxes are taken out

- Net profits: profit before taxes minus taxes

5. Issues in restaurant inspection

Restaurant Inspection for Individuals and Groups Food plays a very important role
in the visitor’s experience while on vacation or attending a business meeting. In
reviewing restaurants you will want to check for the following services, prices,
facilities, and of course food preparation and presentation. Questions to ask while
establishing a business relationship with a restaurant or nightclub include:

Group size: Minimum and maximum number of clients they can accommodate
Individual: Will discounts or commissions be offered for a number of clients
refereed to the restaurant during any one calendar year?
Escorts/Tour Guides/Tour Directors: Are they given complimentary meals while
escorting a group?

Bus Driver: Complimentary meals? Area to wait and relax during the group’s
function?

Prices: Cost per person, taxes and gratuities

Seating arrangements for groups: Close to entertainment, stairs, handicap

accessibility

Dining: Buffet or sit down, menu choices

Entertainment: Type, time (weekdays or weekends)

Parking for motor coach: Can the motor coaches get to the front door in case of
bad weather?

Method of payment: Company check, credit card, partial payment, final payment

Welcome signs for groups: Make them feel welcome

Special themes/Food preparation: Birthdays, special events

Contact person: Who signs the contract and will be there during your function

Reservation and Cancellation policies: Amount ofmoney to secure the reservation,

cost per person with tax and gratuity (other fees)

6. 03 challenges in tourism marketing?

1. Appeal: Natural and man-made disasters in an area will dissuade tourists from
visiting there.

For example, following the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan, the number
 of foreign visitors to the country fell by 25%. These events gave tourists the
impression that Japan is a dangerous place to visit.

2. Unrest: Political unrest and the threat of war poses huge challenges for
marketing tourism. Once a region has stabilised, tourists need to be convinced that
it is safe to travel there.
For example, Egypt received 14 million foreign tourists in 2010. The following
year, the Egyptian revolution caused this number to drop to 9.5 million

3. Capacity: All service providers in the tourism industry need to maintain high
capacity, in order to turn a profit.
During times of low demand, a service provider should try to maintain as high a
capacity as possible. They can do this by, for example, offering discounts and
special offers to help fill seats. Doing so ensures that the business can pay its costs
and remain profitable.

 Introduction where there is only a limited awareness of the market for the

product.
 Growth as more prospects turn customers as they discover the product. At this
point, competitors enter the market, and ultimately limit the growth.
 Maturity is reached when the growth is halted but the sales remain steady
because a market balance is found between the product and its competitors.
 Decline happens as later, more competitive products gradually erodes the sales.
The decline can be accelerated if the product is actively phased out of the market.

1. Solution when reaching the decline period?

This is the stage in which sales of your product begin to fall. everyone that wants
to has bought your product or new, more innovative products have been created
that replace yours. To stay competitive, and keep your market share, you will need
to reassess your existing product and iterate on it’s features., renovating the
management model, New features may be added to the product and its packaging
may be made more attractive. change the way products advertisment, adding more
incentives to serve customers, surveying customers' opinions,

An excellent example of this is Samsung, which saw its sales results dramatically
decrease after the introduction of the iPhone.

Samsung and iphone are both famous brands, but iphone is more sought after by
many people because of its beautiful design, widely promoted by many famous
people, diverse advertisements, Iphone takes almost 1 year appear a new design ..

Sam sung has diverse models, and most phone models are the same. A year, Sam
Sung phone can release 3 to 4 phones, which Sam Sung will run out of ideas more
than Iphone.
2. Difficulty in tourism when addressing the issue of decline example?

In tourism,

1.Make a brief tour plan dedicating for entertaining and educational sectors.

2. Make a brief tour plan prioritizing educational and escapist sectors.

Problem solving:

You are the tour guide. You arrive at the hotel and check the guests in. When you
are at the reception counter, one guest comes to you and complain that he is
unhappy with his room.
1. Indentify: One guests complain that he is unhappy his room at the reception
counter.

2. Options: - You check that room if it is not all right, you can change rooms for
guests

- clean the guest room

- discounts or extra vouchers for guests if they do not agree

- more preferences for customers such as spa, fitness services.

3. Solution: -listen to the guests and sympathize with the guests and apologize to
guest, If the living room has problems, the best and fastest way is that you can
change the guest room immediately to avoid difficult problems, and annoying
complaints from guests, if the guest is still not satisfied, then you You can donate a
voucher or a discount to guests if you come here next time.

You arrive in a town and announce the restaurant that you will be going to in the
evening. It is a Western style restaurant. However, the group of clients say that
they don’t want to go to that restaurant, they “want to eat where the local people
eat”.

Identify: Tour guide announce the guest will eat at the restaurant but the group of
clients want to eat where the local people eat”.

Options: - food quality and hygiene of the local restaurant is not safe can affect the
health of tourists
 - If tourists want to eat something, they can order that dish for guests from
shipper

Solution: first of all, you have to listen carefully and let them say everything they
have to say; and apologize to the guest. AND EXPLAIN that customer that the tour
itinerary includes a lunch at a local restaurant where the local food is spicy,
unusual and different ( for them), and you are not sure of the quality of the food
and hygiene standards. If tourists still want to try it, I'll take them there to try it.

An expat tourist complains on a tour to a ethnic minority village: “Why did I drive
5 hours on a bad road to see nothing? I paid 1000 Euros for this? The people are
not wearing traditional clothes; the house are not made of wood, but they are built
of bricks! This is not authenic, and I am not happy with what I am seeing”.

Identify: an expat tourist complain because he did not see thing which not like
what he thought about a ethnic minority village.

Options: - the landscape can change over time

Solution: : first of all, you have to listen carefully and let them say everything they
have to say; and apologize to the guest. AND EXPLAIN that
In a group, 2 tourists out of the group of 20 pp come to you and say that what want
to do something completely different now. They do not want to follow the booked
and arranged tour.

Identify: 2 tourists do not want to follow the booked and arranged tour.

Options: -

Solution: : first of all, you have to listen carefully and let them say everything they
have to say; and apologize to the guest. AND EXPLAIN that

1. What is translation? What is source language and what is target language?

Give some examples to illustrate your answer.

Translation is defined by dictionaries both as a process and as a product. First,

translation is the process of changing sth written in one language into another
language. The language to be translated from is called the source language, and the
language to be translated to is called the target language. Second, a translation is a
text that has been changed from one language into another. To be more elaborate,
translation is changing a text in one language, called the source language, into a
text in another language, called the target language, in such a way that the content-
is of the text in the target language is approximately equivalent to the content of
the text in the source language and that the syntactical structures of the source
language are preserved as closely as possible, but not so closely as to destroy the
syntactical structures of the target language.
GIVE YOUR OWN EXAMPLES

2.What is translation theory about? What is the main concern of translation

theory?

Broadly speaking, translation theory is about how to deal with translation

problems that happen again and again. The main concern of translation theory is to
set up a set of guiding translation procedures that scientific or methodical enough
to be applicable to as many different kinds of texts as possible.
GIVE YOUR OWN EXAMPLES
3.What does theory of translation provide?

The theory of translation provides the translators with many suitable ways.
First, translation theory is supposed to provide a set of principle or rules that help
methodically and effectively control the process of translation. Second, translation
theory is supposed to provide a number of suggestions that can help the translator
to deal with translation problems in a neat and effective way. Third, translation
theory is supposed to provide a framework of guiding principles that can be used
for evaluating or criticizing translation itself. Forth, translation theory is supposed
to provide insight into the relationship between thought and writing and speech.
Fifth, translation theory is supposed to provide more insight into the relationship
between language and culture.

4.What is the role of translation in the modern world?

There are many important role of translation in the modern world. One of the
most important observations is that translation is needed by national &
international organizations, in various sectors, such as medical, pharmaceutical,
automotive, financial, legal, sport, media, and translation helps immigrants &
refugees adapt to new life. Another observation is that the desire to get global has
led to greater emphasis on foreign language study and to increasing interest in
foreign cultures, and foreign cultures are communicated through large quantities of
translation; e.g, works of foreign literature that are translated are likely to reach
more readers than those in their original versions. Another observation is that
different countries in the world are so proud of their national identities and cultural
values. They are attempting to go global, but they are at the same time trying to
preserve their national identities and to introduce their cultural values to the world
community. They wish to see translation and interpretation as a means to an end in
their efforts to develop and progress with their cultural nationalism. It can be
 concluded from those observations above that translation plays a very important
role in the modern world, helping different countries in their efforts to understand
one another in order to work together for a better world to live in to preserve their
national identities while being integrated in the world community.

5.How has translation developed into a separate branch of study? Give a brief
history of translation.

Translation has a long history. Socially speaking, the history of translation has
from ancient time when most business transactions between different countries
were done with the help of word-for-word interpretation (Douglas Robinson,
2002). With the spread of Christianity, various versions of the Bible translated
from Hebrew have come into existence, for example: the very early version by St.
Jerome. Moreover, various terms have been used to refer to film or television
program translation since the birth of the film industry in the 1930s. However,
scientifically speaking, there are some typical essays: Early essays on translation
and Essay on the Principles of Translation. Moreover, many studies and seminars
were held to discuss translation matters 50 years ago, and researchers showed that
translation based on applied linguistics, syntax, semantics, and translation related
to culture, philosophy, literature and technology. Therefore, today translation
develops very strongly.

6. What is communicative translation? What is semantic translation? What are the basic
differences between communicative translation and semantic translation? (2 marks)

-Communicative translation is an approach that attempts to produce on the reader an

effect that is as close as possible to the effect produced by the original text (Newmark,
1981). Communicative translation is reader- centered and emphasizes the effect of the
translated product: its clarity and force. The translated product is typically under-
translated and expected to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional. (0.5
mark)

-Semantic translation is an approach that attempts to produce the exact contextual

meaning of the original text as closely as the syntactic and semantic structures of the
target language allow (Newmark, 1981). Semantic translation is author-centered, which
means it focuses on the writer of the original text, and emphasizes both the content and
the language of the original text. As semantic translation tends to be rigidly loyal to the
original text, the translated product may come out over-translated and thereby more
complex and less friendly to the reader of the target text. (0.5 mark)

-Communicative Translation focuses on the reader of the target language (reader-

centered), and allows the translator a lot of freedom and room to make improvements to
their translation. It is freer and gives priority to the effectiveness of the message to be
communicated. Theoretically, communicative translation presented itself individually to
the secondary reader who does not face obscurities or difficulties, and also expect the
liberal transfer of elements into his culture and language where necessary. The translated
product is thereby expected to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional,
tending to under-translate and conforming to a specific register of language.
Communicative translation is appropriate for a large number of texts, ranging from non-
literal writing to popular fiction. By contrast, Semantic Translation is loyal to the writer
of the original text, emphasizes content and form, and allows the translator no or little
freedom to make improvements. Semantic translations reside within its original culture
and assist its reader only in communication. Semantic translation is likely to be more
awkward, more complex, more concentrated, more detailed, and it processes the thought
process irrespective of transmitter’s intention. Semantic translation is neutral and
objective, just to translate naturally. It does not require adding, repairing or reducing and
only changes the text force and meaning of the source language (SL) to the target
language (TL). Semantic translation is suitable for a limited number of texts, which are
normally personal or peculiar. (1 mark)

7. What is equivalence in translation? What is the importance of equivalence in

translation?

Becoming an essential feature of translation theories in the 1960s and 1970s. equivalence
was meant to indicate that source text and target text share some kinds of the sameness.
Equivalence is a notion of quality House (1997) in that, it reflected the extents to wich
the translators managed to negotiate constraints. For Pym (2010), equivalence is a
relation of equal value between a ST segment and a TT segment and can be established
on any linguistic level. Linguistis have come up with different of equivalence. For
example, Roman Jabokson (1959) maintains that there are there different kind of
translation: intralinguial (rewording or paraphasing within one language), interlingual
(rewording or paraphasing between two language) and intersemiotic ( rewording or
paraphasing between sign systems). Meanwhile, Houses(1997) has come up with the
model translation in which the basic requirement for equivalence of ST-TT that is
original and translation should match one other in function

-Becoming an essential feature of translation theories in the 1960s and 1970s,

equivalence was meant to indicate that source text (ST) and target text (TT) share some
kind of ‘sameness’. Equivalence is a notion of quality (House 1997: 29ff.), in that it
reflects the extent to which the translator managed to negotiate constraints. For Pym
(2010), equivalence is a relation of “equal value” between an ST segment and a TT
segment and can be established on any linguistic level from form to function (p. 7).
Equivalence deals with equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts while its
linked term correspondence involves the comparison of two language systems where
differences and similarities are described contrastively. Linguists have come up with
different types of equivalence. For instance, the structuralist Roman Jakobson (1959)
maintains that there are three kinds of translation, that is, intralingual (rewording or
paraphrasing within one language), interlingual (rewording or paraphrasing between two
languages), and intersemiotic (rewording or paraphrasing between sign systems).
Meanwhile House (1997) has come up with a translation model in which the basic
requirement for equivalence of ST and TT is that original and translation should match
one another in function. This function should be achieved by employing equivalent
pragmatic means. The translation is only, therefore, considered to be adequate in quality
if it matches the ‘textual’ profile and function of the original. (1 mark).

-The concept of equivalence has been of particular concern to translation scholars and of
great significance to translation studies since it has been inextricably linked with both
definitional and practical aspects of translating. Pym (2010) makes his own contribution
to the concept of equivalence by pointing out that there is no such thing as perfect
equivalence between languages and it is always assumed equivalence (p. 37). Jakobson
also stresses that there can be no full equivalence between two words (Jakobson,
1959/2000). Theories of equivalence give the translator the freedom to choose between
several translation strategies which are not dictated by the ST. Specifically, the most
important assumption of Pym’s directional equivalence is that it involves some kind of
asymetry since when translating one way and creating an equivalent does not imply the
creation of the same equivalent when translating another way. (1 mark)

It is undeniable that the concept of equivalence is on of the most problematic and

controversial areas in the field of translation theory. Roughly speaking, equivalence in
translation can be defined as the equivalent expression of a message in the source
language and the target language . it is quite to see that equivalence plays a major role in
translation, in fact, it is widely acknowledged that equivalence is a decisive factor in the
evaluation of a translation.
8. What is formal equivalence and what is dynamic equivalence in translation? How
different are these two levels of equivalence in translation?

-Nida (1964) maintains that there are two basic types of equivalence: formal equivalence
and dynamic equivalence. In formal equivalence the TT resembles very much the ST in
both form and content whereas in dynamic equivalence an effort is made to convey the
ST message in the TT as naturally as possible. It could be argued that Nida is in favour of
dynamic equivalence since he considers it to be a more effective translation procedure.
Nida moved a long way forward from the position of his predecessors because he was
able to produce a systematic and analytical procedure for translators working with all
kinds of texts. (1 mark)

-Differences between Formal equivalence and Dynamic equivalence: Formal equivalence

focuses on the need to pay attention to the form and content contained in the message.
The so-called formal equivalence means that the message in the target language should
be in accordance with the different parts in the original language. Formal equivalence
intends to achieve equivalence between the original text and translation text, and to some
extent reflect the linguistic features such as vocabulary, grammar, syntax and structure of
the original language which has great impact on the accuracy and correctness. One of the
most typical translation is “Gloss translations”, which is closest to the original structure,
and with attached comments to give readers a better understanding of the culture and
custom.

Meanwhile Dynamic Equivalence highlights the fact that the most important thing in
translating is the message received by the audience. Messages that are significant in both
form and content need not only to be understood but also to be appreciated. And only
when the translator could state the original features, he can achieve “dynamic
equivalence”, which stressed the importance of transferring meaning, not grammatical
form. (1 mark)

9. What is the main concern of audiovisual translation studies?

-Very dramatic developments in translation studies have occurred in the field of

audiovisual translation, most notably subtitling. Initially audiovisual translation was,

however, more or less overlooked by translation theory. According to Dirk Delabastita
(1989), AVT focuses on Translation and mass communication, that is Film and TV
translation as evidence of cultural dynamics. AVT is also concerned with film, DVD and
documentary subtitling and dubbing. AVT is a vast area and has grown rapidly in both
teaching and research terms.

To date, the bulk of the work has been carried out on interlingual subtitling and on the
linguistic translation strategies and technical requirements and constraints. Linde and Kay
(1999: 3) note the differences between interlingual subtitling and written translation,
notably the space and time constraints (normally a maximum of two lines of text each of
a maximum of around 38 Roman characters, depending on the medium, and a duration of
around six seconds for each caption) that lead to a necessary reduction in the number of
words on the screen. Other obvious additional constraints of the image on the screen,
which is normally inviolable, and the soundtrack in the source language, which is
retained, are also taken into consideration.

10. What are the differences between computer-assisted translation tools and machine
translation tools?

Hartley (2009: 117–24) provides a useful summary of core concepts of both computer-
assisted translation (CAT) and machine translation (MT) tools.

-Computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools used by professional translators

encompass tools for the alignment of ST–TT pairs, concordancing of

search terms and term extraction. In particular, translation memory tools allow

the creation of databases of previous translations. These are used to indicate

matches with items in the text on which the translator is working. This

increases work speeds and facilitates consistency in the translation of a given

term in different texts by different translators.

-Machine translation (MT) tools generate automatic translations. These

are largely used for assimilation (Hartley 2009: 121), that is for comprehension.

Among the most widely known are the free online translators such as

Bing translator (https://www.bing.com/translator/), Google Translate (https://

translate.google.com/) and Systran (http://www.systransoft.com/). However,

Hartley (ibid.) points out that MT is increasingly used for dissemination,

for example by the European Commission in order to provide a draft first

translation of documents which are then post-edited by a human translator

or editor.

-CAT and MT tools are also different in the role of the human professional translator,
which is dominant in CAT but tends to be less visible in MT.

11. What is localization? And what is globalization?

In the digital age, translation has become big business and in industry (especially

the software industry) the term is often subsumed into the acronym GILT –
Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, Translation (Jiménez-Crespo 2013: 24–
39):
-Globalization in this context normally means the organization of business processes
(management, marketing, consumer care) to support internationalization and localization.
The technology of globalization has come to redefine the role, relationship and status of
translators. Not to be connected to the information superhighway is thus almost
equivalent to not existing as a translator in the global economy.

-Localization refers to the adaptation of the product to the target locale, ‘the combination
of a sociocultural region and a language in industrial setting’ (Jiménez-Crespo 2013: 12).
Localization may involve the substitution of inappropriate cultural symbols and the
translation of text, including the need to fit specific space constraints on the screen/page,
etc. Dunne (2006: 2) makes the important point that localization is a ‘focal point in the
corporate matrix’, an intersection of development and authoring (as above), sales,
marketing (promotional materials may need to be redesigned), legal advice (to comply
with local legislation) and management (concerned to restrict costs).

The difference between localization and translation is blurred (Mazur 2007, Jiménez-
Crespo 2013: 11), but generally localization is seen by industry as a superordinate term
that encompasses translation. Thus, in the words of LISA, the Localisation Industry
Standards Association, operational from 1990 to 2011, ‘localization involves taking a
product and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target locale
(country/region and language) where it will be used and sold’.

12. What are fan-subs? How has fan-subbing developed into a new form of translation?

The rapid development of technology has had important knock-on effects for audiovisual

translation practice as well as bringing new challenges for translation studies. New forms
of translation are being created, one of which is fansubs. Fansubs (Díaz Cintas and
Muñoz Sánchez 2006) is the (legally rather dubious) practice of amateur subtitling and
distribution of films, TV series and other film extracts online. It was originally used for
the translation of mainly Japanese manga and animé cartoons and the practice has now
proliferated thanks to the greater access to free subtitling software such as Subtitle
Workshop, Jubler or Open Subtitle Editor. Díaz Cintas (2005) points to the peculiar
characteristics of the addition of glosses and metalinguistic information in the titles and
the fact that little work has thus far been done in this area. The practice of amateur
translation is not confined to subbing – the Harry Potter series appeared in unauthorized
written translation in several languages including German, where a collective team of
fans translated the fifth volume in less than forty-eight hours. A French translation led to
the amateur translator being arrested for alleged breach of copyright.

13. What are different types of audiovisual translation activity?

Gambier (2004) identified different types of audiovisual translation activity and the way
in which these were causing a rethink of older, translation-based categories. Thus, among
others, there are:

- interlingual subtitling: now in various forms for the cinema and video (where the
subtitles are ‘open’, meaning that they are an integral part of the version of the film), and
DVD (where they may be ‘closed’, meaning that the viewer can select whether to see
them or not and in which language);

- bilingual subtitling: in countries such as Belgium, where subtitles are provided

simultaneously in two languages;

-intralingual subtitling: for the hard of hearing, increasingly a regulatory requirement;

-dubbing: covers ‘lip-synchronization’ or ‘lip-sync’, where the SL voicetrack is replaced

by a TL voice-track;

-voice-over: used mainly for documentary or interview;

-surtitling: subtitles which are projected above the stage or on the seatbacks at the opera
or theatre;

-audio description: a mainly intralingual audio commentary on the action on the stage or
film, etc., for the visually impaired.

14. What are some common problems of non-equivalence and give examples?

• The target language lacks a specific term: Languages tend to have general words
(superordinates/ hypernyms) but lack specific ones (hyponyms).

eg. under house, English has a variety of hyponyms which have no equivalents in many
languages, for example bungalow, cottage, chalet, lodge, villa.

• Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective: Physical perspective has to do

with where things or people are in relation to one another or to a place, as expressed in
pairs of words such as come/go, take/bring, arrive/depart

• Differences in expressive meaning: There may be a target-language word which has

the same propositional meaning as the source-language word, but it may have a different
expressive meaning.

eg. the rendering of the English verb to batter (as in child/ wife battering) by the more
neutral Japanese verb tataku, meaning “to beat” plus an equivalent modifier such as
“savagely” or “ruthlessly”.

• Differences in form: There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular
form in the source text.

eg. English makes frequent use of suffixes such as –ish (e.g. boyish, hellish, greenish)
and –able (e.g. conceivable, retrievable, drinkable). Many other languages have no ready
mechanism for producing such forms, so they are often replaced by an appropriate
paraphrase (e.g. retrievable as “can be retrieved” and drinkable as “suitable for
drinking”).

15. What is Corpus-based translation studies?

In 1998, the ‘corpus-based approach’, as it has become known, was being suggested as a
‘new paradigm in translation studies’ (Laviosa 1998a). The approach drew on the tools
and techniques of monolingual (mainly English) corpus linguistics that had initially been
developed in the early 1980s by John Sinclair (1933–2007) and his team working on the
COBUILD English Dictionary project at Birmingham, UK (Sinclair 1987, 1991). The
rapid evolution of computer systems meant that it was possible to create an electronic
‘corpus’ (plural ‘corpora’) of naturally occurring texts (texts which had been written for a
real communicative context and not artificially invented by the language researcher) that
could then be processed and analysed with software to investigate the use and patterns of
the word-forms it contained. The major reason for using computer corpora was the
quality of linguistic evidence, particularly on collocations and typical uses of lexical
items, vastly superior to the analyst’s intuition (Sinclair 1991: 42).

In translation studies, the corpus-based approach was pioneered in Oslo by the late Stig
Johannson (1939–2010). In a paper urging the use of computer corpora in translation
studies research, the concept of typicality was considered by Baker (1993, 1995) to be
related to the concepts of norms, laws and universals.

Baker’s focus was on identifying typicalities of the language of a corpus of translated

texts which could then be compared to non-translated language. The differences could
potentially reveal elements that were due to the process of translating and the norms at
work.