Earthquake Engineering

Engineering
Seismology

Nicola Buratti
DICAM
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Plate Tectonics

Continental drift theory was proposed in the early twentieth century (Taylor, 1910; Wegener, 1915).
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Plate tectonics

The earth's crust is divided into six continental-sized plates ( African, American, Antarctic, Australia-Indian,
Eurasian, and Pacific) and about 14 of subcontinental size (e.g., Caribbean, Cocos, Nazca, Philippine, etc.).
Smaller platelets, or microplates, have broken off from the larger plates in the vicinity of many of the major
plate boundaries but are not shown here. The relative deformation between plates occurs only in narrow
zones near their boundaries. This deformation of the plates can occur slowly and continuously (aseismic
deformation) or can occur spasmodically in the form of earthquakes (seismic deformation).
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Plate tectonics
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Spreading Ridge Boundaries

In certain areas the plates move apart from each other at boundaries
known as spreading ridges or spreading rifts. Molten rock from the
underlying mantle rises to the surface where it cools and becomes part of
the spreading plates. In this way, the plates "grow" at the spreading ridge.
Spreading rates range from approximately 2 to 18 cm/yr
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Subduction zones

Since the size of the earth remains constant, the creation of new plate material
at spreading ridges must be balanced by the consumption of plate material at
other locations. This occurs at subduction zone boundaries where the relative
movement of two plates is toward each other. At the point of contact, one
plate plunges, or subducts, beneath the other
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Transform Fault Boundaries

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Cause of seismicity in the Mediterranean area

The main cause of seismicity in the Mediterranean area is related to the fact that the
African and Eurasian plates, solicited by the opening of the surrounding oceans, are in
the course of a mutual approach.
The two structures, whose dynamics are closely interconnected and play a key role in
the tectonic framework of the central Mediterranean, are the (micro) Adriatic plate
and the Tyrrhenian basin.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Faults
The theory of plate tectonics generally assigns the relative movement of plates
to one of the three types of plate boundaries but examination on a smaller scale
reveals that the movement at a particular location can be quite complicated.
In some regions, plate boundaries may be spread out with the edges of the
plates broken to form smaller platelets or microplates trapped between the
larger plates. Locally, the movement between two portions of the crust will occur
on new or preexisting offsets in the geologic structure of the crust known as
faults.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Faults

Associated with large movements

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Normal fault
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Reverse fault

http://www.pitt.edu/~cejones/GeoImages/7Structures/ReverseFaults.html
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Strike-slip fault

Piqiang Fault
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Volume Waves
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Surface waves
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Earth structure
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Seismometers
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Accelerometers

Seismograph: recording device that uses a seismometer and detects ground

motion due to earthquakes. Detects the velocity of the ground. Seismometers
are usually very sensitive.

Accelerograph is recorder that uses an accelerometer, which detects the

acceleration of the ground. Accelerometers are much less sensitive than
seismometers, but have a much greater range, detecting ±2g or more of
ground acceleration
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Earthquake location

Source Recording station

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Earthquake location
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

SUPERFICIAL AND DEEP EARTHQUAKES

Crustal earthquakes Intermediate and deep earthquakes

Earthquake depth calassification:

Shallow crustal earthquakes H < 25 km; Normal crustal earthquakes 25 ≤H < 70
km
Intermediate earthquakes 70 ≤H < 300 km; Deep earthquakes H ≥300 km
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Earthquake magnitude

RICHTER LOCAL MAGNITUDE

Richter measured the maximum amplitude A (mm) of recordings on
Wood-Anderson seismographs and defined the magnitude of an
earthquake as:

A0 amplitude that an earthquake of magnitude zero would produce

at the same epicentral distance. The zero on the magnitude scale
was arbitrarily defined as the size of earthquake that would produce
a maximum trace amplitude on a Wood-Anderson instrument of
0.001 mm at a distance of 100 km.

Richter presented tables of -log(A0) as a function of epicentral

distances up to 1,000 km. Magnitudes calculated in this way are
referred to as local magnitudes and represented by the symbol ML
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Earthquake magnitude
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Magnitude
ML is the best known magnitude scale, but it is not always the most appropriate
scale for description of earthquake size (Kramer, 1996)

Limitations:
1. It requires the use of a specific seismograph with short period (WA);
2. The trend of the values of logA0 with distance clearly derives from the
characteristics of attenuation of high-frequency seismic waves in the upper crust
of Southern California: therefore it can be applied only to events that are not deep
(H <20 km), and for each region an appropriate curve should be prepared.
However, studies in this field show that the regional differences of the function
logA0 become appreciable only for relatively large distances.
3. The ML scale is built only for regional earthquakes (Δ <600 km).
4. The values of ML tend to "saturate" between 7.0 and 7.5; this depends on the
limitations of the WA seismograph, which is not suitable for recording the long
period oscillations generated by large earthquakes.
For the above reasons new scales of magnitude have been introduced.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Othermagnitude scales

Surface Wave Magnitude

The Richter Local Magnitude does not distinguish between different types of
waves. Other magnitude scales that base the magnitude on the amplitude
of a particular wave have been developed. At large epicentral distance,
“body waves” ( P and S waves) have usually been attenuated and
scattered sufficiently that the resulting motion is dominated by surface
waves. The “surface wave magnitude” is based on the amplitude of Rayleigh
waves with a period of about 20 seconds:

where A is the maximum ground displacement in micrometers and ∆ is the

epicentral distance of the seismometer measured in degrees (360° =
circumference of the Earth)

Note: it is based on maximum ground displacement amplitude (rather than

maximum trace amplitude of a particular seismograph).
Note 2: used to describe the size of shallow ( < 70 km), distant (> 1000 km)
and moderate to large earthquakes
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Other magnitude scales

Body Wave Magnitude

For deep-focus earthquakes, surface waves are often too small to
permit reliable evaluation of the surface wave magnitude. The
“body wave magnitude” is based on the amplitude of the first few
cycles of p-waves:

mb log ( A ) − log (T ) + 0.01∆ + 5.9

=

where A is the p-waves amplitude in micrometers and T is the period

of p-waves (usually about 1s)
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

SEISMIC MOMENT

µ is the rupture strength of the material along the fault

A: rupture area
D: average amount of slip

The seismic moment is named for its units of force time length; however it is
a measure of the work done during the fracture of the fault.
As such it correlates well with the energy released during an earthquake.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

MOMENT MAGNITUDE

1 Dyne = 1x10-5 N

• Previous scales are empirical quantities based on measurements

of ground-shaking
• The groun-shaking does not necessarily increase at the same rate
of the energy released.
• For strong earthquakes the measured ground-shaking
characteristics become less sensitive to the size of the earthquake
(Saturation)
• ML saturates at 6-7
• Ms at about 8
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Rupture length
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

MOMENT MAGNITUDE

The energy released by an earthquake

is not always proportional to the
magnitude mentioned before.
Phenomenon of “saturation”
ex. Body wave magnitude and
Richter local magnitude 6-7,
surface wave magnitude 8

We define the “moment magnitude”

based on seismic moment M0, direct
measure of the work made by the
rupture along the fault.
MACROSEISMIC INTENSITY
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98
Macroseismic Intensity is a classification of the severity
of the ground shaking on the basis of observed effects
in a limited area.

Any intensity scale consists of a series of descriptions of

the effects of different degrees of earthquake shaking
on a number of things that may be found in an
everyday environment:

Living things - people and animals. As intensity

increases, a greater proportion of people or animals
(a) notice the shaking, and (b) are frightened by it.
Ordinary objects - As intensity increases, greater
numbers of ordinary domestic items (crockery, books,
etc) begin to shake and then be upset or thrown
down.
Buildings - As intensity increases, buildings become
progressively more severely damaged.
The natural environment - As intensity increases, there
is an increasing likelihood of effects such as cracks in
embankments, rockfalls, and so on.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

Intensity is essentially place related, and

normally can only be considered with
reference to a specified place, e.g. "the
intensity at Bologna was 5" (or more
correctly, "the intensity at Bologna was
assessed as 5").
To say, "the intensity of the earthquake
was 8", with no indication of place, is an
improper usage. (Though one could say
that "the highest observed intensity of the
earthquake was 8".)
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98
The European Macroseismic Scale
incorporates a compromise, in which a
simple differentiation of the resistance
of buildings to earthquake generated
shaking (vulnerability) has been
employed in order to give a robust way
of differentiating the way in which
buildings may respond to earthquake
shaking.

The Vulnerability Table is an attempt to

categorise in a manageable way the
strength of structures, taking both
building type and other factors into
account. This is a development from
previous scales which used only
construction type as an analogue of
vulnerability.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98
V. Strong
a) The earthquake is felt indoors by
most, outdoors by few. A few people
are frightened and
I. Not felt run outdoors. Many sleeping people
a) Not felt, even under the most awake. Observers feel a strong shaking
favourable circumstances. or rocking of
b) No effect. the whole building, room or furniture.
c) No damage. b) Hanging objects swing considerably.
China and glasses clatter together.
Small, top-heavy
III. Weak and/or precariously supported objects
a) The earthquake is felt indoors by a may be shifted or fall down. Doors and
few. People at rest feel a swaying or windows
light trembling. swing open or shut. In a few cases
b) Hanging objects swing slightly. window panes break. Liquids oscillate
c) No damage. and may spill from well-filled containers.
Animals indoors may become uneasy.
c) Damage of grade 1 to a few
buildings of vulnerability class A and B.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology
EMS-98
VI. Slightly damaging
a) Felt by most indoors and by many
outdoors. A few persons lose their
balance. Many people
are frightened and run outdoors.
b) Small objects of ordinary stability
may fall and furniture may be shifted.
In few instances
dishes and glassware may break. Farm
animals (even outdoors) may be
frightened.
c) Damage of grade 1 is sustained by
many buildings of vulnerability class A
and B; a few of
class A and B suffer damage of grade
2; a few of class C suffer damage of
grade 1.
IX. Destructive
a) General panic. People may be
forcibly thrown to the ground.
b) Many monuments and columns fall
or are twisted. Waves are seen on soft
ground.
c) Many buildings of vulnerability class
A sustain damage of grade 5.
Many buildings of vulnerability class B
suffer damage of grade 4; a few of
grade 5.
Many buildings of vulnerability class C
suffer damage of grade 3; a few of
grade 4.
Many buildings of vulnerability class D
suffer damage of grade 2; a few of
grade 3.
A few buildings of vulnerability class E
sustain damage of grade 2.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

The serious failure of walls in this example is

indicative of damage grade 4. The
vulnerability is affected by the poor quality of
mortar and the non-effectiveness of the
concrete elements in the construction.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

The floor slabs have failed and so have

most of the walls. This is very heavy
structural damage and damage grade
5.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

The central wall element at the top

which failed is a gable wall and not
bearing the roof. This is therefore non-
structural damage, and should be
classified as heavy non-structural
damage, which is damage grade 3.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

Parts of the bearing walls have failed,

causing partial collapse of the roof and
floor slabs. This is heavy structural
damage and therefore damage grade
4.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

There are large diagonal cracks in most walls,

but they are not so severe and the walls have
not failed. In this case the damage is grade 3.
Note: The difference in the classification of
damage grade with respect to the
subsequent figure.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

The large diagonal cracks in the walls,

and the partial loss of connection
between the external walls indicate
heavy structural damage. This is
damage of grade 4.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

EMS-98

Many exterior infill was failed entirely,

which is very heavy non-structural
damage. In some cases there is heavy
damage to the beam-column joints. This
is damage of grade 4.
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

OTHER SCALES

RF: Rossi–Forel
MCS: Mercalli–Cancani scale, formulated by Sieberg
MMI: “Modified Mercalli”
MSK: Medvedev, Sponheuer and Kárník
JMA: Japanese Meteorological Agency
Earthquake hazards
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

SEISMIC HAZARDS
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Fault Movements

Turkey, 1999

Turkey, 1999
Guatemala, 1976
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

STRONG GROUND MOTIONS

New Zealand 2011

Central Italy, 2016

Emilia, Italy, 2012

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Strong Ground Motions

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Strong Ground Motions

Before the earthquake After the earthquake

Sylmar substation, San Fernando earthquake, USA, 1971

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

LANDSLIDES

Japan, 1964 (?)

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

LIQUEFACTION

Adapazari, Turkey, 1999 1964, Niigata, Japan, M max 7.5. Photo: Joseph Penzien

2012 Emilia seismic

sequence: (a, b) fractures; (c)
single sand volcano; (d)
alignment of sand volcanoes
(EMERGEO Working Group)
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

SUBSIDENCE

Golçuk, Turkey, 1999

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

TSUNAMIS
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

FIRES AND CONTAMINATION

Kobe, Japan, 1995

Turkey, 1999. (NaTech event)
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Fires and Contamination

Strong Ground Motions
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Ground-motion intensity measures

After reaching the surface seismic waves reflect and diffract. The overlapping of
various seismic waves leads to ground-motion with very rich frequency content.
Fortunately, you do not need to replicate the exact
time history of a ground-motion for engineering
purposes.
It is necessary to describe the features that are
relevant from an engineering point of view,
identifying a number of significant ground-motion
intensity measures.
Amplitude: Peak acceleration,
Peak velocity,
Peak displacement, …
Frequency Content Parameter:
FFT – Fourier Spectra or PSD Power Spectra
Response spectra
…

Other indexes : Duration

ARIAS Intensity
…
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

PGA, PGV, PGD

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢̈ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡

𝑡𝑡
𝑢𝑢̇ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑢𝑢̈ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢̇ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡

𝑡𝑡
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑢𝑢̇ 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Max Horizontal PGA Recorded

PGA PGV
Earthquake Name YEAR Station Name (g) (cm/sec) PGD (cm)
Iwate 2008 AKTH04 1.768 63.729 39.256
Northridge-01 1994 Tarzana - Cedar Hill A 1.644 93.602 31.084
Niigata, Japan 2004 NIG021 1.476 51.756 10.660
Cape Mendocino 1992 Cape Mendocino 1.396 91.156 24.840
Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 Heathcote Valley Primary School 1.391 80.290 19.277
Northridge-01 1994 Pacoima Dam (upper left) 1.389 81.016 16.175
Iwate 2008 IWTH25 1.354 64.875 29.176
Niigata, Japan 2004 NIG019 1.255 108.990 28.762
San Fernando 1971 Pacoima Dam (upper left abut) 1.222 90.301 27.960
Nahanni, Canada 1985 Site 1 1.160 40.405 8.431
Chuetsu-oki 2007 Kashiwazaki NPP, Unit 5: ground surface 1.154 75.210 31.795
Baja California 1987 Cerro Prieto 1.139 46.770 13.459
Parkfield-02, CA 2004 Parkfield - Fault Zone 14 1.038 68.769 13.460
Iwate 2008 IWTH26 1.033 50.683 19.365
Duzce, Turkey 1999 IRIGM 496 0.996 40.043 17.093
Morgan Hill 1984 Coyote Lake Dam - Southwest Abutment 0.939 67.400 13.484
Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 LPCC 0.931 40.636 13.529
Chuetsu-oki 2007 Kashiwazaki NPP, Unit 1: ground surface 0.888 115.180 33.138
Wenchuan, China 2008 Mianzuqingping 0.884 104.780 107.800
Chuetsu-oki 2007 Kashiwazaki Nishiyamacho Ikeura 0.863 70.671 11.745
Coalinga-05 1983 Transmitter Hill 0.845 47.589 7.599
Tottori, Japan 2000 TTRH02 0.842 106.820 25.249
Chi-Chi, Taiwan 1999 CHY080 0.832 96.294 27.414
Parkfield-02, CA 2004 Parkfield - Fault Zone 11 0.826 21.339 1.866
Tabas, Iran 1978 Tabas 0.812 113.530 72.006
Duzce, Turkey 1999 Bolu 0.776 62.901 19.665
Kobe, Japan 1995 KJMA 0.775 83.574 19.736
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Max Vertical PGA Recorded

PGV
Earthquake Name YEAR Station Name PGA (g) (cm/sec) PGD (cm)
Iwate 2008 IWTH25 3.840 81.417 35.793
Nahanni, Canada 1985 Site 1 2.281 40.981 10.061
Heathcote Valley Primary
Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 School 2.181 40.065 23.281
Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 Pages Road Pumping Station 1.898 50.475 9.293
Imperial Valley-06 1979 El Centro Array #6 1.895 63.584 23.630
Gazli, USSR 1976 Karakyr 1.698 56.309 8.940
Darfield, New Zealand 2010 GDLC 1.250 38.285 25.228
Northridge-01 1994 Pacoima Dam (upper left) 1.229 49.200 11.355
Iwate 2008 AKTH04 1.106 33.524 19.317
Hulverstone Drive Pumping
Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 Station 1.074 35.342 9.485
Northridge-01 1994 Tarzana - Cedar Hill A 1.048 72.195 18.967
Bam, Iran 2003 Bam 0.970 39.942 8.539
Wenchuan, China 2008 Wenchuanwolong 0.964 21.660 15.123
Northridge-01 1994 Rinaldi Receiving Sta 0.958 42.188 3.719
Iwate 2008 IWTH26 0.945 27.630 11.859
Darfield, New Zealand 2010 LINC 0.915 77.430 33.178
Loma Prieta 1989 LGPC 0.896 55.941 18.188
Darfield, New Zealand 2010 TPLC 0.875 20.566 12.420
Christchurch Cashmere High
Christchurch, New Zealand 2011 School 0.852 14.439 4.639
Landers 1992 Lucerne 0.823 41.086 29.829
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Energy and duration

The total intensity (energy in a general sense) of a ground motion of

duration Td is given in the time domain by tghe area under the time history
of squared acceleration.

Arias Intensity

0.4
0.3
Acceleration [g]

0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time [sec]

Td
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Energy and duration

The total intensity (energy in a general sense) of a ground motion of
duration Td is given in the time domain by tghe area under the time history
of squared acceleration.

Arias Intensity or
Arias Velocity

0.4
0.3
Acceleration [g]

0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time [sec]
100
90 𝑡𝑡
80
∫0 𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Most of the energy is released here.
Arias Intensity (%)

70
60
50 𝐼𝐼0
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
teff
6 7 8 9 10
Time [sec]
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Duration
Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology

Response spectra

Each SD(Ti), SA(Ti), SV(Ti) etc., is a ground-motion intensity measure

Earthquake Engineering – Engineering Seismology
Vertical GM component

R = 10 km Mw =7
 Nicola Buratti

DICAM – Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and

Materials Engineering

nicola.buratti@unibo.it

www.unibo.it