PERSPECTIVES

NEUROSCIENCE
During establishment of long-term memory,

A Protoplasmic Kiss to Remember protein synthesis, regulated by neurotrophins,

affects the morphology of synaptic structures.
Martin Korte

C
apturing and storing information in an mate. At the same time, postsynaptic electrical changes, also referred to as spike-tim-
efficient and long-lasting way is a activity (spikes) were induced. Using this ing–dependent plasticity (4).
tremendous task for the brain: While paired protocol, the authors observed a gradual Protein synthesis can regulate synaptic
processing a continuous flow of sensory infor- and persistent enlargement of the spine head plasticity (5), and indeed, Tanaka et al. could
mation it must store memories, sometimes for only when postsynaptic spikes were precisely block the enlargement of spines by inhibiting
a lifetime. What are the cellular foundations of correlated with glutamate release (see the fig- protein synthesis. In addition, the authors
this long-term storage capacity in the brain? ure). This enlargement occurred only in single, show that the neurotrophin brain-derived
One hypothesis is that functional changes activated spines. Because of the high accuracy neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is necessary and
in neurons are transformed into structural of glutamate uncaging by a precisely pointed sufficient to induce long-lasting structural
changes. The psychologist Donald Hebb pro- laser beam (two-photon microscopy), neigh- changes at dendritic spines. BDNF and its

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on March 24, 2008

posed that both processes could be imple- boring spines were not affected. The electro- receptor, TrKB, are not only important modu-
mented if information is stored in connections physiological results showed an increase in lators of activity-dependent synaptic plastic-
(synapses) between neurons rather than within functional changes of synapses as well (gluta- ity (6), but maintain synaptic plasticity as
a single cell (1). On page 1683 in this issue mate-inaduced currents in spines were larger). well (7). Tanaka et al. focused on postsynap-
Tanaka et al. (2) tackle the question of how In addition, whereas the spine-head volume tic changes, as earlier studies have done (8),
functional changes are transformed into struc- increased with the paired protocol, the spine and conclude that BDNF release from a post-
tural changes. Remarkably, it is the smallest length was reduced. At the same time, the synaptic neuron depends on postsynaptic
element of a neuron’s architecture—the den- spine neck increased in thickness, making the spiking, suggesting an autocrine function of
dritic spine—where these critical structural spine environment less isolated from the BDNF. But they could not show the release of
changes occur. underlying dendrite. The observed high cor- BDNF directly, due to the low abundance of
A neuron may contain many relation between pre- and BDNF in the brain (9). Other explanations for
spines, branched protoplasmic postsynaptic activity agrees requiring this factor are possible. For exam-
extensions from dendrites that NEURON
with the Hebbian rule that ple, BDNF can act presynaptically as well as
form synapses with other neu- timing (associativity) of postsynaptically (10), and therefore could
rons. Spines conduct electrical activity and input speci- change synaptic function and morphology
signals when stimulated by con- Impulse ficity is critical to trans- on both sides of the synapse. Alternatively,
necting, presynaptic neurons (as signal AXON forming functional neuronal because the TrkB receptor can also be acti-
occurs among pyramidal neurons changes into structural vated by another receptor type in the spine,
in the mammalian hippocampus).
Spine density, as well as the shape
and extent of a neuron’s dendritic Glutamate
arbor, strongly influences neu- release
Glutamate Presynaptic
ronal function and, in turn, is pro- action?
DENDRITES SPINE
foundly influenced by neuronal
NMDA receptor
activity (3). Despite the wealth of
data showing that neuronal activ- NEURON
SPINE
ity controls the morphology and
function of neuronal networks, BDNF
the cellular and molecular mech- ?
TrkB
anisms that translate activity into
long-lasting structural and func- No signaling Membrane TrkB
tional changes have remained depolarization Signaling
largely unknown. Tanaka et al. observe func-
tional plasticity and structural changes at sin- Activates protein synthesis
gle spines, without affecting neighboring No spine growth
CREDIT: ADAPTED FROM MARTIN KORTE

spines, and unravel some of the underlying

Spine size increases
molecular mechanisms.
Tanaka et al. stimulated single spines of DENDRITE No postsynaptic Glutamate release together with
cultured rat pyramidal neurons by repetitively electrical activity postsynaptic electricity activity
exposing them to the neurotransmitter gluta- Spine growth and memory. When glutatmate binds to postsynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors
in the dendritic spine membrane, and postsynaptic electrical signals are induced, there is a coincidence of
Zoological Institute, Division of Cellular Neurobiology, TU pre- and postsynaptic activity. Only then is BDNF released in high amounts by the postsynaptic neuron,
Braunschweig, D-38106 Germany. E-mail: m.korte@ activating TrkB receptors in the spine. This initiates local protein synthesis necessary for structural changes in
tu-bs.de the spine, which may be linked to the formation of long-lasting memories in the hippocampus.

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 319 21 MARCH 2008 1627

Published by AAAS
 PERSPECTIVES

5. U. Frey, M. Krug, K. G. Reymann, H. Matthies, Brain Res.

such as a G protein–coupled receptor (11),
TrkB could act as a coincidence detector
of modulatory synaptic input and BDNF
release. Nevertheless, the link between BDNF
and possible local protein synthesis is impor-
tant (12), as the latter is the bottleneck for the
persistence of synaptic plasticity. Future
research will need to determine if the newly
manufactured proteins not only change the
shape of a spine, but also “tag” a synapse for
further activity-induced changes (13), or
ensure that plastic processes can happen in
the future (14).
It remains to be shown how TrkB receptor
signaling can influence the cytoskeleton of a
spine to change its morphology by regulating
local protein synthesis. Tanaka et al. had
to supply neurons with the cytoskeletal pro-
tein β-actin to observe the gradual spine
enlargements. Ultimately, data from cultured
neurons will need to be integrated with data
obtained in vivo.
References
1. D. O. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior (Wiley, New
York, 1949)
2. J.-I. Tanaka et al. Science 319, 1683 (2008).
3. R. Yuste, T. Bonhoeffer, Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 24, 1071
(2001).
4. Y. Dan, M. M. Poo, Physiol Rev. 86, 1033 (2006).
452, 57 (1988).
6. M. M. Poo, Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2, 24 (2001).
7. H. Kang, A. A. Welcher, D. Shelton, E. M. Schuman,
Neuron 19, 653 (1997).
8. Y. Kovalchuk, E. Hanse, K. W. Kafitz, A. Konnerth, Science
295, 1729 (2002).
9. T. Matsumoto et al. Nat Neurosci. 11, 131 (2008).
10. A. Gartner et al., J. Neurosci. 26, 3496 (2006).
11. S. Wiese et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 104, 17210
(2007).
12. G. Aakalu, W. B. Smith, N. Nguyen, C. Jiang, E. M.
Schuman, Neuron 30, 489 (2001).
13. U. Frey, R. G. M. Morris, Nature 385, 533 (1997).
14. R. Fonseca, U. V. Nagerl, R. G. Morris, T. Bonhoeffer,
Neuron 44, 1011 (2004).
10.1126/science.1155748

GEOCHEMISTRY

Downloaded from www.sciencemag.org on March 24, 2008

Environmental consequences of ancient
eruptions can be estimated by analysis of
Are Volcanic Gases Serial Killers? glass inclusions trapped in minerals present
in lava flows.
Bruno Scaillet

V
olatiles released by volcanic erup-
tions are often cited as a possible
cause of major environmental changes.
On a decadal time scale, at least, the connec-
tion between volcanic eruptions and climate
was firmly established after the 1991 eruption
of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, whose
climate aftermaths have been extensively
documented and modeled (1). The remaining
debate concerns the effect of magmatic
volatiles on long-term climate trends (2). On
page 1654 of this issue, Self et al. (3) fill in the
picture of what gases have been released by
volcanoes, and how much, during the so-
called flood events. Such events are the most
tion is available on the latter aspects. As a
result, the volatile yields of volcanic activity
have been estimated by assuming that the
volatile content of flood basalts is similar to
that of their modern counterparts at mid-
ocean ridges. However, there is no a priori rea-
son why this should be so.
Self et al. (3) report the first analyses of
sulfur in glass inclusions found in the Deccan
basalts in west-central India. These ancient
eruptions have been proposed by some as one
+ CO2 + CH4
ST
CRU
of the important players of the Cretaceous-
Tertiary mass extinction (6). The finding
demonstrates unambiguously that the capac-
ity of Deccan basalts to discharge sulfur into
the atmosphere was similar to that of present-
day erupting basalts. Trivial though this piece
of evidence may seem, it now allows us to
use with some confidence climate scenarios
derived from the study of recent basalt out-
bursts, such as the 1783–1784 Laki eruption
in Iceland (7), as a proxy for the likely envi-

important volcanic eruptions that occurred on

Earth. They are produced by mantle upwelling Heat transfer
and its partial melting, resulting in massive Rhyolite Bubble (H20, CO2, H2S, HCI, HF, HBr)
basalt (a magma poor in silica) outpouring Rhyolite melt
Melt (H20, S, CI, F)
with volumes often exceeding 1 million km3.
MA

MA Crystal
G

CONTINENTAL FLOODS
Earth volcanic activity is one of the two Basalt melt Rhyolites
leading scenarios proposed to explain the pat- Basalts
tern of mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic OCEANIC PLATEAUS

(the last 545 million years), the other involv-

Crustal reservoir
ing asteroid impacts (4). To assess the vol- Heated crust
canic hypothesis, we need to know the age and (partial melting,
duration of volcanic events and the mass and dehydration, Dykes
decarbonation)
nature of volatiles being released. Although
decisive progress has been made in recent
CREDIT: ADAPTED FROM BRUNO SCAILLET

years concerning age and duration, confirm-

ing the geologically narrow interval (less than
1 million years) during which most flood
basalt is discharged (5), almost no informa-
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique–Institut
National des Sciences de l’Univers, Université d’Orléans,
Institut des Sciences de la Terre Orléans, Orléans 45071,
France. E-mail: bscaille@cnrs-orleans.fr
MANTLE PLUME
Volatile situation. The mantle plume hits the base of the crust, whether oceanic or continental, which, via
dykes intrusion, heats up, and eventually partially melts, producing magmas rich in silica (rhyolites). Local
basalt accumulation in the upper crust produces reservoirs whose cooling may also yield rhyolite. Both
basalt and rhyolite magmas, in addition to crystals hosting melt inclusions, may contain gas bubbles (inset)
in which some volatile species (HCl, HBr, CO2) may be concentrated. Heating by magmatic intrusions may
release CH4 or CO2 species.

1628 21 MARCH 2008 VOL 319 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

Published by AAAS