Appendix

Chapters 1, 2 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 230

APPENDIX: Answers to Selected Problems

Chapter 1 Answers

2) The process of modern science begins with the scientific method, in which theories are compared
to observations and/or experiments regarding the behavior of natural phenomena. The four main steps
of the scientific method include: the formulation of a theory, predictions about the behavior expected in
nature according to that theory, performing experiments (or by making observations) to test that predic-
tion and then interpreting the results to see if the theory and test are consistent with each other. These
four steps of the scientific method must then be performed with as much quantitative precision as pos-
sible; and they must also be subjected to thorough and intense critical review. This process is superior to
Aristotle’s approach because it is more objective. This objectivity resides mainly in the use of nature as
the final arbiter (via operational definitions and quantitative measurements), and partly in the diversity
of viewpoints that are incorporated in the process of organized skepticism. (N.B. the text discussed most
but not all of this. The student should be willing to include ideas and experience beyond the text)

4) Galileo was first to formalize (and popularize) the scientific method. His quantitative comparison
of experimental results with theory provided compelling proof that the Aristotelian view of falling bodies
was wrong. He further cast doubt on traditional (Greek) science by making observations via telescope that
proved that the heavens were not perfect. He helped set the stage for an intellectual revolution. Newton
carried the intellectual process to completion by developing sophisticated mathematical tools that he then
used to state theories with precision. His three laws of motion and his law of gravity unified and explained
a very wide range of motions; in particular, he showed that the same laws applied in the heavens and on
the earth.

6) Science is the search for knowledge that describes the behavior of the physical world. Tech-
nology is the application of all kinds of knowledge (science, art, crafts, etc.) to produce goods and
processes that will serve the desires of humanity. Note that technology implies the use of value
systems through the phrase “desires of humanity.” People have great difficulty agreeing on what
is desirable.

8) The limits of science are set by our ability to work with quantities that are well defined. If
an operational definition is not available for a given quantity, then that quantity can not be treated
scientifically. Such things as greed and kindness are not treatable via science. Value judgements are a
key to solving social problems, and they inevitably involve quantities that are difficult to quantify.

Chapter 2 Answers

2) The number of significant figures is:

a) 2 b) 2 c) 2 d) 3 e) 5 f ) 2 g) 4

4) a) The basic units of SI are meters, seconds and kilograms

b) 1 m / .3049 m per foot = 3.280 Thus 1 m= 3.280 ft & 10 m = 33 ft
c) There is no difference! Seconds are the same units in SI and English

6) a) 7.89 m x 3.280 ft/m = 25.9 feet (3 sig fig’s)

b) 0.077 m x 3.280 ft/m = 0.25 ft (2 sig fig’s)

c) 15.99 ft x 0.3049 m/ft = 4.875 m (4 sig fig’s)

Appendix Chapter 2 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 231

d) 1.06 ft x 0.3049 m/ft = 0.323 m (3 sig fig’s)

8) V = l x h x w Because the height has only 1 significant figure, the volume will also be
limited to 1 significant figure. Thus,
V = 1.9 m x 0.6 m x 1.0001 m = 1.140114 m3 ==> 1 m3

10) a) 173338 hundreds (but there are only 8 in the hundreds place);
1733 ten-thousands (but there are only 3 in the ten-thousands place)
b) 7 hundreds (and there are also 7 in the hundreds place);
zero ten-thousands (and nothing in the ten-thousands place)
c) zero hundreds (and nothing in the hundreds place);
zero ten-thousands (and nothing in the ten-thousands place)

12) a) 1.345 x 103 = 1345

b) 8.56 x 10-2 = 0.0856
c) 1.400 x 105 = 140000
d) 8.50 x 10-4 = 0.000850
e) 1.345 x 101 = 13.45

14) 3000 -17 4.2 4.89

15) The origin for all three measurements of a year would best be located at the sun. The rest of
the reference frame would be obtained by extending one axis (in the plane of rotation of the planet)
toward a distant star, and the second axis should also lie in the plane of rotation, but at right angles
to the first axis. The reference frame for indicating velocity is similar to that for locating the planet
position, but with the origin “o” located at each of the planets.

19) a) 500,000 heads are expected (the average value)

b) + 700 heads is the expected fluctuation (square root of average value)
c) The precision is to within 700 heads; and this is a relative precision of one-tenth of 1%.
There should be no systematic errors, so that the accuracy of the experiment would also
be expected to be one-tenth of 1%.. This seems fairly good, don’t you agree?

20) Throw out the length measurement of 33.2 meters (someone made a mistake).
The average length = 27.8 meters
The standard deviation = 0.1 meters

23) a) x is a function of t ... OR x equals x of t

b) a dependent variable is a varying quantity that can be expressed as a function of (or in
terms of ) some other variable. An independent variable is a varying quantity whose value does
not depend on the value of other variables. Usually it is time or a spatial co-ordinate.

24) π is a bit more than 3; and e is a bit less than 3.

Thus their product is approximately 3 x 3 = 9.

26) 7 (The multiplication is performed first)

27) a) x = 9 and y = 9
b) x = 6 and y = 9

30) Your graph should start (t = 0) with a height of 3 feet, and then:
Appendix Chapters 2, 3 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 232

when t = 4 hours the height is 6 feet

when t = 8 hours the height is 12 feet
when t = 12 hours the height is 24 feet
when t = 16 hours the height is 48 feet
when t = 20 hours the height is 96 feet
when t = 24 hours the height is 192 feet ... etc

32) 3.5 hours is the period. (Also, the frequency is 0.29 cycles per hour)

Chapter 3 Answers

3) The belief that the universe is regular, knowable and predictable encourages physicists to
understand the physical world. The idea that the universe is regular (same laws apply for all space
and time) encourages scientists to communicate with each other with confidence; and that they
can compare findings in a fairly consistent and objective manner. That the universe is knowable
includes the idea that the senses can be trusted to investigate natural phenomena when applied
properly (using operational definitions). The results of probing nature in a regular universe
encourage scientists to formulate theories to explain natural behavior; these theories provide a means
for predicting future behaviors in nature. In fact, human experience with a regular, knowable and
predictable universe has stood well the test of time; that is, the process of modern science (founded
upon the regular, knowable and predictable philosophy) works with incredible reliability. This is
the main implication; physical science is a very reliable system of human knowledge.

5) The breakup of the Roman empire left Europe in shambles politically, but the general state
of technology and economic development was fairly good. The geography and history of Europe
favored the establishment of many small and competitive units with different traditions; and this
led to a volatile mix of diverse systems that spurred all kinds of creative growth. Individuals were
encouraged to tap their talents in a way that benefited the community. The competition did not
encourage philosophical uniformity, partly because the competition included diverging religious
developments. The net result was a bubbling cauldron of diverse ideas in a tolerant climate.
Technology was highly prized in this competition; and craftspeople in the society were valued.
The coupling of manual skills with intellectual work was encouraged. All of these developments
produced an environment that was conducive to the birth of modern science.

7) a) true
b) false
c) false
d) true

8) Reproducibility and replication are two means by which the behavioral norm of organized
skepticism is implemented.

11) The equation describing a falling body is a model of significant utility for people on both
the earth and the moon. But, it assumes that there is no atmospheric drag; thus it is more precise
when used on the moon. On earth, it works well for dense objects whose velocity is nowhere near
their terminal velocity. The equation works well on the moon even for a falling feather. N.B. The
value of “g” is different on the moon than is its value on the earth.

13) Idealized models allow scientists to simplify their analysis. Then they can focus on the most
important aspects of a particular physical process.
Appendix Chapter 3 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 233

14) The theories in physical science that have been thoroughly tested are more reliable than
theories in any area of knowledge including political science. However, new theories in physical
science are likely to be less reliable than well established political science principles. Tentative
theories in both areas are both likely to be unreliable; but that degree of unreliability would need to
be examined on a case by case basis. New models in any knowledge area have a chance to be more
or less reliable depending on the degree to which they reach out into unchartered regimes.

17) Quantitative work allows one to state the degree to which a theory and test can be com-
pared. The entire process becomes more objective when numbers are measured with painstaking
care. As precision becomes better, the comparison process (test vs. theory) becomes more rigorous,
and our confidence increases that a theory is disproved or confirmed. The process of institutional
criticism requires that many people with different viewpoints and talents thoroughly examine work
(theoretical and experimental) to look for errors. This also increases our confidence that theories
and tests are disproved or confirmed in a reliable manner.

21) The main activity of normal science is puzzle solving. This means that scientists apply
the accepted paradigms to physical systems that have not been examined previously. There are an
infinite number of ways in which matter of various kinds can be arranged geometrically, each with
different boundary conditions. The “trick” for the scientist is to pick out the interesting systems
that reveal deeper understanding of nature or that produce useful technology.

23) Revolutions are painful in science because individual scientists may need to revise their
philosophical view of the universe. This is at the center of a person’s belief system; and the prior
psychological commitment to this system was very strong. It had guided all of the scientist’s activi-
ties. A change of this sort is difficult to make.

25) Organized criticism is the most important behavioral norm. Its key role is to expose errors
in all aspects of science. Its very presence prevents the establishment of authoritarian tyranny in
this very philosophical and intellectual field. Inclusion of world wide researchers via journals and
conventions insures a diverse examination of work. Treating topics in an open manner also helps;
and rewarding the discovery of errors also is essential; this includes the value given to replication
of research. etc.

29) Artistic processes play a role in scientific progress in many ways. The process by which
theories are generated is creative. The process that is used to select a particular case about which
to make a prediction is highly intuitive. Choosing a particular experimental approach to making
measurements is also creative (cost constraints can stimulate scientific ingenuity greatly); and
interpretation of both observations and theory can provide a scientist with an opportunity to see
things that others have overlooked. In other words, the artistic processes are a part of science at
every step! However, they are not part of the “formal” reporting processes in journals, colloquia, etc.
Scientists simply describe what they did and what results nature provided. The artistic episodes
are appropriate for biographies and after dinner anecdotes.

30) Science is limited to those topics that involve clearly defined quantities that can be measured
(operational definitions apply). For such topics, theories can be put forward; and it is possible to
do tests that may refute such theories. For such topics, the objectivity and precision that can be
obtained is unusually high. Thus the limiting process yields powerful knowledge.

37) Science needs to be secular means that science needs to limit itself to the physical world. If
science makes pronouncements in spiritual areas, there is a serious loss of credibility by the scientific
community because the process of modern science is not well suited for such topics. Furthermore,
this kind of irresponsible behavior invites retaliation; thus political and religious leaders may be
tempted to “legislate” science dogma. None of these events is desirable.

39) Scientific research faces several technical difficulties when performed in a secret environ-
Appendix Chapters 3, 4 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 234

ment. An obvious difficulty is the greater cost coupled with a slower rate of progress. The cost is
greater because security measures are expensive (guards, surveillance gear, safes, fencing, etc.). The
pace slows down because there is considerable bureaucratic red tape. Records must be kept of all
classified work, documents must be properly marked and all such work must be handled according
to carefully prescribed regulations in highly controlled environments. More profound problems
arise because a diversity of viewpoints needed for organized criticism is severely restricted. The
number of people that are allowed access to the work is very small; and those who have access
usually have a vested interest (of one kind or another: political, financial, creative ownership, etc.)
in the continued funding of the work as well as the results of the research. … etc.

Chapter 4 Answers

1) The fundamental quantities in the MKS system (and in all other common systems) are
length, mass and time. Their units are expressed respectively by: meters (M), kilograms (K) and
seconds (S). The English system uses feet, slugs and seconds. The MKS system is more convenient
to work with because it can be manipulated as a decimal system. The ease of manipulation of the
MKS system has led to its acceptance by most nations of the world; thus it makes good business
sense for all people to use it.

3) An object can have constant speed without constant velocity by simply changing its direction.
One such example is circular motion at constant speed. Another example would be a car travelling
at constant speed on a winding mountain road (hopefully at a slow speed). On the other hand,
an object can not have constant velocity without having constant speed. This is because velocity is
defined as a combination of speed and direction. In order to have constant velocity, an object must
have both constant speed and constant direction.

6) The three motions associated with Aristotelian physics are 1) natural motion (in which objects
return to their natural state), 2) violent motion (in which forces are employed to displace objects
from their natural state) and 3) the perfect (uniformly circular) motion of heavenly bodies. Today
motion is either uniform or accelerated. If there is a zero net force acting on an object, the object
moves at constant speed in a constant direction. If the net force is non-zero, the object is accelerated
by having its speed or direction changed. The key viewpoint follows. The “Ancients” thought that
forces could cause motion, whereas we now understand that forces cause change of motion.

9) The main role played by Galileo in dispelling Aristotelian ideas came from Galileo’s insis-
tence that theories had to be tested experimentally. If the test did not confirm the theory, then the
theory had to be discarded. This also meant that the senses had to be trusted in the experimentally
process.

11) If you jerk paper sharply, you are changing its momentum in a small time interval with a
large force. This large force is sufficient to overcome the tensile strength of the paper, and thus the
paper tears. Toilet paper comes equipped with regularly space perforations that weaken the paper
along those perforations. The paper then tears along this weakened line so that towels of regular
length are produced. However, if you pull the paper slowly, the force is insufficient to tear the paper
(toilet paper will simply unroll).

14) If an object has six forces acting on it, their net sum can be zero so that the object will not
be accelerated. If it is at rest initially, it will remain so. The number six is inconsequential; in fact
any number is possible (including odd numbers). For example, imagine a ten ton block of granite
sitting on a pad of concrete. Gravity is pulling down on the granite, and the concrete is pushing up
on the block. There are two forces acting on the block. Then consider a group of people standing
around the block; some of them are lifting up on the block and others are pushing down on it. The
total downward force equals the upward force as long as the granite remains at rest; and this is
possible for a wide variety of forces.
Appendix Chapter 4 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 235

16) The two reference frames are not moving at a constant velocity with respect to each other.
We have not chosen our reference frames well if we want to apply classical mechanics to the event.
Something is wrong. Perhaps we are dealing with a phenomenon that involves relativity and/or a
strong gravitational force that is not properly accounted for in the analysis.

17) The peak acceleration will co-incide with the maximum force applied to the truck by the
road. Then use F = ma. F = 9.5 m/s2 x 1000.2 kg = 9500 Newtons. Note that there are only
2 significant figures in the answer.

19) The two forces are of equal size and they are oppositely directed. But they are not an action-
reaction pair. They are not the same kind of force. The person’s weight makes an action reaction
pair with the gravitational force that the person exerts on the earth; and the stool pushes up on the
person with a contact force that makes an action-reaction pair with the contact force exerted by the
person pushing down on the stool.

21) By the time the eggs reach the ground, they have acquired the same amount of momentum.
Because they stop suddenly, their momentum change is also the same; but the egg that hits the
sidewalk stops in a very short time (compared to the other egg) and is subjected to greater forces.
These big forces destroy the egg. The other egg hits the foam, and it experiences smaller forces
(insufficient to break the egg) spread over a longer time period.

24) The lump of clay has transferred its momentum to the earth (via the wall). In order to use
the Law of Momentum Conservation, one needs to work with an isolated system. The lump of clay
by itself is not isolated; after all, it interacts with the wall (and it in turn interacts with the earth).
In order to describe an appropriate isolated system, we need to include the wall and the earth with
the clay lump.

26) Newton’s laws tell us nothing about the meaning of life. But they tell us everything we
need to predict trajectories of heavenly bodies except for the cases involving unusually intense
gravitational forces where general relativity must be considered. Newton found that the same
laws applied to the heavens and the earth. This took some of the “perfection” out of the motion of
the heavens. Galileo also de-mystified the heavens via the telescope by showing that the heavenly
bodies were not perfect.

27) When going from nearest approach to farthest, the force is reduced by a factor of four.

30) I weigh about 170 pounds. In the earth’s gravitational field, 1 kilogram of mass weighs
about 2.2 pounds. Thus my mass is about (170/2.2) kilograms, which is 77 kilograms (2 significant
figures). I now can run at a speed of about 5 m/sec. (old age has slowed me down) so that my
momentum would be (77 kg x 5 m/sec.) = 385 kg-m/sec. = 400 kg-m/sec. (1 sig. fig.). My kinetic
energy is 0.5 x 77 kg x 52 (m/sec.)2 = 38.5 kg. x 25 m2/sec.2 = 962.5 Joules = 1000 joules (only 1 sig.
fig.)

32) Work is force (in a given direction) multiplied by distance (in the same direction). After
pushing 20 meters west with a force of 36 newtons the work spent is 720 joules. If I reverse the
motion, an additional 720 joules must be expended. Each of these two motions has the force and
the motion aligned in the same direction; thus each requires the same expenditure or work. Even
though force and motion have direction, work does not have direction.

36) A particle is a model that represents some “thing” by saying that it takes up no space; it
only has a location and velocity. (The velocity may be zero). The model of a particle works well for
many physical problems. For example, it is efficient to model the earth as a particle when describing
its motion around the sun; but the particle model for the world doesn’t work well if we care about
the way in which sound travels through the oceans. On the other hand, waves are spread out in
Appendix Chapters 4, 5 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 236

space; they do not have a specific location. They do have velocity. Both particles and waves can
carry momentum and energy from one place to another.

39) Symmetry is about objects, motions and models that have properties that are similar from
different perspectives (around a line, across a plane, etc.); so it has spatial character that looks the
same from different viewpoints. Resonance refers to the fact that physical systems may have vibra-
tional or oscillating frequencies that can be excited if an outside force is applied to the system at the
system’s natural frequency. When this happens, the system will produce a very strong response.
Both symmetry and resonance are themes that recur in many areas of physics and engineering.
Scientists may use these themes to explain nature; and engineers may exploit these themes to
produce desirable special behaviors.

44) Newtons discoveries led to a deterministic view of the world (perhaps helped by Calvinist
religious views) and then to great optimism. If nature’s laws are deterministic, and if measurement
were continually refined; then humans ought to be able to predict the behavior of physical systems.
The corollary was that people might be able to exert real control over nature. We now know that
these ideas were to simple to explain all of nature; and that human control of nature is much more
difficult than Newtonians realized.

Chapter 5 Answers

2) The flow of heat from one object to another requires that one object be hotter (at a higher
temperature) than the other. The hotter atoms vibrate more energetically than the atoms of the
colder material. If the two materials are “connected” to each other, then the energy flows because
of collisions that pass momentum and energy gradually from one atom to another. That is, a hot
atom bumps a neighboring atom making it more energetic; this second atom bumps the next one,
etc. This is called conduction. If there is a fluid between the two objects, the hotter object can heat
nearby fluid by conduction; and then the nearby fluid can flow to the second object where it can
transfer energy to the second object conduction. The middle step in the above process is called
convection. A third method is called radiation heat transfer. All objects give off photons that can
carry energy from one place to another. A hot object gives off more energy via photons than a cold
one; and this means that more energy leaves the hot object for the cold one than happens the other
way around. We have not discussed the relative value of these three methods, but students should
know that any one (or two) of these three heat transfer mechanisms can dominate a particular situ-
ation depending on the arrangement of materials and their temperatures.

4) You can raise the (high) temperature of the heat source that pumps energy into the en-
gine, or you can reduce the (low) temperature of the heat sink into which the “wasted” energy is
dumped.

6) The electrical forces are much stronger than gravitational forces. Inside an atom, the re-
pulsion force of one proton for another (or electrons for each other) or the attractive force between
protons and electrons is much much greater than the gravitational attraction between any of these
particles. Still, small particles (atoms, molecules, etc.) are almost always electrically neutral. That
is, the electrical forces cancel each other. Because of this we rarely sense electrical forces, and we are
virtually unaware of their presence. (There are exceptions; once in a while charges do not balance
leading to lightning, etc., with very powerful effects.) We interact with gravity when we get out
of bed, when we experience friction pushing heavy object, climbing stairs, tripping and falling on
our noses, etc. We are always aware of the presence of gravitational forces. Thus we acquire an
intuitive understanding of gravity by our ever-present interaction with the earth’s gravitational
attraction.

8) When there are changes in electric fields, magnetic fields are produced. When there are
Appendix Chapters 5, 6 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 237

changes in magnetic fields, electric fields are produced. Note that this is an example of a symmetry
in natural law.

!0) a. The first postulate of relativity is that the laws of physics are the same in all reference
frames. This is not intuitively obvious because our sensory experience tells us that when results
change it is usually true that conditions have also changed. We might logically conclude that the
laws also have changed.
b. The speed of light is a constant in all reference frames. Intuition is based on sensory
experience that can be understood. Our experience with moving objects says that we should add
velocities when looking at reference frames for colliding objects. If a car crashes into a wall at sixty
miles per hour, the result is the same as if the car traveling at thirty mph crashed into a wall that
was also moving at thirty mph toward the car. No matter how fast I move toward a light source,
the light will have the same velocity as it approaches me! This is not at all like our experience.

12) The general theory of relativity addresses unusually large gravitational fields and very
rapid accelerations that produce massive forces. These kids of conditions are almost impossible to
create in earthly labs. Being near a dense and massive star or a black hole would make it easy to
measure the effects of such massive forces.

14) The key property of fermions is that no two fermions can occupy the same (energy) state.
This is important for atomic structure, and it means that every time an electron (and a proton) is
added to an atom, the outer electron cloud changes it properties. This is important when the outer
electrons of different atoms try to link with each other. There are many (~100) different types of
atoms; and the number of ways in which they can form bonds with other atoms is enormous. This
means that the diversity of material building blocks for life forms (foods, engineering machines,
etc.) is huge.

16) a. When atoms have full shells, they do not give up or acquire electrons easily. They do
not form molecules with other atoms. They remain in their single atom state unless acted upon by
large forces; thus their condition is stable because it is difficult to change them
b. When nuclei have full shells of neutrons or protons, they are also stable. That is, the
number of neutrons (or protons) in a full shell is hard to change. If the nucleus is not changing,
it is not radioactive. Also it is hard to change it by using the nucleus as a target for neutrons (or
protons).

19) “High energy” physics is the research topic that probes the fundamental structure of matter.
As we go deeper inside the nuclear core, we need to fire projectiles (such as protons, electrons, etc.)
at the nucleus with greater and greater energies.

21) The correspondence principle has to do with the fact that natural laws are all consistent
with each other. Everything fits together like a finely crafted tapestry. For example, the laws of
relativity become the laws of classical physics when we examine relativity laws expressed at slow
(relative to light) speeds. Likewise, quantum mechanics turn into classical physics when objects
become large. ... (statistical mechanics => thermodynamics, etc.)

Chapter 6 Answers
Some of these answers may only be given in the form of advice on approaching the question.

2) The philosophical foundation of science rests on proposing theories and then testing them;
plus performing the analysis quantitatively and subjecting the work to intense and thorough criti-
cism. Modern social and political structures have a similar philosophical foundation but only to a
Appendix Chapter 6 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS page 238

degree. There is an amalgam of science with belief systems in society and politics; and even where
scientific approaches are used within society and politics the precision is crude because so many of
the important quantities are difficult to define in a clear and precise manner. On the other hand, the
belief systems in society are sometimes changed as a result of science-like “trial and error” experi-
ence.

4) Address this question subject by subject (mechanics, E & M, relativity, etc.). For mechanics,
talk about your own experience of accelerating your own body, auto, etc. Describe your experience
with linear motion and rotation. Add comments about collisions, and how you have learned to
model mechanics in various forms. Note that some of your experiences are meagre (like in quantum
mechanics). Describe how your own views of physics have evolved from experience and intuition
all the way to this class and a more academic view. Include how ideas evolve from tentative ideas
to models that are held with high confidence.

8) Kirk frequently throws logic and the laws of probability and physics out the window to
take refuge behind some simplistic and often superstitious beliefs. This can be very dangerous in
the real world. The search for simple answers that have emotional appeal are rarely the best solu-
tion; life is complicated, and solutions require thorough hard work. The fact that it always works
out for Kirk is misleading.