Making sound waves:

Diversity, unity, equity

XVIII National Conference Proceedings

Edited by
Elizabeth Mackinlay & David Forrest
The Australian Society for Music Education Inc.

Making sound waves: Diversity, unity, equity

XVIII National Conference Proceedings

Published by the Australian Society for Music Education

PO Box 5
Parkville
Victoria 3052
© Australian Society for Music Education Incorporated 2011
ISBN 978-0-9803792-2-8

All rights reserved. This publication is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study,
research, criticism or review, as permitted under the copyright Act 1968, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, by any process, without the written permission of the publisher. Nor may any part of this
publication be stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying
or otherwise.
The publication has been prepared for the members of the Australian Society for Music Education
Inc. The opinions expressed in the publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view
of the Australian Society for Music Education or the Editors. While reasonable checks have been made to
ensure the accuracy of statements and advice, no responsibility can be accepted for errors and omissions,
however caused.
No responsibility for any loss occasioned to any person acting on or refraining from action as a result
of material in this publication is accepted by the authors, the Australian Society for Music Education Inc or
the Editors.

ASME National Website: http://www.asme.edu.au

XVII National Conference Proceedings Editors: Elizabeth Mackinlay & David Forrest

Refereeing Process
The full papers contained in these Proceedings were accepted after each full paper was subjected to blind peer
review assessment prior to selection and publication. Two anonymous referees assessed each paper and where
there was a split decision a third referee reviewed the paper. The abstracts contained in the second section
relate to papers presented which were selected on the basis of peer review of the abstract only.
The Conference Organising Committee would like to express its thanks to the members of the
Conference Review Panel: Julie Ballantyne, Katelyn Barney, James Cuskelly, Peter De Vries, David Forrest,
Neryl Jeanneret, Elizabeth Mackinlay, Jay McPherson, Mia O'Brien and Jenny Rosevear.

Acknowledgements
The editors would like to acknowledge the work of Ms Pooja Dubey and Dr Amanda Watson in finalising
these proceedings for publication. In addition the work of the Conference Convenors and Conference
Committee has been invaluable.

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ASME National Conferences

I Brisbane 1969 Music in General Education

II Adelaide 1971 New Perspectives in Music Education

III Canberra 1977 Music Education in the Community

IV Melbourne 1981 Growing with Music

V Sydney 1984 The Future of Music Education in Australia

VI Adelaide 1986 Australia Makes Music: Action for a Changing Society

VII Alice Springs 1990 Let’s Get to the Heart of the Nation

VIII Melbourne 1991 Reaching In – Reaching Out

IX Perth 1993 Music on the Edge – Desert to Surf

X Hobart 1995 Honing the Craft: Improving the Quality of Music Education

XI Brisbane 1997 New Sounds for a New Century

XII Sydney 1999 Open the Umbrella: An Encompassing View of Education

XIII Adelaide 2001 A Musical Odyssey: A Journey of Discovery in Music Education

XIV Darwin 2003 Over the Top

XV Melbourne 2005 A Celebration of Voices

XVI Perth 2007 Celebrating Musical Communities

XVII Launceston 2009 Musical Understanding

XVIII Gold Coast 2011 Making Sound Waves

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iv
Table of Contents

Creating unity amongst diverse voices in music education: The impact of music therapy on the social
behaviours of children with autism in an inclusive setting
Amanda Caltibiano 7

Designing a curriculum that teaches students conducting to increase their musicianship

and ensemble skills
K. Alex Miller and Steven Capaldo 16

Riding the wave of pedagogy: Designing learning experiences that deepen student understanding without
drowning the learner 26
Anthony Hubmayer

Educating young musicians for careers: Exploring three Australian specialised music training programs
Amanda Watson and David Forrest 32

Childhood to teacher: Pre-service educators’ formative musical learning through choral music
Anne Power 39

Wind and brass for asthma: Asthmatic musicians speak out

Anita Fuhrman 46

Neuroscience and music research: What’s out there and what’s useful to music educators?
Anita Collins 50

The stethoscope and the stave: Using music education pedagogies to enhance nursing education
Anita Collins and Rebecca Vanderheide 57

Discovering the role trust plays in the development of effective music teaching faculties
Andrew Close 61

Fully online teaching and learning in a pre-service teacher unit in music education
William (Bill) Baker 69

Constructing pedagogy: The nexus between artistic practice, research and teaching
Dawn Bennett 74

Childhood to teacher: Pre-service educators’ formative musical experiences and their decision to become a
classroom music teacher
Dominique Courtney Anderson 78

Shared concerns: Investigating instrumental teachers' discussions in an asynchronous web forum

Eleanor McPhee 89

Is musical achievement linked to learning styles? An investigation into a Year 6 instrumental

band program
Fiona Camp and Neryl Jeanneret 96

The importance of music in the education of children

George Spartels 103

Ecological composition: The value of recycling your material

Graeme Wright Denniss 108

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Self-concept and music: Making sound waves 113
Jenny Rosevear

Uncovering the meaning of e-portfolios: Action research, students and music teacher preparation 118
Jennifer Rowley

Location, culture and technology: The uniform, random, inequitable music education 122
system in Queensland schools, 1930 to 1940
Malcolm Cole

Music improvisation: Ownership and expression 128

Mark Dipnall

Out of the speakers: Analysis tools for recorded music 135

Mathew Hill

Music improvisation: Young children’s multimodal text reconstructions using semiotics in cross-cultural
classroom settings
Michele Tomlinson 144

A case study of specialist music teachers within communities of practice in two NSW
primary schools 151
Michelle Benn

Musical futures: The Victorian pilot 157

Neryl Jeanneret

First year generalist primary teachers: What music are they teaching? 164
Peter De Vries

The role of metacognition 170

Stefanovych Roberts

The development of a guidebook for new graduate piano teachers 178

Siew Yong Beatrice Cheah

Breaking through the mainstream: Approaches and attitudes to Indigenous popular music and film in junior
secondary classrooms
Thomas Fienberg 182

Distilling a National Jazz Sound into a real book for the next generation of jazz musicians
Tim Nikolsky 189

Rationale, repertoire and resources: The study of music language and pre-compositional craft in contemporary
tertiary settings
Tim McKenry 193

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Abstracts and Workshops 199

Desert harmony: Learning and teaching experiences in Tennant Creek

Brydie-Leigh Bartleet & Gavin Carfoot

The effects of home schooling on musical progress and experience: The role of family
in music learning
Madeleine Bell

What do students really think of Year 8 Music?

Cade Bonar

Create waves of enthusiasm for student practice

Ruth Bonetti

Prepare students for confident performance: How to ensure waves of applause

Ruth Bonetti

When students’ parents make waves: Assertive professional communication

Ruth Bonetti

Da Capo: Two units of sequenced repertoire and activities for the differentiated
Middle School context
Linda Brady

Nation building!
Tina Broad

Diversity within Native American Music: Something old, something new

Bryan Burton

Neighbouring musics of the Delaware River Valley USA

Bryan Burton & Ann McFarland

Reforming a Bachelor of Music program

Gemma Carey & Don Lebler

An investigation into assessment practices in the Year 10 elective

music classroom in NSW, Australia
Jennifer Carter

You gotta get up - fun and funky music for early intervention
Leonie Cecich

Out of this world: A new music resource

Carmel Charlton

Remixing sound waves: Exploring the world of borrowed musical ideas

Sylvia Cody

Australian music online

John Davis

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Metaphors of belief and practice: A narrative analysis of compulsory 203
music courses in early secondary school
Rachael Dwyer

Rock series and rock music summer school programs: Informal, non formal and
formal approaches to young popular musicians’ learning
Roger Francis

Successful tertiary aural training at a distance

Phillip Gearing

Jazz up junior high

Jenny Going

Theory isn’t scary – note reading in the classroom

Jenny Going

‘Mind-body dualism’: The essence of music education

Leisa Greaves

‘Mind-body dualism’: The classroom environment

Leisa Greaves

Singing songs of the world

Laura Hassler

Why bother with research? Students’ motivation to undertake a higher degree

Scott Harrison

The transition from student to music teacher

Kay Hartwig

Loopmania
Len Henderson

Recording and rehearsal made easy

Len Henderson

Mentoring, reflective practice and differentiated professional development –

supporting classroom music teachers in contemporary and diverse teaching contexts
Maree Hennessy

Exploring the Music Creation Series within the music classroom

Antony Hubmayer

Preschool jamming at ArtPlay: What engages young children, what do they learn
and what conditions support such learning?
Neryl Jeanneret & Robert Brown

Factors that influence students’ choice of and pathways to music university study
Garry Jones

Music learning, community and active ageing

Dawn Joseph & Jane Southcott

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‘!ke e:/xarre/ke’ – Sharing multicultural music practice 208
Dawn Joseph

Music in the contemporary world: The effects of social connections on musical

self-belief and teaching self-efficacy
Jan Kane

Broadening the education of high school music students

Kristina Kelman

Easy access: Finding one’s way from secondary to tertiary music education and training
Panel discussion chaired by Helen Lancaster, Dawn Bennett & Ben O’Hara

Validating a survey instrument for creativity and Arts assessment: A Rasch approach
Samuel Leong

Composer learning: From child’s play to professional development.

How do they make ends meet?
Karlin Love

Composing with the band: Adventures in form, notation, and performance

Karlin Love & Stephen King

This sucks: Why students drop out from elective class music in lower secondary school
Geoffrey Lowe

Alternative ways of thinking about music teaching: Learning from the musical
experiences of students outside school
Geoffrey Lowe

What is entrainment and why is it important in music education?

Ann McFarland

The diversity myth: Perceptions of Australian art music and their effect on the
mandated study of Australian music in senior-secondary settings
Timothy McKenry

Making waves: Creating a music revolution in primary schools

Ros McMillan

Riding sound waves: Engaging junior secondary students in stimulating musical activities
Ros McMillan

Australian curriculum forum

Chaired by Jay McPherson & Andrew Reid

Creating and using electronic resources in the Secondary Music classroom

Allan Melville

Building generalist teacher confidence

Nicole Mengel

Emerging technologies: Valuing what student think now and into the future
Bradley Merrick

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Informal learning, popular music and technology: An insight into the development 213
of musical understanding in secondary school rock bands
Bradley Merrick & Simon Smith

Keyboard Evolution: A modern curriculum based music program for first year High School
Ric Mills, Simon Smith & Kate Whitney

Outcomes of the distance education review: Implications for music education in NSW
Julie Montague

Crackle and pop: An exciting hands-on approach to early childhood music

Paul Myatt

iPhone, iPad, iPod, iHUH? New technologies workshop

Paul Myatt

Negotiating learning and teaching relationships in the private tertiary music studio
Jessica O’Bryan

Musical Futures
Ken Owen

Teaching in tertiary studios in the USA

Kelly A. Parkes

Supporting and assessing new types of reflective practice in music student teachers
Kelly A. Parkes

Effectively using technology in beginning and developing band courses

Bruce Pearson

Why music is basic: The value of music education

Bruce Pearson

Broadening the definition of essential terms in the discussion of excellence in

community music practice, applied to the social music philosophy of the
ANU Music Education Program
Georgia Pike

Learning through choral music

Anne Power

Kromata: Early childhood music program

Pamela Rallis

Work, play, excellence and participation: Adolescent musicians’ motivation

to engage in high-level skill development
James Renwick

Policy and practice in arts education: finding the balance

Rowena M. Riek

Transitions from primary to secondary in music education: What is being done to

smooth out the bumps?
Rowena Riek & Cade Bonar

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Metacognition in music performance: A practical approach to implementing self-assessment 218
and evaluation learning activities into teaching practice
Stefanovych Roberts

A study of becoming a music teacher: What do music education graduates think?

Jennifer Rowley

The heart of engagement: Fostering affinity for music

Jennifer StGeorge

Like a bridge over troubled waters

David Salisbury

Life-long learning in the community ensemble setting: A comparative study of

group music making for older learners in Australia, the United States and Canada
Graham Sattler

Early childhood and middle years workshops

Ann Slade

Playing it by ear: Audiation and expression in the music studio

Chris Sommervelle

Towards a multidimensional understanding of music education with children

aged birth to three years
Jennifer Stevens-Ballenger

Surfing sound waves between the flags: Balancing and coordinating

music and literacy strategies for contemporary early music classrooms
Rebecca Thomas

Technological improvements: Teaching and assessing made easy with technology

Kate Thompson

Composition as a process of revision and refinement

Benjamin Thorn

Creating worksheets and flashcards with Sibelius

Katie Wardrobe

Essential Sibelius tips for working more effectively

Katie Wardrobe

Music technology resources on a shoestring

Katie Wardrobe

Really easy recording and editing for the non-technical

Katie Wardrobe

Teaching composition with technology

Katie Wardrobe

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Combining the two D's: Disseminating and documenting music making 223
to support both practice and theory
Susan West

Taking music into the 21st century classroom project - paper

Anna Yerbury

Taking music into the 21st century classroom project - workshop

Anna Yerbury

Students’ perceptions of factors contributing to their piano sight-reading skills

Katie Zhukov

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Creating unity amongst diverse voices in music education: The impact of music therapy on the social
behaviours of children with autism in an inclusive setting
Amanda Caltabiano

Abstract
This paper describes a study undertaken that examined the impact of music therapy (MT) on the development
of three specific social skills – joint attention (JA), imitation (IMI) and turn-taking (T-T) – in children with
autism (N=4) (Caltabiano, 2010). The development and acquisition of the above social behaviours were
examined in a structured outdoor inclusive setting (SOIS), and results of this study revealed that MT
intervention facilitated the inclusive experience for children with autism and resulted in an increase of social
behaviours. The data were collected over seven weeks at the Grace Music Therapy Centre (GMTC) and
Griffith Park Public School (GPPS). The four participating autistic boys all attended the same school where
they regularly participated in MT each week. By utilising a mixed methodology (i.e., observations of the
students social behaviours in both settings, video recordings and rating scales that were applicable to the
context of the study), data were collected and analysed.

Introduction
Music therapy (MT) uses music as a therapeutic medium to address “developmental, adaptive, and
rehabilitative goals” in the areas of “psychosocial, cognitive, and sensorimotor behaviour of individuals with
disabilities” (Hurt-Thaut, 2009, p.504). It has brought a number of beneficial changes in children’s behaviour,
in particular, to those with autism (Bunt, 2006). The syndrome of early infantile autism was first described in
1943 by Kanner (Volkmar, Carter, Grossman, & Klin, 1997), and is characterised by typical patterns of delay
and deviance affecting social, affective, communicative, and intellectual development that adversely affects
educational performance (Loveland & Kotoski, 1997; Darrow & Armstrong, 1999; Hourigan & Hourigan,
2009). Kanner’s (1943, as cited in Volkmar et al., 1997) criteria are similar to those included in the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition) (American Psychiatric Association, 2001) and the
behavioural definition provided by the National Society for Autistic Children (1978).
MT has given children with autism a means of self-expression and creativity (Gilboa, Bodner &
Amir, 2006; Epp, 2007; Shim, 2007); an opportunity to develop a therapeutic relationship to facilitate contact,
interaction, self awareness, learning and communication (Lefevre, 2004; Walworth, 2007; Wigram & Gold,
2006; Clarkson, 1991); and has developed their personal and social skills (Wimpory, Chadwick & Nash,
1995; Alvin & Warwick, 1991; Aldridge, Gustroff & Neugebauer, 1995).
Music therapy (MT) interventions have potential benefits in supporting social skills for children with
autism. Social skills are defined as, “Socially acceptable learned behaviours that enable a person to interact
with others in ways that elicit positive responses and assist the person in avoiding negative responses” (Elliot,
Racine & Busse, 1995, p. 1009, as cited in Bellini, 2006, p. 3). Social interaction skills are critical to
successful social, emotional and cognitive development. Most importantly, social skills deficits impede the
ability to establish meaningful social relationships, which often leads to withdrawal and a life of social
isolation. As a result, music-making involves many of the fundamental elements of social interaction and
because of this, the musical aspects of “interpersonal timing attuned reciprocity in shared play, turn-taking,
listening and responding to another person” can be augmented in MT with people with autism to
accommodate and address their frequently idiosyncratic styles of communication (The National Autistic
Society, 2010).
The focus of this study is on the Nordoff and Robbins MT intervention. Nordoff and Robbins (1977)
use creative MT with children with special needs, where an increased emphasis is placed on the dynamics of
the relationship between therapist and child. A relationship between the music therapist and client emerges
through musical dialogue, interaction, and communication and is crucial to a MT session (Shim, 2007). The
therapist’s music creates an accepting environment where the child is stimulated to explore and create music,
both instrumentally and vocally thus evoking musical responses. It allows the child to heal and change from
within which activates the child's inner resources.
Nordoff and Robbins (1977) describe the “Music Child” as that part inside each one of us that is
“alive, healthy, and creative” (Sutton, 2002, p. 112). Creative MT involves the development of musical skills
and expressive freedom. In this approach, both recreative and improvisational techniques are used (Aldridge
et al., 1995). Studies such as that of Edgerton (1994) provide evidence of the effectiveness of Nordoff-

7
Robbins’ (1977) Creative MT approach on the communication behaviour of children with autism. Edgerton’s
(1994) study revealed that improvisational MT significantly and constantly increased the communication
behaviours of each child within the musical setting, over the period of 10 sessions. Moreover, it supports the
argument that MT builds up a “shared repertoire of events” between therapist and client that involves meaning
and understanding (Wigram, 2002, p. 6).

The Role of Music Therapist and Music Educator

Music therapists and music educators work together towards achieving a common goal; that is, the use of
music to facilitate not only learning but also the development of the whole child both within and outside the
school (Bunt, 2003). The music educator and music therapist both play an important part in facilitating
learning for children with autism, where they address the ultimate concern for the educational growth and
development of the student (Patterson, 2003). Thus, MT and music education are to be seen as
complementary, rather than as alternative forms of provision (APMT, 1992).
The role of a music therapist in a school is to assess a students’ ability to achieve educational goals
and objectives both with and without music (Patterson, 2003). Music therapists employ techniques
specifically for promoting healthy personal and social development, encouraging freedom of choice and self-
growth (Bunt, 2003; Hourigan & Hourigan, 2009). They help children with autism to use their areas of
competence, expand their skills and capacities, and develop approaches to aid in areas of difficulty (Olley &
Reeve, 1997). They act as a kind of “sounding board”, to enable children not only to explore the non-verbal
medium of music but to enable them to tune in and reflect back to a child that they have been listened to and
heard (Bunt, 2003, p. 181). Music educators working with children who have special needs are in the unique
position of being able to observe a child’s responses to music in the educational environment. Polyblank
(2002 as cited in Bunt, 2003) commented on the work of the team of local music therapists stating that,
“working in partnership with a MT team has reinforced my belief in the power of music. MT has made a great
difference to the lives of many pupils across the authority, a part of which is facilitating greater access to the
National Curriculum” (Bunt, 2003, p. 191).

Defining Social Competence and the impairments of JA, IMI and T-T skills in autistic children
Social competence for children with autism is essential for successful integration into society, the
development and maintenance of meaningful friendships, and long-term positive outcomes (Sotelo, 2009;
Loveland & Kotoski, 1997; Hart, Olsen, Robinson & Mandleco, 1997). Autistic children exhibit social
abnormalities in areas such as their imitation (IMI) abilities (Dawson & Adams, 1984), joint attention (JA)
skills (Kim, Wigram & Gold, 2008) and in their turn-taking (T-T) activities (Pasiali, 2004). Cotugno (2009)
revealed that these issues create significant problems in engaging in normal and typical peer social
interactions, which often result in avoidance of social contacts, over arousal in social situations, an inability to
understand and follow expected social rules and expectations, and social rejection.
Children with autism have significant developmental limitations that impede their ability to benefit
from the social environment. JA abilities play a crucial role in the development of autism. Impairments in JA
are among the earliest signs of autism and JA skills relate to the outcome, both in the natural course of autism
and through being targeted in early intervention programmes (Kim et al., 2008). Moreover, JA behaviours
involve the triadic coordination or sharing of attention between the infant, another person, and an object or
event. The term encompasses a complex of behavioural forms including gaze and point following, showing
and pointing (Charman, 2003). Thus, lack of JA can negatively impact social development through life
(Charman, 2003).
The literature shows a consistent finding that children with autism do not readily imitate the actions of
others and that the reason for difficulties in IMI associated with autism remains unclear (Smith & Bryson,
1994; Williams, Whiten, Suddendorf & Perrett, 2001; Schopler, Reichler, DeVellis & Daly, 1980). IMI is
fundamental to broader kinds of social deficits seen in children with autism and is a recognised exchange, or
connection, between two persons and creates a feeling of shared understanding between them (Dawson &
Adams, 1984). The social skill of IMI involves one converting an action plan originating from the other’s
perspective into one’s own (Williams et al., 2001). Studies conducted by Dawson and Adams (1984) and
Schopler et al. (1980) found that autistic children exhibited a poor use of spontaneous gesture and impaired
motor IMI skills. Furthermore, autistic children who were most withdrawn from people were found to have
the most severe problems in motor IMI.

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 People with autism have difficulty in learning the rhythm and flow of conversation because they have
difficulty in picking up the subtle cues that indicates whose turn it is to speak during a verbal conversation or
other T-T situations (Grandin, 1996 as cited in Peet, 2004). This skill of T-T involves sequences of observe
peer/respond to peer/observe and wait/respond to peer (Kemple, 2004). Thus, difficulty in interaction with
others is a central theme in autism and is reflected in most classroom activities and in a large portion of the
research in autism (Olley & Reeve, 1997). This study focused on the ways in which MT facilitates the
development and acquisition of the above social skills in autistic children, in a way suited to each child’s
developmental level.

The Importance of Developing Peer Relationships in Play

An autistic child’s play stands in stark contrast to the richness of play in a normally developing child
(Volkmar et al., 1997). Playground time is important for learning and social development for children, as it
offers them a variety of play opportunities (Cullen, 1993 as cited in Kern, 2004b). Through shared
experiences in play with peers, children acquire many interrelated skills that are necessary for attaining social
competence and forming mutual friendships (Parjer & Gottman, 1989 as cited in Kern, 2004b). Moreover,
peer interactions and inclusion on the playground are vital for bolstering children’s acquisition of important
social competencies (Kern & Aldridge, 2006; Koegel & Koegel, 1995). Maintaining effective play
interactions with peers requires children to exercise self-control and a host of other important behaviours such
as cooperation, attention and persistence that can affect learning in the classroom setting.
Only a few studies, however, have investigated the social behaviours of typically developed children
and children with special needs in playgrounds (Fujiki, Brinton, Isaacson & Summers, 2001; Nabors &
Badawi, 1997), and some have examined play behaviour and play styles in playgrounds (Cullen, 1993; Ladd
& Price, 1986). A small amount of research in playgrounds has focused on promoting interactions between
children with and without disabilities (Hundert & Hopkins, 1992; Kern & Wolery, 2001). According to the
study by Kern (2004b) more research is needed to understand the effects of MT for children with autism
within inclusive settings and so the current paper aims to examine this.
Inclusive schools strive to create an environment where the needs of all students are accommodated
and success is fostered for each child, by integrating children with disabilities in the mainstream of regular
education and providing them with the specialised services they need within the regular education program
(Kemple, 2004; Harrower & Dunlap, 2001). Importantly inclusion provides children with autism an
opportunity to socially interact with typically developing peers as it enhances their peer skills, social
understanding, and relationships for children with and without disabilities (Kemple, 2004; Choi & Nieminen,
2005). The availability of peers who can serve as models and initiators of social interaction is asserted as an
important rationale for including children with disabilities in classrooms with typically developing peers
(Kemple, 2004).
A significant aspect of this paper is to bring greater awareness of possible benefits of MT to the wider
community of autism, in particular, to provide a greater understanding of the effect MT has on the social skills
of children with autism. According to Rostohar (2006), as all children enter the public education environment,
they are expected to possess not only pre-academic skills, but also social skills deemed necessary for
successful group participation and learning. Thus, the music educators’ ultimate goal is to facilitate not only
learning in the classroom but also the development of the whole child both within and outside the classroom.
Teachers can use music as a tool to encourage social awareness and competence by selecting and integrating
into the curriculum songs that address acceptance, and/or social behaviour. The social interactions that occur
in both the MT setting and in the SOIS can aid music educators in developing an understanding of the benefits
of ‘working together’. These benefits can be carried forward into the classroom setting, whereby music
educators further employ techniques specifically for promoting healthy personal and social development.
In this study the researcher aimed to discover the meaning of the children’s behaviours and examine
the effects MT can have in an environment where there is an absence of MT interventions, that is, in the
SOIS. This paper explores how participation in MT can affect not only the development of children with
autism, but the role of music in their lives.

Methodology
A mixed methods approach was adopted in the study to examine the impact MT had on the development and
acquisition of social skills of four participating autistic children (See table 1) in the SOIS, across a seven week
period. This style of research uses procedures that are typically applied in both quantitative and qualitative

9
studies (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009; Phillips, 2008). A survey, interviews, video and an observation record
was conducted in the study by the researcher. Utilising mixed methods aided in answering the research
questions that could not be answered by qualitative and quantitative approaches alone. In particular, the study
utilised concurrent procedures of the mixed methods approach, whereby the “investigator collects both forms
of data at the same time during the study and then integrated the information in the interpretation of the
overall results” (Creswell, 2003, p. 16).

Table 1: Student Demographics

Participant Age Class Gender Diagnosis
Antonio 9 years old Year 4 M Moderate intellectual disability,
as well as a diagnosis of ASD .
Bobby 11 years old Year 6 M Severe intellectual disability,
communication difficulty, as
well as a diagnosis of ASD.
Cally 9 years old Year 4 M Moderate intellectual disability,
as well as a diagnosis of ASD.
Matthew 10 years old Year 5 M Severe intellectual disability,
communication difficulty, as
well as a diagnosis of ASD.

Table 2 highlights the significant methods of data collection and data analysis in the current study.

Table 2: Methods of data collection and forms of analysis

Data Collection Data Analysis
Field notes Triangulation
Semi-structured and Conversational Layered analysis
Interviewing
Document collection Rating Scales:
-Scale II: Musical Communicativeness (Nordoff and
Robbins, 1977)
- Social Play Record (SPR) (White, 2006)
Video and audio recording

Research findings from the Social Play Record (SPR) and Scale II: Musical Communicativeness
(Nordoff and Robbins)
Children with autism feature impaired development of the social skills of JA, IMI and T-T (Kim et al., 2008;
Charman, 2003) and thus, the study focused on the ways in which these three specific social skills are
developed and acquired in the SOIS. The results demonstrated how the four participants of this study acquired
the three social skills, and revealed an increase (with regressions in advancements in some weeks) in the
ability of the specific skills. The conclusions that were reached for each category of social behaviour were
assessed with regard to each child’s development.
Incorporating the rating scale adapted from the Social Play Record (SPR) (White, 2006) in the SOIS,
showed results where participants demonstrated a positive increase in the development and acquisition of the
social behaviours of JA, IMI and T-T, with regressions in advancement in some weeks. Data collated from
Scale II: Musical Communicativeness (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977) indicated positive and progressive changes
in musical communicativeness amongst peers and therapist. This is a positive indication that MT can have an
effect on the development of these social skills and is further supported by the music therapist, where he
affirms that ‘more attention, listening and engagement’, were a few of the changes observed in the MT room
(Robert, Interview, 29.3.10), thus revealing the possible impact MT has on the development and acquisition of
these three specific skills. Initially, the students involved lacked focus in their musical expression and lacked
the ability to co-operate as a group, though Robert revealed that positive changes have occurred through the
participants “improved interaction between each other particularly when working in pairs (e.g. drumming

10
opposite each other, playing duets at the piano), greater tolerance of frustration and more openness to
experience, laughter and enjoyment” (Robert, Interview, 29.3.10).
In particular, two of the children, Antonio and Cally, engaged in high levels in their social behaviours
in the SOIS, throughout the seven week study period, as they concurrently actively participated and appeared
to enjoy MT. According to Gold, Wigram and Elefant (2006), active music-making by the participants, such
as playing the guitar and djembes, is often typical for MT in clinical practice and is used to reinforce adjusted
behaviour. Necessary communicative behaviours, such as JA, eye contact and T-T are characteristic events in
shared, active music- making (Wigram et al., 2006).
To begin with, “Antonio arrived (to school) with only swear words to communicate with (Dad taught
him so he would be ‘normal’), very skinny and in his own world. Cally arrived (to school) with limited
language and what he said you couldn’t understand although he did enjoy people and seeked out interactions”
(Deborah, Interview, 22.3.10). This idea is significantly evident during Session 7 where Cally tried to initiate
conversation with one of the typically developing children in the SOIS, but was unable to, so he utilised eye
gaze in order to perform the desired task of opening his lunch. During this Session, Cally had a lot to say, but
rather, through eye contact and gestures, his messages were heard. Likewise, during the MT that session,
Cally engaged in high levels of musical communicativeness. He worked hard in getting involved in the
singing of the ‘Good morning’ song and his decisive manner in choosing what song he wanted to sing next,
‘What do you like to eat?’ The co-music therapist supports this change by stating that, “Their eye contact and
ability to concentrate on a task is improving with both each other and the therapists” (Talia, Interview,
28.3.10).
Similarly, Antonio demonstrated higher levels of T-T skills during Session 7 when he successfully
initiated peek-a-boo games in the SOIS. This is consistent with empirical observations that state that autistic
children exhibit gestural requests for social routines (Wetherby & Prutting, 1984 as cited in Mundy et al.,
1986, p. 666). His participation in the music making of session 7 was highly successful, like Cally, where he
energetically engaged in all activities performed during that session involving his active musical
communication with the researcher on the djembes, and his dynamic involvement in the singing of the ‘Good
morning’ song. This reveals how his positive and active engagement during MT that session had positively
impacted on the social skills utilised in the SOIS. These results are further supported by the special education
teacher where she stated, “Cally and Antonio have developed great social skills and I think MT certainly
contributed to this” (Deborah, Interview, 22.3.10).
Bobby and Matthew, whom both have greater severity of their diagnosis of autism than Antonio and
Cally, “arrived (to school) as non-verbal, engaged in stereotyped behaviours and echolalia (a behaviour in
which a phrase is constantly repeated, (Hourigan & Hourigan, 2009), and rarely displayed spontaneous
speech” (Deborah, interview, 22.3.10). As evident in this study and as affirmed by literature (Pasiali, 2004),
MT techniques have increased communicative attempts of children who exhibit echolalic behaviours thus
revealing an increase in their levels of development and acquisition of the social skills of JA, IMI and T-T,
during the seven week study. For example, during Session 5, Bobby engaged in frequent gaze switches,
which, according to literature (Pasiali, 2004), is a distinctive feature of JA and T-T, between his toy cars and
his non-autistic peer. He began to share his toy cars with the Year 6 students, as he invited them in his play.
Like Bobby, Matthew’s active engagement and participation during MT in Session 5, is evident
through his excited musical conversation on the djembes and his successful engagement in the ‘Goodbye’
song, where he effectively employs the skills of T-T and IMI. This reveals that as the level of musical
communicativeness increased this session, compared to the previous session, so did the development of social
skills in the SOIS, thus indicating that MT may have had a positive impact on the social development of
children with autism. The findings of the current study are consistent with literature which states that music
can be the perfect setting for children with autism to strengthen their social skills (Hourigan & Hourigan,
2009). This idea is further supported by empirical research which has also indicated that music interventions
influence the social behaviour of children with autism (Pasiali, 2004).

The possible effects of MT on the development and acquisition of social skills of autistic children in a
SOIS
The study revealed the effect MT had on the acquisition of social skills in children with autism. The special
education teacher discussed the impact MT had in assisting social interactions and supporting the inclusion of
students with autism. She elaborated on the positive attitude of MT and the reasons why she has, “kept it up
for so long.” She stated that, “Often the children interact with each other at MT in ways that I don’t see, that

11
every week, someone would do something that they wouldn’t usually do at school, whether they do something
simple like hold someone else’s hand, or seeking out their hand, or waiting for someone else to have a
turn…the basics…that’s why I kept going” (Deborah, Interview, 22.3.10).
This is consistent with literature (Wimpory et al., 1995; Kern 2004; Pasiali, 2004), which states that
MT interventions have potential benefits in supporting social skills for children with autism and that such
interventions offer treatment options for children with autism as they have been shown to support and
facilitate inclusion of children with special needs in various educational settings.
The special education teacher also discussed the way in which MT supports the inclusion of students
with autism by emphasising that, “It does all the ground work – the T-T, the waiting, the initiation, on a level
that is appropriate for them” (Deborah, Interview, 22.3.10). This idea is supported by the music therapist,
where he asserted that the aim of MT is to “help each child make relationships and communicate with others
in mutually satisfying and meaningful ways – to genuinely fit into and contribute to society” (Robert,
Interview, 29.3.10).These goals are achieved directly through sessions of MT which involves, “musical T-T,
listening to one another, initiating and responding, humour and enjoyment” (Robert, Interview, 29.3.10). This
is consistent with literature (Pasiali, 2004; Wimpory et al., 1995), which has been substantiated by empirical
research and affirms that, “participation in MT sessions taught students how to observe social cues and
cooperate with group boundaries, how to wait and how to transition from one activity to another” (Pasiali,
2004, p. 11).
The social structures of a MT setting further facilitated the social inclusion of children with autism in
this study. The literature (Gutierrez et al., 2007; Harrower & Dunlap, 2001; Kemple, 2004; Lee, 2008;
O’Donnell, 1998) has indicated that children with autism have a need for structure and organisation. For
example, the “Hello” and “Good-bye” songs, that were often used in MT, were incorporated to establish a
predictable routine; to structure the session through a clear beginning and end, to welcome and get in contact
with the individual or group, to give the individual undivided attention and respect, and to establish awareness
of where persons are and what comes next. Therefore, MT has facilitated educational and therapeutic
strategies to the children with autism that has helped them improve and develop their skills and use their
strengths to act independently in the classroom (Kern & Aldridge, 2006).

Conclusion
The study revealed the effect MT had on the acquisition of three social skills, JA, IMI and T-T, of the four
participating children with autism. All autistic children made rapid to steady progress over the seven weeks in
acquiring and utilising the social skills, with regressions in advancement in some weeks. Overall, it is
concluded that as musical communicativeness increased over the seven weeks, so did the development of
social skills in the SOIS, thus revealing the positive impact MT has on the social development of children
with autism.
The main purpose of this study is to bring greater awareness of the possible benefits of music therapy
to the wider community of autism, in particular, to provide greater understanding of the effect music therapy
has on the social skills of children with autism. It will serve to explore how participating in music therapy can
affect not only the development of children with autism, but the role of music in their lives.
Areas for further investigation involve examining play itself and whether it acts as a therapeutic tool
in enhancing the development of social skills in children with autism. It would be of clinical value to learn in
greater depth about the influence of peers’ social adjustment and their responsiveness and perspectives toward
children with autism in a regular education setting. Involving parents in the study may also offer greater
perspectives about how their child is involved in music in the home and community and in everyday routines
and activities, where they have the opportunity to practice and acquire new skills.

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15
Designing a curriculum that teaches secondary school students conducting to increase their
musicianship and ensemble
K. Alex Miller & Steven J. Capaldo, University of Wollongong

Abstract
This study examines the communication and musicianship developed through conducting between teachers
and students in secondary school music ensembles. As conducting is regarded as a primary method of
communication and musical leadership in music ensembles, it is essential for playing musicians to understand
conducting gestures and techniques. In secondary school environments, it would seem important to teach
students conducting gestures so they are better able to interpret, respond to and understand these gestures with
the aim of improving their learning of the music and develop greater artistic awareness. Therefore, the
developed curriculum is significant as it helps to address the documented gap in developing student
musicianship in school-based ensembles. The curriculum was created using a design-based methodology
commonly implemented in learning technology studies and adapted for music education. Knowledge, skills
and understandings significant to learning conducting and increasing musicianship were identified and formed
the basis of a draft document. A panel of experts including music professionals, conservatorium staff,
curriculum teachers and ensemble directors from Australia and Canada were invited to take part in the
development of the curriculum. The document was subsequently re-written and re-designed with the feedback
from the panel that differed significantly in their view of teaching secondary school students about
conducting. The completed curriculum will be implemented in a NSW secondary school in early 2011 and
assessed for its effectiveness and value. The findings will be important in furthering our understanding of
student learning and engagement in school-based music ensembles and the effectiveness of teaching
musicianship through conducting.

Introduction
School students participate in music ensembles to gain a musical education through improving their
musicianship and instrumental/performance skills (Adderley et al., 2003; Elliott, 2005). As conducting is
regarded as a primary method of communication in a music ensemble, it is crucial that teachers/conductors
communicate by conducting with precision and clarity and that student musicians are able to understand
conducting gestures. However, many ensemble directors do not conduct with clarity and most secondary
school musicians are not taught conducting and find it difficult to understand the conducting gestures,
sometimes resulting in confusion (Price, 2006). The gestures could be interpreted several different ways
causing musical clashes and frustrations throughout the ensemble (Battisti, 2005).
As ensemble participation is a significant part of students’ overall musicianship (Elliott, 1995), it seems
important to develop opportunities for students to learn and experience conducting within a school
curriculum. Considering there is no available conducting curriculum for secondary school students in NSW,
the developed curriculum addresses a significant and documented gap in developing student musicianship in
school-based ensembles.

Review of Literature
An examination of the literature has revealed limited research has been undertaken in this area. While a
number of studies have examined the nexus between conducting and the conductor (Matthews & Kitsantas,
2007; Luck & Nte, 2008; Morrison et al., 2009), there is an evident gap in the literature regarding student
understanding of conducting. In a series of studies undertaken by Price and Chang (2001 & 2005) and Price
(2006) looking at the relationships among conducting quality, ensemble performance quality, and state
festival ratings, several conclusions were reached. If ensemble musicians had a better understanding of
conducting gestures, the focus of rehearsals would likely shift from constant verbal instruction to focusing on
the conductor and their gestures. Price (2006) states that this could produce not only a higher quality musical
performance, but by having less talking and more rehearsal time, more repertoire could be learned meaning
there is a potential for more performances from the ensembles. He suggested, “Educationally, it might be that
we need to teach ensemble members the meaning of the gestures and to watch conductors” (Price, 2006, p.
212).

16
 Much of the literature regarding conducting and student engagement and learning appears in
pedagogy and instructional publications such as The Instrumentalist (Janners, 2001; Knight, 2004; Battisti,
2005) rather than in peer-reviewed journals containing empirical evidence.

Supporting Theory
This study was informed by David Elliott’s Philosophy of Praxial Music Education and concept of
Curriculum Design (1995, 2005). Elliot (2005) defines Musicianship as procedural, formal, informal,
impressionistic, and supervisory musical knowledge; and Listenership as the mental construction of
intramusical relationships–within works–and intermusical relationships–between works–through procedural,
formal, informal, impressionistic, and supervisory musical knowing. As Elliott (2005) states that “Children
develop through actions, transactions, and interactions with musically proficient teachers” (p. 12), this
curriculum emphasizes practical participation of students in the learning of conducting in classroom settings
from their musically proficient teachers.

Methodology
Design of the Curriculum
For this study the researchers used a qualitative approach and an adaption of a design-based research study.
Design-based research is generally associated with technology and technology based subjects (Cobb, Confrey,
diSessa, Keher, & Schauble, 2003; Collins, Joseph & Bielaczyc, 2004). However, given the intended outcome
of this study – design and revision of a curriculum – the researchers argue that an adaption of the design-based
research model is an adequate fit for this research project. Design-based research “has three important, deeply
intertwined goals…research, design, and pedagogical practices” (Joseph, 2004, p. 235). This study focused on
all three of these goals. Through extensive research of literature and textbooks, a music curriculum was
designed and developed that aims to teach conducting skills, knowledge and understandings to secondary
school music students. In addition, this curriculum intends to positively affect the pedagogical practices of the
secondary school music ensemble.
Elliott (1995) states that much of the curriculum designed for all subjects is concept-based and can be
limiting in music. This enables educators to select pieces to teach concepts rather than teach music. Elliott
(1995) therefore proposed a new model for developing a music curriculum suggesting it should be interactive,
context-dependent, and flexible. Elliott’s (1995) model uses a four-step approach to accomplish this:

1. orientation
2. preparing and planning
3. teaching and learning
4. evaluation

Rather than using objective-based curricula, Elliott’s (1995) concept adopted Schwab’s (in Elliott, 1995) list
of curriculum ‘commonplaces’. These are factors that appear in all teaching-learning situations and in all
curriculum making. ‘Commonplaces’ are: aims, knowledge, learners, teaching-learning processes, teacher(s),
evaluation, and learning context (Elliott, 1995). This concept of curriculum development has influenced this
study. With this understanding, the approach in developing the curriculum was firstly to compile a list of the
necessary knowledge, skills and understandings students need to learn to increase their level of musicianship
(Elliott, 1995) and develop their interpretation and response to conducting.
Several conducting technique and method textbooks were consulted. The conducting technique and
pedagogical suggestions these textbooks offered were critically analyzed, enabling the researchers to have a
range of published materials to gather an understanding of the basic conducting gestures and skills. From this,
a list was assembled containing the necessary knowledge, skills and understandings students would need to
learn to develop their interpretation and response to conducting (see appendix A).
Several aims and outcomes were developed based on this list (see appendix B). Once the aims and
objectives were completed, a scope and sequence guide was developed consisting of 12 learning experiences.
Each learning experience aimed to contain an activity about a Philosophical/Historical/Contextual
(knowledge) component, a Technical (skills) component, and a Musical (understanding) component.
This data was arranged into a first draft of the conducting curriculum, which has been shaped from
several learning outcomes from the NSW Board of Studies Music Years 7-10 Syllabus (Stage 4 and 5). The

17
document layout was revised and adjusted for class instruction and the final draft was referred to the panel of
experts for evaluation.

Panel of Experts
Assembling the Panel
A panel consisting of five music education experts was selected to critically analyze the designed curriculum.
One member is a PhD student in an Education faculty in Canada. His undergraduate and master degrees are
music performance degrees, and he has been conducting music ensembles for several years. The next panel
member holds a PhD and is currently the conductor of the wind ensemble and concert band at a university in
Canada. She has three degrees in music education and has many years of conducting experience. The third
panel member is currently the director of a conservatorium of music in Australia, and has extensive
experience in instrumental and choral performance. The fourth panel member is an Australian music teacher
at the secondary school level. She has several years of teaching and performing experience. The last panel
member is chief conductor of an ensemble unit through the NSW Department of Education.
These participants were deemed appropriate because they are currently working in the field for which
the curriculum is being designed. Their years of experience conducting ensembles and teaching music have
given them insights into the conducting component of teacher-training programs, as well as the lack of
conducting instruction given to young instrumentalists.

Inviting their opinions and thoughts

In the second phase of data collection, the panel was requested to complete a questionnaire commenting on
several aspects of the curriculum. This included content, sequence, learning experiences, activities, layout,
references used, and over arching questions about student proficiency in responding to conducting after
learning the curriculum (see appendix C).

Data Analysis
Response from the Panel of Experts
Four of the five panel members completed and returned the questionnaire. To analyze the data, the researchers
read all the information from the panel of experts and divided the information into themes and categories.
Four overall themes emerged:

1. Positive aspects about the curriculum

2. Items that should be added
3. Areas for improvement
4. Overall impressions and comments about the curriculum

These themes were divided into sub-categories: aims and outcomes, knowledge section, skills section,
understanding section, and learning experiences (sequence, content and layout).

Results
Aims and Outcomes
The panel was in consensus that the aims and outcomes provided sufficient direction and purpose for the
curriculum. Two panel members agreed that the aims should include a sentence explaining about how students
should gain a greater sense of intuitive performance practice through a deeper understanding of the
conducting process. There were several recommendations for minor grammar changes to help clarify
meanings.

Skills Section
There were several conflicting recommendations by the panel about the skills section. Two panel members
agreed the skills section was very comprehensive and ‘heaps for beginning students to learn’ (Participant 4,
questionnaire). However, another two panel members felt that there were several items missing from the skills
section and provided a substantial list of additions. These included more conducting patterns, tempos and
speeds of gestures, preparatory beats from all directions, conducting without a baton, choral conducting, basic
left hand skills focusing on dynamics and accents, exploration of subdivisions, and more left hand
independence exercises.

18
Knowledge Section
The panel also gave conflicting responses regarding the curriculum’s knowledge section. While one panel
member observed that this section was ‘very comprehensive and thorough’, other panel members commented
that greater detail could be provided. Some panel members suggested that several items regarding the
expected abilities of a conductor were missing in this section, and the history of conducting could be explored
in more detail. All the panel members recommended changing the format of the knowledge section to further
engage the students through more interactive activities.

Understanding Section
The panel provided more unified responses about the understanding section. This section was considered
comprehensive, and clearly outlined the expectations for the students. A main concern of the panel was
regarding interpretation and emotion. The curriculum needs to include a discussion about ‘affect’ in
conducting and musical interpretation as it is imperative that students bring their own interpretation to the
podium rather than someone else’s. The panel suggested this could be accomplished by altering some of the
activities. For example, students should learn how to maintain a steady tempo with the ensemble rather than
with a metronome.

Learning Experiences
The panel made a number of recommendations about the sequence, content and layout of the learning
experiences. Several of the activities were considered to be non-engaging for secondary school students, such
as clapping and conducting along to recordings and excessive amounts of class discussion. The panel
recommended more group work and more time conducting peers, as one panel member stated,

Learning about conducting from the podium gives musicians greater insights into what is involved in
conducting. In my experience they become better ensemble musicians (Participant 2, questionnaire).

Each panel member commented differently regarding sequence. Two members suggested moving the activity
about batons to the first day, while two others thought the activity should be at the beginning of class two.
One member recommended moving the active listening activities to later learning experiences as it was
thought to be a difficult activity for students. Other members thought active listen was extremely important
and should happen regularly throughout the curriculum. Three panel members thought the curriculum moved
too quickly through the conducting patterns and did not allow students an appropriate amount of time to
secure each pattern into motor memory. One panel member thought too much time was spent on the 4/4
pattern and it should be moved through quicker.
The overall layout of the activities was deemed appropriate by the panel. However, the length of
activities and number of learning experiences received conflicting comments. Two panel members
commented that there was probably a tendency towards too many learning experiences, while another member
thought several more learning experiences could be included and would only cover the information if the
activities were one to two hours long.
There was a general agreement from the panel that the active participation in class and ensemble
rehearsal of students conducting and learning to conduct is highly valuable echoing Elliot’s (1995) praxial
approach:

Students always understand things better if they do it themselves. So

this curriculum should definitely help (Participant 4, questionnaire).

Discussion
It seems evident from several comments that the intended outcome of this project was not clear to all the panel
members. While acknowledging there are several important items not listed, (particularly in the skills section),
the intended outcome of this curriculum is not to produce expert student conductors so these more advanced
skills were left out intentionally. The curriculum aims to develop student understanding and appropriate
responses to conducting. Some of the suggested skills were added such as the five-beat conducting pattern and
more left hand independence exercises. Choral conducting was left out, as it is not the focus of this
curriculum.

19
 In response to other recommendations by the panel, various changes were made. It is agreed that
expressivity and emotion are two areas that were overlooked in the preliminary curriculum and are necessary
to achieve was allotted for group conducting work, enabling students to explore expressivity and emotion in
relation to specific pieces.
The order of various activities was slightly altered based on panel member’s suggestions. The activity
about baton selection was moved to the first day as this enables students to come prepared with batons to
every class. The active listening activities remained where they were, as were the recommendations of three of
the panel members. While it is acknowledged that active listening can be difficult for students, it is a
necessary skill not only for conductors, but also for ensemble musicians. Students need to be given as much
opportunity as possible to refine this skill.
Implementing this curriculum presents many challenges for music teachers and music teaching.
Appropriate resources need to be available for teachers, which include school ensembles, appropriate high-
quality music, and batons. While the current NSW Board of Studies 7-10 Music Syllabus discusses teaching
conducting to students (BOS, 2003) and there is room in the classroom curriculum to do this (in Performing),
it is clear from the preliminary data collected by the researchers that students are not receiving adequate (if
any) instruction in conducting techniques.
Teaching conducting to students will be difficult for teachers who are reluctant to implement this
curriculum due to a lack of confidence or skills. Several studies indicate that preservice teachers are given
inadequate conducting instruction during their degree and feel unqualified and scared to conduct an ensemble
(Johnson et al., 2003; Ballantyne & Packer, 2004; McDowell, 2007). If teachers are feeling ill equipped to
conduct, will they feel ill equipped to teach conducting?

Conclusion
This project is a pilot study that forms part of a larger PhD study. After the data analysis was completed,
revisions were made to the curriculum based on the comments from the panel of experts. Currently, the
revised conducting curriculum is being implemented in a NSW public secondary school to test its value and
effectiveness. This study is set to conclude in early 2012, with the findings to be published at a later date. The
researchers are aiming to see the curriculum adopted in secondary schools.

References
Adderley, C., Kennedy, M., & Berz, W. (2003). A Home Away from Home: The World of the High School
Music Classroom. Journal of Research in Music Education, 51(3), 190-205.
Ballantyne, J. & Packer, J. (2004). Effectiveness of preservice music teacher education programs: Perceptions
of early-career music teachers. Music Education Research 6(3), 299-312.
Battisti, F. (2005). Effective Conducting Gestures. The Instrumentalist, 59(11), 12.
Cobb, P., Confrey, J. et al. (2003). Design Experiments in Educational Research. Educational Researcher
32(1), 9-13.
Collins, A., D. & Joseph et al. (2004). Design Research: Theoretical and Methodological Issues. The Journal
of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 15-42.
Croft, J. (2001). Evaluating Conductors. The Instrumentalist, 56(2), 17.
Elliott, D. (1995). Music Matters. New York, Oxford University Press.
Elliott, D. (2005). Praxial Music Education. New York, Oxford University Press
Janners, E. (2001). Without a Safety Net. The Instrumentalist, 56(4), 80.
Johnson, C. M., Fredrickson, W. E. et al. (2003). The effect of nonverbal elements of conducting on the
overall evaluation of student and professional conductors. Journal of Band Research, 38(2), 64-79.
Joseph, D. (2004). The Practice of Design-Based Research: Uncovering the Interplay between Design,
Research, and the Real-World Context. Educational Psychologist, 39(4), 235-242
Knight, J. (2004). Evaluating Conductors from the Trombone Section. The Instrumentalist, 59(5), 28.
Luck, G. & Nte, S. (2008). An Investigation of conductors' temporal gestures and conductor musician
synchronization, and a first experiment. Psychology of Music, 36(1), 81-99.
Matthews, W. K. & Kitsantas, A. (2007). Group Cohesion, Collective Efficacy, and Motivated Climate as
Predictors of Conductor Support in Music Ensembles. Journal of Research in Music Education, 55(1),
6-17.
McDowell, C. (2007). Are They Ready to Student Teach? Reflections from 10 Music Education Majors
Concerning Their Three Semesters of Field Experience. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 16(2),

20
 45-60.
Mills, J. & Smith, J. (2003). Teachers' beliefs about effective instrumental teaching in
schools and higher education. British Journal of Music Education, 20(1), 5-27.
Morrison, S. J., Price, H. E. et al. (2009). The Effect of Conductor Expressivity on Ensemble Performance
Evaluation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 57(1), 37-49.
Price, H. E. (2006). Relationships among Conducting Quality, Ensemble Performance Quality, and State
Festival Ratings. Journal of Research in Music Education, 54(3), 203-214.
Price, H. E. & Chang, E. C. (2001). Conductor expressivity and ensemble performance: An exploratory
investigation. Contributions to Music Education, 28(2), 9-20.
Price, H. E. & Chang, E. C. (2005). Conductor and Ensemble Performance Expressivity and State Festival
Ratings. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(1), 66-77.

21
Appendix A: Curriculum Content

Historical/Philosophical/Contextual (Knowledge):
• Role of the conductor on the podium
• Background and history of conducting
• Expected abilities of the conductor
• Critical analysis and diagnosis skills
• Explanation and purpose of a baton
• Quality Repertoire, including identification and selection
• Repertoire in Smooth (Legato), Short & Light (Staccato), Heavy (Marcato), Stretched (Tenuto), and Free
Time (Rubato) styles

Technical (Skills):
• Correct posture
• Skills to fix/improve an instrumental ensemble such as active listening
• Basic right arm/hand position
• Baton selection
• Baton grip
• Preparatory beats
• Smooth (Legato) conducting, with basic patterns (2/4, 3/4 & 4/4 patterns)
• Short & Light (Staccato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Heavy (Marcato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Stretched (Tenuto) conducting, with basic patterns
• Free Time (Rubato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Conducting using accents on various beats within the basic patterns
• Basic conducting patterns, focusing on space, time and tempo
• Basic left hand skills, focusing on cueing instruments
• Applying skills by conducting a short excerpt with a full instrumental ensemble

Musical (Understanding):
• Through active listening
• Holding a steady beat with a recording
• Holding a steady beat with basic patterns
• Smooth (Legato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Short & Light (Staccato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Heavy (Marcato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Stretched (Tenuto) conducting, with basic patterns
• Free Time (Rubato) conducting, with basic patterns
• Basic conducting patterns, focusing on musical effect in combination with specific gestures
• Musical phrasing and musical effect with basic left hand skills

22
Appendix B: Aims and Outcomes

Aims:
This curriculum aims for students to value the importance of conducting, and understand the role and
expected abilities of the conductor. The students will gain knowledge about the various steps involved in
conducting, and develop the skills and techniques required to successfully conduct an instrumental ensemble.
The students will develop an understanding of conducting by relating various styles and gestures to repertoire
to show musical intent. The students will gain greater proficiency in responding to the conducting gestures
they experience during instrumental ensemble rehearsals.

Outcomes:
Students will be able to:
• Understand basic historical knowledge and context of conductors and conducting
• Understand what a baton is and why instrumental ensemble conductors use one
• Select an appropriate baton and grip the baton correctly
• Display correct posture and position
• Hold a steady tempo
• Conduct basic patterns (2/4, 3/4, & 4/4), with basic gestures in various styles
• Use the left hand, to cue and show musical intentions and style
• Critically analyze what was played by developing basic diagnostic skills to fix mistakes within the
instrumental ensemble

23
Appendix C: Questionnaire sent to the Panel of Experts
Questions about Aims:
1. Are the aims realistic and encompassing? Please comment on the strengths/weaknesses.
2. Do the aims provide sufficient direction or purpose for the curriculum?
3. Are the intentions of the aims clear?

Questions about Outcomes:

1. Do the outcomes clearly indicate what the students should understand as a result of completing this
curriculum?
2. Do the outcomes clearly indicate the skill set students should develop as a result of completing the
curriculum?
3. Are the outcomes comprehensive in outlining what the students should have learnt as a result of
completing the curriculum?

Questions about Knowledge Section:

1. Is the Historical/Philosophical/Contextual (knowledge) section of the content comprehensive? Please
explain.
2. Could anything be added to this section? Please explain.

Questions about Skills:

1. Does the technical (skills) section of the content address the skills required for a beginning conductor?
Please explain.
2. Could anything be added to this section? Please explain.

Questions about Understanding:

1. Does the Musical (understanding) section of the content address the musical aspects required for a
beginning conductor? Please explain.
2. Could anything be added to this section? Please explain

Questions about Overview of Learning Experiences (Scope and Sequence):

1. Is the sequence of content logical?
2. Would you change anything about the order? Please explain.
3. Are there an adequate number of learning experiences?
4. Do the activities of each learning experience balance with each other?
5. The curriculum provides students with time to practice. Do you think there is enough time
allotted for student practice?

Questions about the Seven Activities:

1. Do you think the seven activities are appropriate for secondary students?
2. In your experience, do you think students will be engaged by these activities?
3. Do you think the activities cover the learning outcomes?
4. Are the Philosophical/Historical/Contextual notes attached to the specific activities adequate and
correct?
5. Is the layout of the activities clear and easy to understand? If not, can you suggest a different
layout?

Questions about Reference list:

1. Do you think appropriate references were selected for this project?
2. Are there any books or texts you feel do not need to be included?
3. Are there any important books or texts you think are missing? If so, which ones?

Overall questions:
1. Which elements of the curriculum do you find are the strongest?
2. Which elements of the curriculum do you find are the weakest?
3. Is this curriculum appropriately aimed at secondary school students?

24
4. Will this curriculum adequately enable students to understand, learn and develop basic
conducting skills?
5. How does this curriculum help students gain greater proficiency in responding to the conducting
gestures they experience during instrumental ensemble rehearsals?
6.

25
Riding the wave of pedagogy: Designing learning experiences that deepen student understanding
without drowning the learner
Antony Hubmayer, Scotch College, Adelaide

Abstract
During the past 40 years constructivist theories of learning have made a profound impact upon approaches to
general education particularly in the fields of Science and Mathematics. This paper makes evident from this
literature review that our construction of knowledge and understanding is formed from a complex process of
continual reflection based upon our personal experiences and social interactions. For music educators, the
pedagogical ramifications of the constructivist theory of knowledge and learning are beginning to be
addressed through student-centred approaches that include: discovery learning, informal learning, problem-
based learning and inquiry-based learning.

“Tell me, I forget, show me, I remember, Involve me, I understand.” Ancient Chinese Proverb
“For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them.” Aristotle

Understanding how we learn and how we can improve the efficiency of our learning and teaching has become
a social phenomenon for the 21st Century. Advances in cognitive and psychological learning theories have
offered insights supporting the Piagetian view that learner’s construct understanding and meaning through a
process of active assimilation of new information with previous knowledge (Fosnot, 2005). Educational
pedagogy has progressively become more concerned with learning, not so much teaching; reflecting a shift
away from a behaviourist model of learning that assumed knowledge could be transferred between the mind
of the teacher and students (Bodner, 1986). During the past 40 years constructivist theories of learning have
made a profound impact upon approaches to general education particularly in the fields of Science and
Mathematics. Peter Webster (2010) identifies that music education has traditionally been dominated by
directed instruction that is top-down in nature with little consideration for student-constructed knowledge. He
suggests that it is only in the last ten to fifteen years that writers in music education have begun to consider
seriously the practice of music teaching and learning from a more constructivist perspective.
Constructivist learning characteristics that have been identified by music educators (Scott, 2006,
Hanley & Montgomery 2002) include: “knowledge and beliefs are formed within the learner; learners
personally imbue experiences with meaning; learning activities should enable learners to gain access to their
experiences, knowledge and beliefs; learning is a social activity that is enhanced by shared inquiry; reflection
and metacognition are essential aspects of constructing knowledge and meaning; learners play an essential
role in assessing their own learning” (Walker & Lambert, 1995).
Leonhard (1972) regards knowledge as any body of facts gathered by study, investigation, or
observation. Understanding applies to the comprehension of [these] facts and the ability to apply knowledge
in a problem-solving situation. These definitions imply that knowledge alone has little value and that it can be
put to use only when accompanied by understanding.
According to Goolsby (2002), musical understanding draws upon an amalgamation of three recognized
taxonomies: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Knowledge; Krathwohl’s Taxonomy for the Affective Domain
and Harrrow’s Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain. Goolsby believes that music is an ‘ill-structured
domain’ (Spiro et al., 1995) and that it also includes non-traditional types of knowledge such as intuition and
perception. According to Zenker (2002) musical understanding develops from personal experiences with
music. It is a dynamic and complex process in which people engage in a wide variety of musical activities
such as: playing, singing, listening, composing, performing, improvising, reading music and learning musical
concepts. There is no single technique or task, instead there are sets or groups of techniques or tasks. For
Zenker, musical concepts are ideas that help us talk about music, specifically ‘elements’ such as rhythm,
harmony and melody.

We do not need explicit knowledge of concepts to understand music in the sense of “knowing how to
follow” the music. Although we may be unaware of it, however, we may initially develop concepts,
often without explicit musical words, by experiencing the music we hear around us in our particular
culture. It is important for educators to make students aware of their “perception recipes” or their

26
 “intuitive/organic apparatuses,” which we can consider to be different terms for the same thing [prior
knowledge and understandings], to prepare them for more sophisticated levels of understanding.
(Zenker, 2002, p. 39)

Constructivism is first and foremost, a theory about knowledge and learning, not a teaching theory and for
teachers who base their practice on constructivism; it suggests a radically different approach to traditional
instruction. It implies a rejection of the notion that meaning can be passed on to learners via symbols and
transmission or that learners can incorporate exact copies of teachers’ understanding. It also suggests that
concepts should not be taught out of context nor should they be broken down into discrete sub-skills. The role
of the teacher shifts towards a facilitation that encourages learners to take on more ownership of and for their
learning (Fosnot, 2005).
Music Educators such as Jackie Wiggins (2009) and Sheila Scott (2006) have urged music teachers to
create deeper musical understanding through designed learning experiences using constructivist approaches
that include problems solving and discovery learning. Other educators such as Paul Broomhead (2005) and
Joe Shively (2004) identify the importance of applying constructivist approaches and problem solving to
instrumental and vocal ensembles.
Experiential learning was suggested by John Dewey and Jean Piaget but was formalised into a
Learning Theory by David Kolb in the mid 1970s. His Experiential Learning Model builds upon the belief
that knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. In order to gain
genuine knowledge from an experience, certain abilities are required by the learner: Concrete Experience the
learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience; Reflective Observation the learner must be
able to reflect on the experience; Abstract Conceptualization the learner must possess and use analytical skills
to conceptualize the experience; Active Experimentation the learner must possess decision making and
problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.
An important component of constructivist influenced pedagogies relates to the quality or measure of
learning and understanding. The common representational terms used are “surface” and “deep” in reference
to; teacher and student knowledge and understanding, student approaches to learning and teachers’ approach
to pedagogy. Research distinguishing between deep and surface approaches to learning is derived from the
seminal work of Marton and Saljo (1976). The ‘deep approach’ is associated with intrinsic motivation and a
general interest in the learning activity, a focus towards understanding the meaning of the learning, relating
new ideas to previous knowledge and connecting everyday experiences with concepts. The ‘surface approach’
is based upon extrinsic motivation in which the students perceive the learning activity as a demand to be met,
requiring memorisation of discrete facts, reproducing terms and procedures through rote learning, and viewing
the learning task as isolated activities with little connection to their own life experiences.
David Perkins (1998) identifies that how educators regard knowledge and learning is important for the
way they design teaching for student understanding. Of notable influence has been the Teaching for
Understanding framework that emerged from the Harvard Project Zero and its emphasis upon ‘performances
of understanding’. Generative topics are chosen by the teacher that are central to one or more disciplines, are
interesting, accessible and have connections to students’ experiences. Understanding Goals are chosen by the
teacher to clarify what learning is intended. The Performances of Understanding are linked closely to the
understanding goals and should be evident throughout the course. Ongoing assessment occurs as a cyclical
process through criteria, feedback, and opportunities for reflection throughout the sequence of instruction.
Encouragingly, for music educators, demonstrated performance is already a major component of the way we
create and experience music.
Challenge Based Learning is a similar inquiry project based learning model that has been developed
and promoted by Apple Corporation (Johnson et al., 2009). The emphasis is upon an extended challenging
investigation that provides student choice and direction, co-operative learning within teams, leverages
technology and presents a solution or action as an outcome. A portfolio assessment model is devised for each
inquiry emphasising deep learning, the publishing of student samples, reflection and documentation generally
in the form of a movie, web page or Keynote presentation.
Socio-cultural learning theories of Vygotsky (1978) and the research of Green into how popular
musicians learn and informal learning pedagogy (2002, 2008) also provide fertile ideas for creating musical
learning experiences.
Educators such as Ken Rowe (2007), John Hattie (2009) and Richard Mayer (2004) warn that
although pedagogies framed upon constructivist learning theories are appealing, research demonstrates that

27
they are not as efficient or effective as the more traditional directed approaches. Wilson (2005) highlights
what he believes is the inappropriateness of constructivism as an operational theory for teaching.

Australian operational views of constructivism…confuse a theory of knowing with a theory of

teaching. We confuse the need for the child to construct their own knowledge with a form of
pedagogy which sees it as the child’s responsibility to achieve that. We focus on the action of the
student in the construction of knowledge rather than the action of the teacher in engaging with the
child’s current misconceptions and structuring experiences to challenge those misconceptions.…The
constructivist theory of knowing has been used to justify a non-interventionist theory of pedagogy,
whereas it is a fair interpretation to argue that constructivism requires vigorous interventionist
teaching: how, after all, is a student with misconceptions supposed to challenge them unaided? How
do they even know they are misconceptions? (Wilson, 2005, pp. 2-3)

Hattie (2009) suggests that it is the teacher’s implementation of constructivist-influenced pedagogies not the
constructivist learning theories themselves that must be addressed. He suggests a teaching model based upon
his research that combines, rather than contrasts, student-centred knowledge construction with teacher-centred
teaching.

Teachers need to be actively engaged in, and passionate about, teaching and learning. They need to be
aware of, and update their conceptions and expectations of students, and be directive, influential, and
visible to students in their teaching. Teachers need to provide students with multiple opportunities and
alternatives for developing learning strategies based on the surface and deep levels of learning leading
to students building constructions of this learning. What is required are teachers who are aware of
what individual students are thinking and knowing, who can construct meaning and meaningful
experiences in light of this knowledge, and who have proficient knowledge and understanding of what
progression means in their content to provide meaningful and appropriate feedback. (Hattie, 2009, p.
36)

It is evident from this literature review that our construction of knowledge and understanding is formed from a
complex process of continual reflection based upon our personal experiences and social interactions. For
music educators, the pedagogical ramifications of the constructivist theory of knowledge and learning are
beginning to be addressed through student-centred approaches that include: discovery learning, informal
learning, problem-based learning and inquiry-based learning.
It is also evident that for effective and efficient learning within existing school structures a pragmatic
approach to constructivist-influenced pedagogies may be more appropriate to enable a progression from
surface to deep understanding for individuals in group learning situations.

Designing Musical Learning Experiences

I have developed a framework that I have found useful for shifting my focus from being a teacher that
controls and disseminates the learning content, to a teacher that designs musical learning experiences from
curriculum and co-curricular focussed activities. For me, this has been a gradual paradigm shift in viewpoint;
one heavily influenced by constructivist learning theories. I have come to regard all interactions with students
as learning situations; whether these are formal or informal interactions, conducting co-curricular ensembles,
or building understanding of curriculum content within a traditional classroom setting.
The framework begins with identifying an authentic musical activity that builds skill and knowledge
development towards a specific focus or performance outcome. A general outline is provided in Table 1.

Table 1 Musical Learning Experience Framework

Authentic Activity
Skill Development
Designing Teaching Moments
Self Direction & Peer Mentoring
Celebratory Performance
Purpose or specific focus
Practical learning with Feedback Loop
Extending Prior Knowledge
Creating opportunities for self-practice and focussed
peer-interaction
Authentic display of learning activity

28
 Identification of what they did well and what they can
Reflection on Learning
do better

Choral Ensemble Learning Experience

Table 2 outlines a designed Music Learning Experience that I recently conducted with my school’s Concert
Choir. Within this activity, the choir workshopped an original composition created by myself (Click Goes the
Shears) and through a process of group feedback, the composition evolved to suit the strengths of the
ensemble. In addition to this piece, a choreographed ‘Glee’ style performance of ‘Like A Prayer’ was also
constructed to support the choral performance. (See references for YouTube links.) Student’s participation in
this choral experience was voluntary and opportunities were provided for students to influence and contribute
to the learning experience through: opting in or out of the competition component, repertoire selection,
suggestions for musical expression, sectional leadership during rehearsals and performance choreography.

Table 2: Choral Ensemble Learning Experience (using the Music Learning Experience Framework)
Authentic Activity
Skill Development
Designing Teaching Moments
Self Direction & Peer Mentoring
Celebratory Performance
Reflection on Learning
Perform two songs in a Choral Eisteddfod
Pitch, Diction, Tone, Expression, Rhythm, a Capella,
Movement
Analyse music, create question inquiry, articulations
throughout rehearsal process, refer to notation (reason to
read)
Student sectional practise, choreographic suggestions,
problem solve e.g. rhythm
Eisteddfod and other performances
Record/Film performance – Students comment on: what they
learnt; were happy about what they could do better.

Music Theory Learning Experience

Table 3 shows a somewhat more contentious application of the framework and in many ways this represents
the pragmatic compromise student-centred curriculums require. Within my school context, many parents and
students value the standards and certifications associated with AMEB music theory levels and as a
consequence, all elective music classes (Years 9-11) participate in selected aspects of AMEB theory grade
levels as well as traditional aural development activities. Although many students recognise the significance
and advantage of notation literacy skills, few are intrinsically motivated by the rigour and application required
for acquiring these skills. In this example, melody composition and music theory are combined in an effort to
connect theory with creativity. Formative and summative assessments are presented within a structured
curriculum document in which theory text book chapter levels and key questions are identified. The regular
melody-writing component and celebratory composition performance provides students with the opportunity
to create a less structured notation based composition that that demonstrates their evolving understanding of
music notation literacy.

Table 3: Music Theory Learning Experience (using the Music Learning Experience Framework)
Authentic Activity
Skill Development
Designing Teaching Moments
Self Direction & Peer Mentoring
Celebratory Performance
Reflection on Learning
Composition challenge - melody writing, Theory test
Scales, intervals, note groupings, cadences chord spelling,
aural - Feedback/Assessment
Analysis of student composition, individual feedback,
collection of student workbooks
Listening to other students’ melody compositions,
aural/rhythm tests conducted by students to the class.
Free choice composition with performance, summative
theory test
Teacher feedback, re-test opportunity in own time,
explanation of composition.

29
 The Music Learning Experience framework has provided me with a way to operationalize
constructivist-learning theories within my existing teaching roles. The Choral Ensemble and
Theory/Composition framework examples illustrate that the pathway to deeper student understanding from
authentic music learning experiences may require compromises as to the level and extent of student self-
direction and determination.
In concluding, this presentation has discussed and demonstrated a range of activities and strategies
that I have developed that draw upon a pragmatic constructivist approach for creating musical learning
experiences that reflect a postmodern reconceptualised curriculum (Barrett, 2005; Hanley & Montgomery,
2005) that is directive, influential and considers the complexity of school contexts, classroom environment
and student motivation.

References
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educational goals. New York, Longman.
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878.
Broomhead, P. (2005). Shaping Expressive Performance: A Problem-Solving Approach. Music Educators
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Green, L. (2002). How Popular Musician Learn: A way ahead for music education. Aldershot, England,
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Cleveland, Ohio
Leonhard, C. & House, R. W. (1972). Foundations and Principles of Music Education. New York, McGraw-
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Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should There Be a Three-Strikes Rule Against Pure Discovery Learning? The
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Rowe, K. (2007). The imperative of evidence-based instructional leadership: Building capacity within
professional learning communities via a focus on effective teaching practice1. Sixth International
Conference on Educational Leadership. University of Wollongong, 15-16 February 2007: 24.
Scott, S. J. (2006). A Constructivist View of Music Education: Perspectives for Deep Learning. General
Music Today (Winter), 17-21.
Shively, J. (2004). Learner-Centered Approaches to Instrumental Music Teacher Education. The 1st Biennial
Colloquium for Teachers of Instrumental Music Methods. Deer Creek Resort and Conference Center,
Mt. Sterling, OH.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,
Massachusetts, Harvard University Press.

30
Walker, D. & Lambert, L. (1995). Learning and Leading Theory; A century in the making. The Constructivist
Reader. L. Lambert, D. Walker et al., New York, Teachers College Press: 1-27.
Wiggins, J. (2009). Teaching For Musical Understanding. Rochester, Michigan, Oakland University.
Webster, P. R. (2010). Construction of Music Learning.
http://pubweb.northwestern.edu/~webster/writings/Hand2tech.html.
Zenker, R. (2002). The Dynamic and Complex Nature of Musical Understanding. Musical Understanding:
Perspectives in Theory and Practice. B. Hanley & T. W. Goolsby, The Canadian Music Educators
Association.
Wilson, B. (2005). Unlocking Potential. ANZSOG Conference University of Sydney, 29 September 2005

YouTube Choral Links

Click Goes the Shears (arr. A. Hubmayer) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x3qnN1fJWqc
Like A Prayer (arr. Anders, Tavis, Brymer) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hSa-6eTqLvA

31
Educating young musicians for careers: Exploring three Australian specialised music training
programs
Amanda Watson, Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria
David Forrest, RMIT University

Abstract
Young musicians in Australia have a range of opportunities to actively participate in a variety of programs
that provide experiences for the career preparation as a music professional. These specialised training
programs are designed to support and enhance career development. They usually occur in intensive blocks of
time and are offered by a number of providers including youth music organisations, professional or semi-
professional ensembles, music institutions and individual professional musicians. The emphasis on the
training provided can be equated with competency-based training (CBT) where the learning process is a
specific approach to training that involves measurable outcomes associated with the particular description of
an actual job. Although performance training for ensemble and orchestral playing dominate, career
opportunities in composition, arts management and journalism are accommodated in specialised programs.
Transferable employability skills such as communication and organisation are a major part of development
and training programs associated with music careers. The three programs selected for analysis in this paper
are the programs of the Australian Youth Orchestra Incorporated, the Sydney Conservatorium Access Centre,
and Sydney Symphony Sinfonietta project.

Introduction
Young musicians in Australia have a range of opportunities to participate in a variety of programs that
contribute to their career preparation as a music professional. This contribution is made specifically through
training and performance opportunities provided in ensembles and through formal and informal links that
have been developed between youth music organisations, professional or semi-professional ensembles, music
institutions and individual professional musicians. The paper extends and develops the work of Watson and
Forrest (2004), which focussed on the education and training opportunities available to students as part of the
post-compulsory school curriculum, which may have encouraged the consideration of a career in music. This
current study highlights opportunities for the career development of young musicians that are not necessarily
associated with an approved course of study or a tertiary institution. The three programs identified for
investigation are intensive in nature, and occur variously at annual residential music camps and in blocks of
time throughout the year. They are the specialised programs of the Australian Youth Orchestra Incorporated,
the Sydney Conservatorium Access Centre and the Sydney Symphony Sinfonietta project.

Background
This investigation is limited to programs for young musicians available in Australia, where participation is
restricted to musicians under 30 years of age. The programs include symphony orchestras, string orchestras,
concert bands, stage bands and choral groups. Music organisations provide a wide range of music programs
and other pre-professional training opportunities for students, however these are dominated by youth
orchestras. Kartomi (2007) identifies definitions and types of youth orchestras, from a global perspective. She
defines a youth orchestra as “a music-educational and performance organisation that has a membership policy,
an established program of orchestral auditions and rehearsals, and which normally has one or two concert
seasons every year” (Kartomi, 2007, p. 5). A peak group, the Australian Youth Orchestra, has a fine
reputation. Davis remarks

The AYO helped prepare me for my career as Principal Flute in the Melbourne
Symphony Orchestra where I have happily spent the last thirty years. (Davis, 2010, p. 23)

In addition to a focus on performance, the programs include career development fellowships, residencies,
training and mentoring in the orchestral audition process, composition, journalism, and arts administration.
The term music professional has been used in this paper to encompass the many programs offered by music
groups – either on a weekly basis throughout the year or in an intensive music camp environment – that reflect
broader career opportunities than training to be a performer. The programs administered by these groups aim
to address the beginning stage of the individual’s career development as a music professional. Some of the

32
issues are expanded and described in more depth by writers including Bennett (2008), Burt-Perkins (2008),
Constable (2005), Huhtanen (2008) and Weller (2004, 2008).

Method
Following a review of selected literature, the method adopted for this study was a content analysis of
comprehensive websites, publicity and program brochures, and organisational reports. The data that have
informed this investigation were based around the types and variety of programs offered, the repertoire of the
performing groups (including featured soloists) and venues; the contribution of conductors and tutors;
performances and touring, and general activities. In addition, administrators of the state and territory groups
were contacted about the informal or formal links with the orchestras or institutions from where they sourced
their tutors and conductors.

Training versus education

The context for this investigation is one of training, demonstrated through performance opportunities (not
necessarily with a musical instrument), which lead to the education of young musicians for careers as music
professionals. The terms ‘education’ and ‘training’ are defined separately and each term has an individual
role. Training is focussed on a specific job or task that occurs in the present whereas education encompasses a
broader view of learning providing preparation for the future including undetermined jobs and career paths.
Training is the immediate development of knowledge and skills to be used in an activity that is currently
taking place, and is associated with a person who is being prepared for a job. Education is described as the
development of the individual to fulfil their potential with a focus on skills, knowledge, attitudes and values.
According to Tovey and Lawlor (2008) successful training must have defined starting and finishing
points, be carefully planned with appropriate techniques, assess how well the participants have learned the
material provided, and evaluate how the training program has benefited the provider organisation. Training
involves a systematic process with specific inputs and outputs. Performance in the workplace is the sole
measure for determining the success of training. Training may be as preparation for an activity, assuming no
specific prior experience, or to improve completion of an activity with learning being the result of successful
training (Tovey & Lawlor, 2008, pp. 24-27).
Competency-based training (CBT) places emphasis on the learning process and is a specific approach
to training that involves measurable outcomes of the particular description of an actual job. Both the learning
process and the assessment tools focus on the learner demonstrating a specific task or a group of tasks to
complete a unit of work. They are thus equipped with appropriate skills and knowledge to use in the
workplace. Competency-based training requires a central body to ensure consistency of competencies that are
set at the agreed standard by the relevant industry or organisation. The individual must be able to demonstrate
the competency, rather than just know it (Tovey & Lawlor, 2008, pp. 34-37).

There are many definitions of CBT but three themes can be identified:

1. The purpose of training is for the learner to be able to achieve a particular work outcome.
2. The work outcomes of training are based on a specific standard of job performance.
3. The standard of job performance is set by industry in conjunction with government and
sometimes unions. (Tovey & Lawlor, 2008, p. 35)

Employability skills are components of CBT and are also known as general capabilities, generic or
transferable skills. In Australia, these skills have been defined as:

1. Communication skills that contribute to productive and harmonious relations between

employees and customers;
2. Teamwork skills that contribute to productive working relationships and outcomes;
3. Problem-solving skills that contribute to productive outcomes;
4. Initiative and enterprise skills that contribute to innovative outcomes;
5. Planning and organising skills that contribute to long-term and short-term strategic planning;
6. Self-management skills that contribute to employee satisfaction and growth;
7. Learning skills that contribute to ongoing improvement and expansion in employee and
company operations and outcomes; and

33
 8. Technology skills that contribute to effective execution of tasks.
(Matters & Curtis, 2008, p. 5)

The national arts policy, Creative Nation (1994) acknowledges that Arts education involves the
provision of education for practitioners as well as for audiences. Practitioners require professional training to
develop skills and professional excellence. Training develops the skills of potential workers, and increases the
skills of those currently working in the arts. Education for audiences increases their ability to appreciate and
participate in the nation's cultural life (Australian Government, 1994).
Cook (2008) examines pre-professional training pathways for the development of orchestral musicians
for the professional orchestral sector that is provided at the advanced level. She identifies fragmentation in the
provision of services and a lack of planning to shape the necessary training, content and outcomes expected
from preparatory to advanced and pre-professional levels. Effectiveness of training is undermined by an
absence of collaboration within the key stages of development and limited vocational training available at the
advanced and pre-professional levels. Cook found training gaps at the pre-professional level to include
audition readiness, experience in performing large scale orchestral repertoire under professional conditions,
training for leadership positions in orchestras, mentoring skills and preparedness for the culture within the
professional orchestras (Cook, 2008, p. 3).
Johnsson and Hager (2006) comment that although disciplinary and generic skills on graduation are
important foundations for work, they are not sufficient for participation as an effective employee. They
present research describing a mentoring program for pre-professionals within the Sydney Symphony
Orchestra. The findings of their research stress the need for musicians to value and participate in life-long
learning opportunities and prior to ongoing employment have developed a clear understanding and be able to
demonstrate their ability to function in the workplace culture of a professional orchestra. The need for pre-
professionals to become ‘professional’ and demonstrate multiple life skills, other than technique on a musical
instrument, links with competency-based training in the workplace. The model of a ‘whole musician’,
explored by Weller (2004, 2008) and the need to demonstrate flexible behaviour and understandings in the
workplace of the music professional is recognised by early career musicians as vitally important. Learning the
skills of mentoring by the experienced professional is also critical to the life-long learning pathway. In the
context of the above discussion, programs are examined to highlight the issues and implications of training the
pre-professional musician. As identified earlier, these include the specialised programs of the Australian
Youth Orchestra Incorporated, the Sydney Conservatorium Access Centre and the Sydney Symphony
Sinfonietta project.

A selected group of specialised training programs

1. The Australian Youth Orchestra Incorporated
The Australian Youth Orchestra Incorporated (AYO Inc.) is an arts training company that administers the
Australian Youth Orchestra (AYO) and its associated programs. The programs identified for discussion in this
paper are the residential National Music Camp each summer, the AYO Orchestral Career Development
Program and the AYO Regional Residencies, both of which occur throughout the year.

National Music Camp

In addition to the performance programs, the national camp provides exposure to other career opportunities
for the music professional, and the experiences, in an environment that at times resembles the workplace, are a
taste of the realities of the fast life and high expectations as a full-time music professional. The music
journalism students write program notes for formal concerts, present pre-concert talks, develop interviewing
skills, print-editing and website construction techniques, and produce radio features. Students enrolled in arts
administration are integrated into the orchestral and stage management team. Composition students receive
individual tuition in extended compositional technique, and workshop their compositions before the new
works are premiered at National Music Camp. Students taking part in the Style workshop – the
instrumentation and performance aspects selected on a yearly basis – explore their specialised identified area
at an advanced level.
The best available professional musicians, conductors and composers – with solo, ensemble and
orchestral experience – are employed to tutor, mentor, coach and conduct performances. The students are
nourished as individuals and in musical groups through focussed ensemble and orchestral playing activities as
well as professional performance and composition opportunities. Professional learning opportunities are

34
provided for the tutors through their development as mentors through the clear communication of ideas.
Students attending adjust and increase their learning and musicianship skills, including the full sound of a
large ensemble, listening, blending and playing with others in an orchestral section, and new instrument-
specific techniques sometimes not learned in their individual learning environment.
Whether the students are involved in the performances programs – or the administration and
journalism aspects – many group social skills such as teamwork, demonstrating initiative, co-operative
thinking, understanding different personalities, effective communication, self-awareness are developed. For
the orchestral musician involved in group ensemble or orchestral playing, skills such as learning and
understanding orchestral leadership, performance and rehearsal etiquette, learning from peers and playing in
different ensemble positions are challenging and new for the student who often practices their instrument
alone. An important element of the National Camp is that works by Australian composers are included in the
repertoire list for rehearsal and performance, opening a new perspective for many participants.

AYO Orchestral Career Development Program and Regional Residencies

The AYO Inc. in association with Australia’s symphony orchestras through Symphony Australia offers two
performance programs. The AYO Orchestral Career Development Program provides fellowships for pre-
professionals to receive one-to-one coaching in repertoire preparation, attend professional development
seminars, simulated audition experience and a casual audition. Pre-professionals accepted for the AYO
Regional Residencies are involved in small chamber ensembles mentored by leading musicians and the
students experience a touring ensemble or an ensemble-in-residence. In keeping with Australian Government
policy to provide equal educational opportunities for young people in urban and rural communities the AYO
Regional Residencies bring orchestral and ensemble music making opportunities to young musicians in
regional and rural areas (Kartomi, 2008, p. 142).
These two programs operate with a clear focus on competency-based training, emphasising the
learning of specific skills for orchestral and chamber music performance. The career development program
takes place in the professional workplace with an expectation that the selected musicians engage in
concentrated study as a professional musician. Under the guidance of a mentor, skill development includes
learning orchestral repertoire, rehearsal and performance participation, detailed musical and intellectual
preparation for orchestral auditions and a casual audition for the Symphony Australia orchestra that facilitates
the career development program. The pre-professional has the opportunity to secure a place as a casual player,
experience the multiple roles of the professional musician, the demands of professional life, begin to
understand relationships between orchestral musicians, and appreciate the value of learning together as part of
a team.
The regional residencies combine the musical and teaching talents of an experienced professional
musician and the willingness of the selected group of pre-professional musicians to learn. In a supported
environment the musicians must learn to relate to each other socially and grow in maturity in a short time-
frame to develop the musical and artistic skills needed for ensemble playing. These skills include the rapid
learning of a quantity of music, knowledge of ensemble repertoire and its associated history, performance
techniques and conventions, and working effectively with other musicians for quality musical outcomes. As a
result of being selected to work in this program, the students create a professional work environment and
experience many professional performance opportunities. Other skills that are developed include leadership
within the group and management of the group, self-confidence and ways of providing musical education
appropriate for concert audiences coupled with public speaking skills. One goal of this program is for the pre-
professional musicians to teach instrumental music skills to young musicians who live in regional areas and
who have restricted contact with musical activities in the capital cities. The pre-professionals develop skills
that potentially benefit their future employment as instrumental music teachers in educational institutions or in
a private studio. Communicating instrumental and performance pedagogy and understanding approaches to
learning styles are important skills for any professional musician who also has a role as a teacher.
Although not a training program of focus in this paper, young orchestral musicians audition on an
annual basis for the Australian Youth Orchestra, participating in the rehearsals and performance sessions.
Relevant AYO players may be expected to attend the style workshop as part of their appointment to the
orchestra. Davis writes

The Australian Youth Orchestra for me was a most exiting time….For me it is thirty years ago
now but the memories and experiences are unforgettable. AYO is that bridge which provides a

35
 preparation for life as it will be in the profession. Everybody performs to their very best, knowing
that each AYO concert is an unrepeatable moment in time that you wish could last forever. I
loved being part of the AYO and the amazing experiences will stay with me always. (Davis,
2010, p. 23)

2. Sydney Conservatorium Access Centre

The Sydney Conservatorium Access Centre (Open Academy) provides programs that underpin the need for
the musicians to be able to communicate, socialise and organise. The programs aim to balance the training
that occurs in the individual music instrumental lesson and the hours of private practice which occurs alone,
for a career that always takes place in the company of other people. According to James (2005) the programs
centre on developing communication and performance skills include chamber ensemble, core ensemble
repertoire, string chamber orchestra, early music, solo performance training focussing on audience
communication and managing stress, stage management, written and verbal skills to appraise performance and
public concerts (pp. 3-4).
Students enrolled in the programs of the Open Academy benefit from a strong focus on working with
other people and developing a range of generic skills – aspects that should be well-developed for a protean
career. Written communication skills are important for all employment applications including auditions for
performance careers, writing performance program notes and biographies. Confident verbal communications
skills are equally important for all types of interviews, performances, addressing concert audiences and arts
media, and for tutoring, teaching, and conducting master classes where clear expression of knowledge and
questioning skills are required.

3. Sydney Symphony Sinfonietta

The Sydney Symphony Sinfonietta project was devised for Australian secondary school-aged students to have
the opportunity for their original compositions, written to specific criteria, to be workshopped and performed
by the Sinfonietta ensemble, and for teachers and students to observe the process. Finalists attend a four-day
workshop culminating in the performance of the students’ works alongside a major piece of chamber music
repertoire (Resonate, 2009).
Students who participate in the Sydney Symphony Sinfonietta project gain experience in writing a
composition for a real and established group of professional players. They are involved in the work-shopping
process of their composition and hear their piece performed live in a professional environment. The students
are able to communicate directly with a group of professional musicians interested in supporting developing
composers. The students meet other student composers and are listeners and participants in the development
of compositions by their peers. The culminating live performance completes the journey commenced with the
writing of a composition in isolation with their teacher’s assistance, through the development of the
composition with the contribution of professional musicians and other students, to experiencing a performance
of an enhanced original work. The inclusion of a vocalist for the 2009 project provides the opportunity to
write for a soloist, and to write for solo voice as opposed to an instrumentalist. The involvement of the
teachers in this process provides a different professional learning experience. As it takes place in the presence
of their students, the teachers are immediately involved with the ongoing learning experience of their students
and a life-long learning experience themselves.

Exploration of issues
Each of the programs discussed in this paper can be matched with the generic employability skills that have
been identified in the context of the Australian workplace. These are skills that are transferable to any type of
employment, between or outside those associated with music careers. Programs offered by the Australian
Youth Orchestra emphasise communication, teamwork, problem-solving, initiative and enterprise, planning
and organising and self-management. The Sydney Conservatorium Access Centre programs focus on the full
range of communication attributes, planning, organisation and self-management. The Sydney Symphony
Sinfonietta project centres on communication and problem-solving skills. The common skills between the
three programs are communication, planning and organisation problem-solving, and self-management. Less
common are the attributes of teamwork, and enterprise and initiative – skills that are critical in any work place
and expected of employees. Likewise technology skills are limited to students participating in arts
administration, music journalism and music composition. The general capability of learning skills, involving
learning how to transfer employability skills between any industry – music or unrelated – is also overlooked.

36
Although the programs have clear links to generic skills, the intensive focus on their core purpose of musical
training produces a number of shortcomings.
The training provided by the programs discussed in this paper use a systematic process with specific
inputs and outputs, Competency-based training. However, the opportunities for music pre-professionals in
Australia are limited. Cook acknowledges the limited vocational training that is available at the pre-
professional level, principally offered by the programs of the AYO Inc. Although some of the youth
orchestras in Australia aim to program large scale orchestral repertoire, primarily to accommodate as many
students as possible in each rehearsal and performance and where the standard of their players permits, the
conditions under which they operate are best classified as highly proficient amateur. The opportunities to
participate in career development programs are limited by the one-on-one approach to coaching each pre-
professional. Cook’s reference to fragmentation would be overcome with an established continuum of content
and outcomes for the musician from preparation to the pre-professional level.
In the context of the professional orchestra, significant areas highlighted in the literature referenced in
this paper that need supported training are mentoring skills, leadership positions, life-long learning and
understanding workplace culture. These attributes are not specifically identified as generic employability
skills, they lie outside the ability to play and perform at an accomplished level on an instrument, but are
crucial to the satisfactory functioning of a professional orchestra and the well-being of the musicians who play
in it. Developing and sustaining resilience to changing personalities of each individual musician and work
colleague assists with maintaining a healthy workplace culture. Life-long learning is particularly importance
for a musician who is a permanent member of an orchestra. The daily work pattern of practice and preparing
for concerts are well-honed skills, but keeping an open mind about changes in the broader music profession
and showing a willingness to learn and implement mentoring, coaching and leadership skills all contribute to a
successful orchestra. The quality of the workplace culture invites the next generation of musicians to set a
goal to play with that orchestra.

Conclusion
The specialised programs discussed in this paper are designed to support the career development opportunities
of the emerging music professional. Each component of the programs can be described in terms of specific
measurable competencies. For the pre-professional musician establishing a career, a critical aspect involves
honing generic employability skills that can be adapted to a variety of workplace environments –in the types
of employment sort by professional musicians, some workplaces are highly specialised. The programs
discussed in this paper provide us with models of organisations adopting competency-based training for the
educational and musical development of the young music professional.

References
Australian Government. (1994). Creative Nation: Commonwealth Cultural Policy, October 1994. Creative
Nation excerpt – Education and Training. Retrieved 14 August 2009, from
http://www.nla.gov.au/creative.nation/educat.html
Bennett, D. (2008). Understanding the Classical Music Profession. Surrey: Ashgate.
Burt-Perkins, R. (2008). Students at a UK conservatoire of music: Working towards a ‘diverse employment
portfolio’? In D. Bennett & M. Hannan (Eds.), Inside Outside Downside Up (pp. 49-60). Perth: Black
Swan Press.
Constable, J. (2005). The hat collector? No, it’s the multi-skilled arts administrator. Orchestral Outlook,
12(2), 6.
Cook, J. (2008). National Orchestral Training Pathways. Retrieved 26 July 2009, from
http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/47333/Orchestral_Musicians_Develop
ment_-_Executive_Summary.pdf
Davis, P. (2010). Alumni Profile in 2011 Programs & Applications Guide. Sydney: The Australian Youth
Orchestra.
Huhtanen, K. (2008). Constructing a conscious identity in instrumental teacher training. In D. Bennett & M.
Hannan (Eds.), Inside Outside Downside Up (pp. 1-10). Perth: Black Swan Press.
James, S. (2005). In front … and behind. Orchestral Outlook, 12(2), 3-4.
Johnsson, M. & Hager, P. (2006). Navigating the wilderness of becoming professional. Retrieved 9 August
2009, from http://rwl5.uwc.ac.za/usrfiles/users/99062813/documents/Johnsson_Mary_15.doc.

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Kartomi, M. (2008). A response to two problems in music education: the Young Australian Concert Artists
Program of the Australian Youth Orchestra, Music Education Research 10(1), 141–58, Mar 2008.
Kartomi, M., Dreyfus, K. & Pear, D. (2007). Youth orchestras in the global scene, in Growing up Making
Music: Youth Orchestras from Australia and the World. Australasian Music Research 9, 1-26.
Matters, G. & Curtis, D. (2008). A study into the assessment and reporting of employability skills of senior
secondary students. ACER. Retrieved 19 August 2009, from
http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/A4FE9374-B961-4583-ACA7-
EA33936F67C3/24104/FINALReport.pdf
Orchestras Australia. (2009). Annual Report 2006. Retrieved 15 September 2009, from
http://www.orchestrasaustralia.org.au/2006_Annual_Report.pdf
Resonate Magazine. (2009). Sinfonietta 2009 project for secondary students. Retrieved 15 September 2009,
from http://www.australianmusiccentre.com.au/article/sinfonietta-2009-project-for-secondary-students
Watson, A. & Forrest, D. (2004). Preparing Musicians to Make New Sound Worlds within School Music
Curricula in Australia. In O. Musumeci (Comp.), Preparing musicians for new sound worlds (pp. 227-
244). ISME: Nedlands.
Weller, J. (2004). The whole musician: Journey: to authentic vocation. In O. Musumeci (Comp.), Preparing
musicians for new sound worlds (pp. 245-256). ISME: Nedlands.
Weller, J. (2008). Creating a life in music: Theory to praxis. In D. Bennett & M. Hannan (Eds.), Inside
Outside Downside Up (pp. 149-158). Perth: Black Swan Press.

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Childhood to teacher: Pre-service educators’ formative musical learning through choral music
Anne Power, University of Western Sydney

Abstract
This paper explores different kinds of performance found in community singing. A difference exists between
presentational performance where the roles of audience and artist are clearly defined and participatory
performance where there is no audience-artist distinction (Turino, 2008). Turino, in fact, considers these two
kinds of music making as different fields of artistic practice. Through data consisting of reflections from
members of choirs and choral directors, a number of features are examined that relate to the lens of
participatory performance (Turino, 2008). The research design gives rise to some findings about the
participants’ and choir directors’ views about learning involved in choral music. Some learning is individual
and includes learning how to rehearse, to develop vocal technique, to care for the voice and to expand their
repertoire. Some learning is collective and encompasses the experience of joining together in music-making.

Introduction
In the last twenty years in Australia there has been a renewal of interest in community choirs. For some people
this arises from a desire to improve their musical knowledge and skill. Acquiring vocal technique involves
developing a special form of the musical intelligence (Gardner, 1993) in which the singing voice is used in
skilled ways for goal-directed musical purposes (Rao, 1991). Developments in voice science, technology and
research now present a clear understanding of what is needed to promote best voice use and maintain vocal
health (Callaghan, Hughes & Power, 2009). Additionally, social outcomes for choirs, including building inter-
cultural acceptance and strengthening a community ethos, may be a focus as singing is ‘one of the glues of
cohesive culture’ (Goodkin, 2005, p. 29).
Two kinds of performance are found in community singing. A difference exists between
presentational performance where the roles of audience and artist are clearly defined and participatory
performance where there is no audience-artist distinction (Turino, 2008). Turino, in fact, considers these two
kinds of music making as different fields of artistic practice. He identifies certain features found in
participatory performance. First, as there are only participants and potential participants, there is a
concentration on the other people in the performance and on the activity in and of itself. Second, there is an
ethos that everyone can, and should, take part, without any judgment about ability. Third, the inclusion of
people with a wide range of abilities creates a sense of welcome but also may provide constraints on what can
take place musically. Consequently, participatory performances may include a variety of roles demanding
different levels of specialisation so that people can join in at a level that “offers the right balance of challenge
and acquired skills” (Turino, 2008, p. 31).
Heightened concentration on the other participants is one reason that participatory music is such a
force for social bonding. Presentational performance, in contrast, refers to situations where one group of
people, the artists, prepares and provides music for another group of people, the audience. The notion of artist
encompasses someone who has developed their skills and expressive ability over time. It should be noted that
these two kinds of performance are not intended by Turino to be mutually exclusive and that these different
fields of artistic practice can operate at different times in communal choirs.
Community music is defined as “music-making practices that strengthen a community and support its
musicians” (Whiteoak & Scott-Maxwell, 2003, p. 158). Veblen (2008) considers community music in terms
of five issues: the kinds of music making being varied but always active; the intentions of the leaders or
participants to engage in a combination of activity fostering social and personal well-being with musical
learning; the wide range of participants involved; the teaching and learning interactions with choice as a
significant factor; and the interplays between informal and formal contexts. In this way community can be
seen “geographically situated, culturally based or artistically concerned” (ibid, p. 8).
Higgins (2008) positions the significance of community music in the United Kingdom as emerging from
social and cultural changes in the late 1960s and early 1970s. As a consequence, there is a concern for equity
and a social activism element in community music in the UK. There is also a focus on developing community
musical leaders supporting participation and talent development (Price, 2005). Sound Sense’s 1995 statement
of community music is still the benchmark:

39
 • Community music involves musicians from any musical discipline working with groups of people to
enable them to develop active and creative participation in music.
• Community music is concerned with putting equal opportunities into practice.
• Community music can happen in all types of community, whether based on place, institution, interest,
age or gender group, and reflects the context in which it takes place. (2008, p. 32)

Community music researchers in America have seen “the importance of voluntarily associating with others in
community as a crucial component of democracy” and have related this to building social capital (Jones,
2010). Jones argues that globalisation has given a critical focus in our era to the development of skills and
dispositions for community engagement and intercultural understanding (2010). People's passions and intense
commitment are key factors in the making of community (Berg, 2002). Collaborative learning experiences
have aroused significant interest from international and local government authorities investigating the benefits
of community arts experiences. In the Australian context, Renshaw (2009) has devised a framework for
mentoring performers as community leaders and Hawkes has theorised the foundation of community building
as lying in the participatory arts, uniquely providing tangible evidence of the power of co-operation:

Support of professional practice is a laudable policy, but far more important is offering all citizens
and their offspring the opportunity to actively participate in arts practice – to make their own
culture. Creativity, engagement, cohesiveness, well-being and respect for difference will be
inevitable outcomes. (Hawkes, 2002, p. 2)

The research question was to find what characterised learning through community choirs and to examine such
learning through the lens of participatory and presentational performance. This overarching question raised
associated questions about social experience. Broadly, the study is located within current socio-cultural
connectionist theories of learning. These theories are particularly concerned with the ways social networks
facilitate the development and exchange of knowledge (Moll et al., 1992). This paper draws on research
conducted with community choirs led by two directors.

Method
The research was conducted by interviewing 31 participants randomly selected in two choirs with a schedule
of five questions. The two organisations were identified from local council websites and through the Council
Arts and Events Co-ordinators. The rationale for selection involved the inclusion of both a female (Choir A)
and a mixed voice choir (Choir B) who rehearsed in areas within an hour’s travelling time from the
researcher’s workplace. Other criteria involved the choirs performing for community events and being led by
different directors. Participants included both choral directors and choir members. Questions were addressed
to both directors and choir members who might be expected to have different views about learning goals and
social experiences. Interviews took place at rehearsal venues. The project was conducted over two years
(2008-2009) in Western Sydney.

Choir A
The female choir (about 40 singers) explored the sound particular to Bulgarian folk song, with many women
identifying with this cultural heritage. The repertoire included Balkan, Bulgarian and Italian folksongs. The
choir director is an expert in the Bulgarian vocal style. She began with a study of classical singing in both
Sydney and London. In 2008 she completed a Master of Applied Science (music research) degree at the
Australian Centre for Applied Research in Music Performance at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music,
Sydney University. In the choir she directs, harmonies were in at least three parts. The singers showed
themselves as vocally competent with an average age being 32. Some members had been with the choir for
eight or more years.

Choir B
The mixed voice choir (42 members) was working during the interview period on a cappella repertoire that
included African songs such as Sho Sholoza and Sinje-nje-nje (Traditional Zulu). The choir director has
performed and taught choral singing throughout Australia and internationally for over 15 years. After her own
Conservatorium training she began her singing career with a highly acclaimed female vocal quartet for which

40
she contributed original music and arrangements. The choir clearly enjoyed music that was rhythmically
energetic and that encouraged them to move as they sang. Harmonies were mostly two-part, with the
occasional addition of a solo line. Ages of the choir members ranged from 19 to 62. Some members had little
experience and a few had many years of choral singing. Women made up two thirds of the numbers but the
group was well balanced by the men in rehearsal.
Data collection took the form of structured interviews, taped and transcribed. The themes were drawn
from the interviews using content analysis. Discourse Analysis was subsequently used to consider whether
there were shared understandings of terms used (Davies, 1994). This paper reports on data drawn from
interview questions about learning goals and social experience.

Learning Goals of the choristers

In participatory performance, primary attention is on the music-making activity and on the other participants,
rather than on the performance end-product. Themes emerged from Question 2 data that could be categorised
in two broad areas, shown in Table 1 Learning Goals. The multiple responses were divided into two broad
categories of individual advantage and community advantage. Individual advantage included learning new
skills about how to rehearse, to improve vocal technique and make a “demo” tape after a recording studio
workshop.
Lindsay (member of Choir A) spoke about broader learning issues. She talked about choral projects
where groups came together for a weekend in a new location:

We learned something about challenge and responding to it, putting ourselves in a situation where
there may have been difficulties and coming through it. Knowing we were going to be faced with
challenge and weighing up that it was worth it.

Lindsay talks of decision-making, weighing the positives and negatives of the challenge. After some
twelve years of singing, choir membership forms a significant part of her life. The comment is best
understood as a personal comment on her own learning through participatory performance. While it
includes reference to the other participants and the collective response to challenge, she did not
intentionally take on the role of spokesperson. Her comment draws attention to individual and collective
learning.

Table 1: Learning Goals

While data on individual advantage provides significant new information for mapping the kinds of knowledge
being accessed, community advantage is something else again. This connects with Campbell’s (1998)
reflection on facilitating personal development through membership of a musical community and the need to
take responsibility for the greater good. There is also connection with Jones’ (2010) view of community music

41
as building social capital. In interviews, such views were in evidence when choir members spoke of the fact
that everyone needed to contribute, to give of their best but they also needed to support new or young singers
in a music festival, passing on skills and giving young performers a memorable performing experience.

Social Experiences
Evidence from this study confirmed personal growth through becoming part of a group. Personal growth is
shown within the broad category of self-respect in Table 2 below. Reba (Choir B director) sees herself as
mentoring singers in the choirs she directs. Her ideas align with Renshaw’s mentoring framework (2009). She
discussed self-criticism from the point of view of removing a critical inner voice when talking about her own
background:

At the Conservatorium I was a pianist. But I wanted to sing because it was the part of me that had
not been trained. So it felt like the freer part of me, the part that didn't have a harsh inner critic.
When I formed the group, we kept getting shows and it just took off. I found myself singing on
stage and it felt very right.

Reba positioned herself as a learner in this comment. She aligned herself with the ‘untrained’ and as being
resistant to harsh inner criticism. In reality, she has become an accomplished musician and arranger. However
she has clear memories of changing her direction as a musician and she brings that understanding to the
welcome she offers choir participants.
Her empathy with choir participants is informed by her own experience and comes through in her
reflections about people overcoming their fears:

What's interesting me lately is the notion that people have that they can't sing. When they come
it's fairly obvious that they can. So it's about other people hearing them. It's a safe place, a choir,
in the sense that you've got a lot of other voices around you. I can have people in my choir for
five years and they'll still say they can't sing. And they sing really well.

Reba discusses several concepts in this statement: a choir as a place of safety; people’s own ‘learned’
perceptions about their singing ability; and her judgment of people’s ability to sing. The first concept is shown
within the broad category of support in Table 2 below. The idea of safety is informed by her own experience
(described above) that led her to find singing as a safe place herself. It is her automatic assumption that a choir
operates like this for all participants. The fact that her choir members stay with her for years tends to confirm
this idea for her. At the same time, she actively works to have an inclusive atmosphere for participants in her
choir. Reba is aware that many people have experienced negative comments about their singing as they were
growing up. These encompass everything from comments to boys whose voices have not yet broken when
they reach high school and advice to girls to ‘mouth the words.’ As a musician of considerable expertise, she
is aware of the psychological damage that is caused by such comments. She is equally aware of the potential
that is present in her choir members and works to release that.
Lauren (member of Choir B) talked about confidence-building, another aspect of support. Lauren is
herself active in the community arts and a positive learning environment is part of the ethos for the local
festival she initiated. She states:

We want to be totally non-judgmental. With community music, the most important thing is that
it's non-judgmental.

These comments are about specific features of participatory performance. The ‘non-judgmental’ feature is
also discussed by Turino (2008). Additionally, the safety of a large group performance in which the
beginner can feel at home within the support of musicians with more experience is also discussed by
Turino (2008). The two broad categories of self respect and support are shown in Table 2 below.

42
Table 2: Social Experience

The theme of nurture was strong. Research has confirmed the successful use of communal music making after
trauma (Zubovic, 2003). In a similar way, this study found that communal singing experiences have benefits
in general well-being and support. Both choir directors commented on the way the entity of the choir may
vary as the lives of the participants change. ‘Meryn’ (Director of Choir A) spoke of the progression over 13
years that she has seen:

The choir's gone from young women without families to one where many of those women now
have several children. When the choir performed recently a lot of the choristers brought their
husbands and families. The performance gives them a social outlet and the families can be part of
it.

Meryn introduces a different idea here: the way in which the choir is part of the experience of the families and
not just the women themselves. This comment also verifies key characteristics of community networks: they
are flexible and they engage in practices built on trust (Moll et al., 1992). Significantly, singing participants
discussed the "reality" of the community music through the authenticity of the people who lead activities,
their passionate involvement in music and the practical nature of the learning.
Meryn also spoke about the responsibility of her role:

You try to give them all the skills that you want to give, always working towards a performance
goal. You just build this performance that is completely intangible but so incredibly solid. There
is a general outpouring of spirit and assistance and positiveness. These are very tangible things
that happen. When people pull together a performance it's something which is magical and
incredibly valuable. I suppose it's replacing the other aspects of community that existed in the
past.

In making this comment, Meryn also touches on the shift in focus in a community choir when a
performance deadline brings a change from participatory to presentational performance. This aligns with
Turino’s view that the two kinds of performance are not mutually exclusive and that these different fields
of artistic practice can operate at different times in communal music-making. This also resonates with
Veblen’s (2008) notion of the interplay between formal and informal contexts. That the choir experiences
have an impact on the participants through a combination of musical and social experiences aligns with
the second issue that Veblen (2008) raised.

43
Conclusion
In summary, this research provides new information about knowledge accessed for individual advantage, and
verification of other research about knowledges accessed for community advantage (Heath & McLaughlin,
1993; Cahill, 1998; Campbell, 1998; Green, 2001). It provided new data about the range of knowledges
developed for individual advantage. These included learning how to rehearse, to develop vocal technique, to
care for the voice and to expand their repertoire.
Meryn’s comment about building a performance is a process that takes place over time. This process
also places Lindsay’s comment about responding to challenge in a new light. Lindsay spoke about weighing
up whether the challenge was worth the hours of rehearsal. It is possible to consider that the ‘weighing up’
involves balancing the social bonding and the vocal challenge to be met for performance. She did not add to
this comment but confirmed that she loved meeting the challenge.
A high proportion of the participants described the rehearsals as ‘times of enjoyment’ when they
joined together in music-making, found a new energy and left the working cares of the week behind. Passion
comes through in all of the discussions of the participants as an important motivation for participants in
community music making. Throughout both the performance experiences by the two choirs, participants never
lost sight of the gathering that happens in rehearsals as a social event as well as a learning event. They were
living the notion that singing is “one of the glues of cohesive culture” (Goodkin, 2005, p. 29).
Alongside this are the aspects that contribute to the individual’s sense of self-respect through
overcoming fear and building confidence. The mentoring aspect is a valuable component of the community
music making experience, aligning with Renshaw’s mentoring framework for performers (2009). This
research also confirms the social bonding that relates to participatory performance in community choir
rehearsals. At the same time, it does not negate the fact that in a choir’s preparation, there will be a period
when the performance shifts to become presentational performance, as was involved in comments from Choir
A. In this regard, the choir director’s sense of responsibility is foregrounded. Through their work, the choir
had reached the point where they collectively shifted the emphasis to presentational performance. Overall, the
strong motivation for community musicians remains the passion that characterises learning through
community music and drives members of community choirs to spend hours of their time in rehearsals that
strengthen and develop their music making.

References
Berg, P. (2002). Regional Distinctiveness: The result of our inherent cultural processes of 'making special' and
'making sustainable'. [Electronic version]. Groundswell Papers, 3rd Regional Arts National Conference,
Albury Wodonga. Retrieved November 2009 from http://www.regionalartsnsw.com.au/
groundswell/papers.html
Cahill, A. (1998). Community Music Handbook. Strawberry Hills, Sydney: Currency Press.
Callaghan, J., Hughes, D. & Power, A (2009). Towards an interdisciplinary school curriculum in voice
studies. In A. Power (Ed.) Proceedings of XXXIst Australian and New Zealand Association for
Research in Music Education (ANZARME) and Ist Music Education Research Centre (MERC)
Conference, Akaroa NZ. Pp
Campbell, P. S. (1998). Reflection on community music and musical communities. ss, XXXIII(4), 30-32.
Davies, B. (1994). Poststructuralist Theory and Classroom Practice (pp. 1-127). Geelong: Deakin University
Press.
European Commission (2010) Unlocking the potential of cultural and creative industries. Green Paper,
Brussels COM 183, retrieved 15/07/10
http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-policy-development/doc/GreenPaper_creative_industries_en.pdf
Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind. The theory of multiple intelligences. (2nd Ed.) London: Fontana Press.
Goodkin, D. (2005). Singing around the dishpan: An interview with Jean Ritchie. Orff Echo, Winter 2005, p
29.
Green, L. (2001). How popular musicians learn: a way ahead for popular music education. Aldershot:
Ashgate.
Hawkes, J. (2002). Creative Engagement. [Electronic version]. Groundswell Papers, 3rd Regional Arts
National Conference, Albury Wodonga. Retrieved November 2009 from
http://www.regionalartsnsw.com.au/groundswell/papers.html
Heath, S. B. & McLaughlin, M. W. (1993). Identity and inner city youth: Beyond ethnicity and gender. New
York: Teachers College Press.

44
Higgins, L. (2008). Growth, pathways and groundwork: Community music in the United Kingdom.
International Journal of Community Music, 1(1), 23-37.
Jones, P. (2010). Developing social capital: A role for music education and community music in fostering
civic engagement and intercultural understanding. International Journal of Community Music, 3(2),
291-302.
Moll, L., Amanti, C. Neff, D. & Gonzalez, N. (1992). Funds of knowledge for teaching: using a qualitative
approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory into Practice, 31(2), 132-141.
Phonetics, U. (2008). A slow-motion animation of the vocal folds vibrating during speech:
http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/linguistics/faciliti/demos/vocalfolds/vocalfolds.htm, UCLA
Phonetics Lab. Retrieved November 2010.
Price, D. (2005). Transforming Musical Leadership. London: Paul Hamlyn Foundation.
Rao, D. (1991). Teaching Children through Choral Musical Experience. New York: Boosey & Hawkes.
Renshaw, P. (2009). Lifelong learning for musicians: The place of mentoring.
www.lifelonglearninginmusic.org
Turino, T. (2008). Music as social life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Veblen, K. (2008). The many ways of community music. International Journal of Community Music, 1(1), 5-
21.
Whiteoak, J. & Scott-Maxwell, A. (2003). Currency Companion to Music and Dance in Australia. Strawberry
Hills, Sydney : Currency House Inc.
Zubovic, S. (2003). Mental health through a healing activity. In D. Barnes (Ed.), Asylum Seekers and
Refugees in Australia : Issues of Mental Health and Wellbeing. (pp 253-261). Parramatta: Transcultural
Mental Health Centre.

45
Wind and brass for asthma? Asthmatic musicians speak out
Anita Fuhrmann, Guildford Grammar School, WA

Abstract
Asthma may be a limiting factor for the playing of wind and brass instruments. Despite this, asthmatics are
often encouraged to learn such instruments with the view that playing these may be associated with
respiratory health benefits. This paper reports results from a survey which was designed to investigate
asthmatics musicians’ perception of their asthma in relation to playing wind and brass instruments. A total of
351 asthmatic wind/brass musicians and 154 asthmatic non-wind/brass musicians participated in the study by
completing a respiratory health and perception questionnaire. The results indicated that asthma was rarely a
factor in asthmatics’ choice of which type of musical instrument to learn. Where asthma was a factor in this
decision, it was more common for a wind/brass instrument to be chosen with the view that it would improve
one’s asthma than for a non-wind/brass instrument to be chosen because one had asthma. The majority of
asthmatic wind/brass musicians did not believe that playing such an instrument had any impact on their
asthma whatsoever. However, playing a wind/brass instrument was more often considered beneficial than
detrimental for asthma.

Background
Music educators aim to give their students the best chance of success in music. When deciding to learn a
musical instrument, health issues may be a significant consideration in choosing which type of instrument to
play. Considering asthma specifically, this chronic condition affects approximately 14-16% of Australian
children (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006). That equates to approximately one in seven students.
Educators may ask whether asthmatic students should be encouraged to take up a wind or brass (W/B)
instrument. Will asthma be a hindrance so that learning a W/B instrument actually frustrates their interest in
participating in music? Will playing a W/B instrument provide some health benefit?
Playing a W/B instrument requires precise control of airflow, so it follows that asthma may be a
limiting factor for W/B musicians. Several researchers agree that even mild health problems can be a
significant impairment to musicians’ performance, while non-performers may not be greatly affected
(Brandfonbrener, 1994; Cohn, 1998; Sataloff et al., 1990). For example, mild asthma in singers can contribute
to hyperfunctional technique and vocal damage (Sataloff et al., 1990). Musical performance has also been
identified as a possible trigger of exercise-induced asthma symptoms (Gilbert, 1998; Sataloff et al., 1990).
Although there is some evidence of asthma being a hindrance to musicians, asthmatics are often
encouraged to learn a W/B instrument with the view that it will improve their condition. The playing of W/B
instruments has been suggested as a beneficial exercise for asthmatics (Farkas, 1987; Gilbert 1998), though
there is only limited evidence of physical improvements (Andrew, 2006; Marks, 1974; Zilka, 1996). No
previous research has investigated whether asthma impacts on instrument choice. Neither have any previous
studies systematically investigated musicians’ perceptions of any associations between asthma and playing
W/B instruments.

Study aims
This study was designed to investigate asthmatics’ perception of their asthma in relation to the playing of W/B
instruments. The following research questions were posed:

1. Is asthma a factor in the choice of which type of musical instrument to learn?

2. How widespread is the notion that playing a W/B instrument or singing is associated with changes in
asthma?

Methods
Participant recruitment
This study formed part of a cross-sectional respiratory health survey of Australian musicians. The study
recruited primary and secondary school students who were learning musical instruments, tertiary music
students, community musicians, instrumental music teachers and professional musicians. Where possible,
musicians were contacted in person at ensemble rehearsals, schools or universities. Otherwise questionnaires
were distributed by mail or email.

46
Questionnaire
Participants completed a questionnaire that sought the following information:

1. demographic details (date of birth, gender, post code);

2. music participation details (past and present musical instruments played, number of years of
experience on each instrument);
3. respiratory health history (based on two validated respiratory health questionnaires (Asher et al.,
1995; Burney et al., 1994); and
4. perception of asthma in relation to playing W/B instruments, using these questions:
a. Did you have asthma at the time when you decided to learn any of the instruments you play?
b. Was your asthma an important factor in choosing which instrument to learn?
c. Did you decide to learn a wind instrument (or voice) because you thought it might improve
your asthma?
d. Do you think that playing a wind instrument (or singing) has improved your asthma?
e. Do you think that playing a wind instrument (or singing) has contributed to the development
of your asthma or the worsening of your asthma symptoms?

Responses to perception questions were dichotomous (yes or no), except for questions (c), (d) and (e)
which may not have been applicable to all respondents. The option of a not applicable response was provided
for these items. Questions (d) and (e) also supplied the option of a don’t know response.
Asthmatic W/B musicians were also invited to provide further open-ended comments about their experience
of asthma and singing or playing a W/B instrument. These comments were used as qualitative examples,
illustrating the musicians’ perceptions in more detail than would be possible through the closed responses
given in earlier sections of the questionnaire.
As part of the design and editing process, the complete questionnaire was pilot tested on a small
number of colleagues and musicians. The Human Research Ethics Committee at The University of Western
Australia approved the study protocol.

Results and discussion

Participant demographics
This study was part of a broader survey of musicians’ respiratory health which involved 1960 participants
(response rate: 55%). A total of 351 W/B musicians from this broader survey had ever been diagnosed with
asthma and were included in the current perception study. This total included 28 musicians who had played
W/B instruments in the past but were not playing regularly at the time of completing the questionnaire. Just
over half of the participants (n=188, 54%) were current asthmatics and 162 (46%) were past asthmatics. Ages
ranged from 10 to 74, with a mean age of 21. The majority (62%) were female. A further 154 non-wind/brass
(NW/B) musicians who had ever had asthma were included in the study for the analysis of asthma in relation
to the choice of instrument to learn.

Is asthma a factor in the choice of which type of musical instrument to learn?

Of the W/B musicians who had ever had asthma, 221 (65%) reported that they had the condition at the time
when they decided which kind of musical instrument to learn. A total of 19 (9% of those who had asthma at
this decision time) stated that their asthma was a factor in deciding to learn a W/B instrument. The majority
(13 out of 19, 68%) specifically chose to learn a W/B instrument because they believed it would improve their
asthma. In comparison, 94 (61%) of ever-asthmatic non-wind/brass (NW/B) musicians had asthma at this
decision time. Only four of these stated that their asthma was a factor in their choice of instrument.
These results suggest that it is very rare for asthmatics to avoid learning a W/B instrument because of
their asthma. It is more common for asthmatic students to choose a W/B instrument with the view that it will
improve their asthma. However, the vast majority of asthmatics (more than 90%) did not even consider their
asthma when choosing an instrument to learn. This indicates that asthma is generally not a limiting factor in
choosing to play any kind of musical instrument.

47
Do asthmatic musicians associate wind/brass instruments with beneficial changes in asthma?
One third (169) of the 505 ever-asthmatics who played any kind of instrument had heard that playing a W/B
instrument or singing may improve their asthma. Participants were asked whether they believed that W/B
playing had improved their asthma. This question was only applicable to W/B musicians who had asthma
while playing a W/B instrument. Those who specifically stated that the question was not applicable and those
who did not answer the question were excluded from the analysis. Approximately one-third of the remaining
asthmatic respondents reported a belief that W/B playing improved their asthma.
Three aspects of the possible benefits of W/B playing on asthma were highlighted in the open-ended
comments from these participants. Playing W/B instruments was associated with reduction in asthma
symptoms, improvements in one’s breathing and improvements in lung function/capacity. The following
comments are characteristic examples of these themes.

Playing the tuba has decreased my asthma symptoms in frequency and intensity. I used to
regularly wake my whole house with nightly coughing fits, although this has happened only
rarely since taking up the tuba. (23 year-old female low brass player)

Since studying my instrument properly e.g. last 4 years, my asthma has gotten twice as
manageable because I learn to use my breath/ air better. (19 year-old male trombonist)

I once had an asthma attack, when I was about 20 and studying at the conservatorium. I had to
go the hospital etc. They next day I had to see a GP. When I blew in the peak flow, I blew the
highest reading the doctor had ever seen, let alone one the day after an asthma attack. (24
year-old male saxophonist)

The view that W/B playing may improve asthma is not new. A survey of 40 band instructors in 1959
reported that most believed “blowing a wind instrument strengthened the muscles of breathing….and
was therefore helpful in educating the child with breathing difficulties as in asthma to control his
symptoms” (Marks, 1974). In contrast to Marks’ study, the current survey sought the views of those
who experienced asthma and W/B playing, not a third party. For this reason, and since increased
asthma awareness has led to improved diagnosis and treatment over the last 50 years (Russell, 2006),
the statistics from the current survey cannot easily be compared to Marks’ results. However, the
proportion of participants in the current study who had heard that W/B playing may improve asthma
or indicated a belief that W/B playing was beneficial for their asthma was not a majority by any
means.

Do asthmatic musicians associate W/B instruments with detrimental changes in asthma?

Only three percent of ever-asthmatic W/B musicians reported that playing their instrument contributed to the
development of their asthma or the worsening of asthma symptoms. The vast majority of respondents (70%)
indicated this was not the case, while approximately one-third were undecided as to whether W/B playing had
a detrimental impact on their asthma.
Seven qualitative comments expounded on the perception that W/B playing can exacerbate asthma.
While three were non-specific as to proposed mechanisms of exacerbation, the remaining responses
pinpointed two specific aspects of W/B playing that can be associated with asthma. These were the (a) stress
of the performance situation; and (b) maximal expiration required to play a W/B instrument. The following
are characteristic examples of these views.

My asthma is mostly stress related, particularly when I have to perform in an exam related
situation. (20 year-old female singer)

My asthma is triggered when I run out of breath while holding on to long notes.
(14 year-old female singing student)

The belief that W/B playing improves asthma is far more prevalent than the belief that W/B playing worsens
asthma. However, a large proportion (approximately 70%) of the asthmatic W/B musicians did not believe

48
that playing these instruments had any impact on their asthma, neither beneficial nor detrimental, as
demonstrated by the comments reproduced below.

I don't think playing flute or singing has helped my asthma. (13 year-old female flute student)

I don't think playing an instrument triggers or exacerbates asthma.

(16 year-old male saxophone student)

Summary and conclusions

In this study, asthmatic musicians were surveyed to investigate whether asthma may be a factor in deciding
which instrument to learn, and to explore asthmatic musicians’ perceptions of associations between asthma
and playing W/B instruments. The results indicated that asthma rarely impacted on asthmatics’ choice of
instrument to learn. Further, playing a W/B instrument was more often considered beneficial for asthma than
detrimental for asthma and the majority of asthmatic W/B musicians did not believe that playing the
instrument had any impact on their asthma whatsoever. If asthma is well managed, it is not likely to be a
limitation for learning a W/B instrument. Neither is there any consistent evidence that playing a W/B
instrument improves asthma. As such, asthmatics should not be discouraged from learning a W/B instrument.
However, it is more important that the decision of which instrument to learn be based on musical preferences
rather than possible respiratory health limitations.

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Sataloff, R. T., Spiegel, J. R., & Hawkshaw, M. (1990). The effects of respiratory dysfunction on
instrumentalists. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 5(2), 94-97.
Zilka V. (1996). Testimonials: Merry Piping for Health. The American Recorder, 37(1), 7-10.

49
Neuroscience and music research: What’s out there and what’s useful to music educators?
Anita Collins, University of Canberra

Abstract
Over the past decade a wave of research combining neuroscience and music has changed and enhanced our
understanding of the structure and function of the brain. This research evolved from the discovery that
listening to music, making music and learning music has a profound and unique effect on the formation and
workings of the brain. The research has been divided into two main streams, using music as a stimulus to
observe brain responses and comparing the brain activity of musicians with non-musicians. A growing
number of studies have shown that formal music training can lead to better memory, higher ability to regulate
cognitive and emotional states and more effective acquisition of language. Importantly for music educators,
neurological models have been posed for how the brain acquires, retains and modifies our understanding of
music, which could influence listening pedagogy. Yet the research has been somewhat one-sided until now,
being conducted and reported upon predominantly within the neuroscientific field. While this research could
be of significant interest to music educators it is not immediately accessible to this interest group at present.
This lack of accessibility is two-fold; researchers findings are not widely reported outside the neuroscience
field and, without a specialised scientific background, the findings themselves are hard to comprehend. As
part of a broader doctoral study, questions such as ‘what’s out there’ and ‘what’s useful to music educators’
have been addressed and resources developed to help music educator stay abreast of this rapidly developing
and potentially influential research area.

Introduction
The field of neuroscience and music is relatively new, emerging around the beginning of the 21st century, yet
even the preliminary findings may have extraordinary implications on practice, curriculum and advocacy in
music education. Technological developments in neurological imaging, such as the fMRI and PET scans, have
allowed researchers to observe brain function in real time. As the possibilities of this new technology have
been explored, the use of music as stimuli for the brain has generated exciting results about the brain’s
structure and function. Music listening and learning have been found to create measurable and permanent
changes in these aspects of the brain, far more than many other activities. This then lead to the comparison of
the brain function and structure of musicians and non-musicians, with a growing number of studies showing
that music training can prompt the brain to work more effectively, make faster and stronger connections and
store and retrieve greater amounts of information (Hannon & Trainor, 2007; Trainor, 2008; Jonides, 2008).
Significantly for music educators, research in this area is now proposing theories on how the brain processes
music and creates musical understandings (Peretz et al., 2009; Koelsch & Siebel, 2005). These findings, even
in their preliminary form, may have a significant impact on numerous areas of music education. However at
present it is difficult for music teachers to stay abreast of the studies as they are almost exclusively reported
upon in the scientific field. This paper outlines the research that may be of interest to music educators and
ways to keep in touch with the findings as they continue to emerge.

Music, Musicians and the Brain

Why has music been so important to the study of the brain’s structures and functions? Zatorre (2005) answer
to this very question highlights just some of the reasons.

listening to and producing music involves a tantalizing mix of practically every human cognitive
function. Even a seemingly simple activity, such as humming a familiar tune, necessitates complex
auditory pattern-processing mechanisms, attention, memory storage and retrieval, motor
programming, sensory–motor integration, and so forth. (p. 312)

Music literally ‘lights up’ the brain like no other human activity and neuroscientific researchers soon
discovered that while some activities such as reading or solving mathematic problems used discrete areas of
the brain, listening and creating music engaged multiple areas of the brain either simultaneously or in
intricate, interrelated and astonishing fast sequences (Hyde et al., 2009). Of course the act of listen to music
and making music are quite different undertakings, and these two activities were quickly separated into

50
different types of studies. Similarly the brain functions and structures of musicians began to be compared with
non-musicians in order to understand if and how musical training affected the brain (Tervaniemi, 2009).
Comparing musicians and non-musicians brain function and structure has yielded many findings over
the past decade. Some examples of the findings are that musicians have a larger corpus collosum, the bridge
that connects the two hemispheres of the brain (Peretz, 2005). This allows for a high number and faster
synapses (messages) to travel from one side of the brain to the other. Musicians have been found to have a
larger motor cortex (Peretz, 2005) where planning and voluntary motor functions are controlled. Musicians
have more highly developed neurofilaments (Hannon, 2007), which are the tubes that transport messages
around the brain. This leads to faster and more synchronised neural firings meaning that the brain literally
works faster. Musicians have a denser auditory cortex (Janata et al., 2002) and grey matter (Gaser & Schlaug,
2003), therefore musicians’ response to auditory stimuli more effectively and have the capacity to store more
information.
Prior to the beginning of this particular area of research, a connection between music and the brain
had been made in the widely publicised ‘Mozart Effect’ studies. These studies were related to the capacity of
music listening to improve spatial temporal reasoning, or the ability to visualise patterns that then lead to
better problem solving skills. This research began with a study published by Rauscher, Shaw and Ky (1993)
and soon became a popular movement with Don Campbell’s book (1997) that connected music listening with
higher brain functions. The effect itself has been proven by researchers such as Spelke (2008) to be only short
term and the premise itself has been widely debunked. It is important to acknowledge the difference between
these two areas of research.
Rauscher’s et al. (1993) research was based on the use of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test whereas the
current field of neuroscience and music research is based on brain imaging.
While using music as a stimulus to better understanding brain functions and structures is an
interesting area, the studies comparing musicians and non-musicians are of greater interest to music educators.
The findings from these studies are already extensive and fall into three broad categories; enhanced cognitive
abilities, biological and physiological differences and neural development. The following section is by no
means a comprehensive summary of the findings but is a taste of the breadth and significance of musical
training on brain development.

Cognitive Abilities
Musicians have significantly higher abilities in memory, including short and long term memory retention and
retrieval (Jonides, 2008; Dunbar, 2009). It has been proposed that the skills musicians learn in rehearsals are
then utilized to connect and effectively store information in their memory. Executive function, the ability to
regulate our cognitive and emotional responses, particularly to conflict, is more highly developed in musicians
(Posner, 2008; Bialystok, 2009) and leads to improved performance in intelligence tests. The previously
proposed theory that music training assisted with mathematical understanding (Gazzaniga, 2008; Spelke,
2008) has been narrowed to discoveries that musicians have higher geometrical skills, which is possibly
related to enhanced spatial awareness that is developed through musical training (Hannon & Trainor, 2007).
Large areas of research centre on the neurological concepts of near and far transfer. This is the
measurement of abilities that are directly related to musical training (near transfer), for example improved fine
motor skills after learning the violin, and abilities that are not directly related to musical training (far transfer),
for example higher conceptual abilities. At this time the findings in this area are still in their infancy, but
preliminary studies (Trainor et al., 2009; Strait et al., 2010) suggest that far transfer, particularly linking
enhanced cognitive and perceptual abilities in musicians, could be proven in the near future. At present the
greatest research energy has been directed at the link between language acquisition and music training.
Children who experience musical training have been found to have earlier and higher levels of language
acquisition (Wandell, 2009) and understanding (Norton, 2005). Patel (2008) has proposed, and continues to
publish important research findings, that the better we understand the musical processing networks in the
brain the better we will understand language processing networks.

Biological and Physiological differences

Many music philosophers have argued the universality of music, some proposing that music has common
effects and understanding across humanity and others arguing that musical is culturally based and therefore
can only be understood by those who understand the context within which the music is created and performed.
Ball (2008), Willis (2007) and Trainor (2009) have found that music has common physiological effects on

51
listeners, regardless of the music choice or the listener’s cultural background, therefore proving that elements
of music are indeed universal to all human beings.
The contentious issue of musical aptitude, musical talent and even a musical gene have been examine
by Trainor et al. (2008), Schlaug et al. (2009) and Pulli et al. (2008). Significant findings to date are that
children are born with a higher or lower aptitude for music but the type and timing of musical experiences
before and after birth have a significant effect on whether their musical potential is realized. An exciting
discovery in Pulli’s study is the identification of the specific chromosome that is linked to musical aptitude,
which is related to several predisposing genes and variants.

Neural Development
Development of neural pathways in the brain is essentially the creation throughout our lives of a message
transport system. The faster and more flexible the pathways are the greater a person’s ability to learn and
understand complex concepts. Musician’s neural pathways have been found to be more highly developed than
non-musicians (Ball, 2008; Trainor, 2009; Willis, 2007) which leads to higher levels of engagement,
motivation and information flow within the brain. As well as a higher level of information flow musicians
have been found to have more effective levels of brain plasticity (the ability for the brain to change and act
flexibly) and brain pruning (the ability for the brain to subconsciously discard less useful information in order
to make room for new information). This all leads to a greater ability to understand complex concepts, to think
flexible through problems and connect new information to existing understandings.
This neural development also indicates that musicians have greater density of grey matter in their
brains and exhibit higher levels of fast learning pathways than slow learning pathways (D’Esposito, 2009).
Similarly the processing of musical information such as rhythm and pitch has been found to happen both
sequentially and simultaneously (Peretz & Zartorre, 2005). This highly developed type of processing then
leads the brain to utilize similar mechanisms in other types of learning.

Models of musical understanding

Two research studies (Peretz et al., 2009; Koelsch & Siebel, 2005) have proposed models of musical
understanding, based on their neuroscientific research. These models, and subsequent developments in this
field, could be of great interest to music educators and may have an impact on music education practices,
particularly listening pedagogy. Both models are extremely complex and involve important neurological
mechanisms. However, awareness of these models and the premise upon which they are based can both
reinforce and challenge the current tenant upon which many music education practices are based.
The model proposed by Peretz and her team from the BRAMS Laboratory based at the University of
Montreal (International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research) is known as the Musical Lexicon
(Figure 1). This model outlines the process from when music is detected by the ear to when both sequential
and simultaneous processing occurs. This then leads to the acoustic input being understood and added to the
brain’s musical lexicon, otherwise known as a vocabulary or thesaurus.
Important elements of the model to music educators could be an understanding that initial acoustic
analysis has three simultaneous elements; pitch organisation (high, low and relative highness and lowness of
the sound), temporal organisation (use and passage of time of the sound, also known as rhythm) and
phonological understanding (structure of the sound, possibly vertical structure or texture). This final element
has been related to reading ability and the model shows a distinct and separate link between musical
understanding and development of a phonological (word) lexicon. The musical lexicon itself has multiple
inputs (pitch, temporal, phonological and emotion) and may beg the question about how musical stimuli
should and could be introduced to a student. Could explicit reference to the development of a student’s
musical thesaurus help them make connections more quickly and should there be an order to musical analysis
or a more holistic approach with students allowing their musical lexicon to develop organically?
The next step relates to the formation of a vocal plan and creation of associative memories, which are
memories that are related to content rather than location. Finally the physical manifestations of the musical
lexicon process are singing, tapping or speaking. This final process is the element that music educators
recognise and acknowledge as a student’s level of musical understanding, yet with knowledge of what may be
occurring prior to this outward expression of understanding, might the interpretation be a different one? These
are questions that music educators can begin to propose with models such as this one emerging from the
neuroscientific research.

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Figure 1
Musical Lexicon (Peretz et al., 2005)

The Koelsch and Siebel model (Figure 2) is known as the Neurocognitive Model of Music Perception and
originated at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in Germany. This model
represents some similar concepts to the Musical Lexicon model in terms of the initial processing of elements
(pitch, rhythm, structure, timbre). In a slightly different interpretation of a central lexicon on knowledge this
model refers to the dissection, comparison and reconstruction of the music in order to add or change the
student’s general musical understanding. The singing, tapping and speaking element of the Musical Lexicon
model is referred to as vitalisation, meaning the physical reaction to the music. Koelsch and Siebel add an
additional element of premotor action affecting the immune system. This highlights the positive physiological
effects of music on bolstering the immune system and essentially improving the listener’s wellbeing.
Possibly the most significant element of this model is the constant interaction between meaning and
emotion to create understanding. The model proposes that each step of the process is informed by the
individual’s emotional reaction and meaning making. Could such a suggestion alter the idea that music
understanding is more of an objective exercise than a subjective one? How might this change the way music
educators approach musical understanding and could personal meaning and emotional input be utilised more
effectively and explicitly.

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Figure 2
Neurocognitive Model of Music Perception (Koelsch & Siebel, 2005)

These two models propose more questions than they answer but engagement with the research, even at this
early stage, may have profound effects on how music understanding is developed in students and the potential
for music educators to accelerate and deepen their students’ ability to process and understand music.

Following the research

Research in the field of neuroscience and music is primarily reported in neuroscientific journals, as it should
be. This situation poses a few problems for music educators, as the findings are difficult to access as they
heavily ladened with neuroscience terminology. While the findings are now being reported outside of peer
referred journals, they run the risk of being condensed to the bare minimum, or just the headlines, which may
ignore the caveats, riders and important details which are important to gain a true understanding of the
research developments.
With this in mind there are a number significant reports and resources which music educators can
access easily and will allow a reasonably balanced and straightforward entry into the field of neuroscience and
music.
1. The Dana Foundation - The Dana Foundation a private philanthropic organization, based in New
York, which supports brain research through grants and educates the public about the successes and
potential of brain research. Although focusing on all areas of brain science, the foundation has a
particular interest in the brain and arts education. A useful report to get a broad perspective on the
area is the Neuroeducation: Learning, Arts and the Brain. A useful service to keep up to date with new
studies and findings is The Dana Foundation email newsletter and Brain in the News publications
2. Nature Journal – This journal regularly reports on developments in the area of neuroscience and
music. The papers are short and are aimed at a broad and not necessarily scientific readership. Full
articles are available online and the most recent special issue is Volume 453, Issue 7196
3. Brain Research Institutes – Several interdisciplinary institutes are leading the way in the research and
reporting of findings in the area of neuroscience and music. Key researchers head each institute and a
web search by their name will yield links to their institutes. Begin with Isabelle Peretz and the
BRAMS Institute (International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research), Laurel Trainor at
the McMaster Institute for Music and the Mind, the MARCS Auditory Laboratories and the Max
Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences. All of these institutes have email and news
alerts that are easy to subscribe to.
4. Facebook – A large number of prominent researchers, societies and institutes have active and
informative Facebook groups. A particularly useful Facebook user is Daniel Levitin, author of This is

54
 Your Brain on Music (2006) and The World in Six Songs: How the Musical Brain Created Human
Nature (2008), who has a dedicated Facebook group for his research and notices of new findings in
the field
5. iTunes application – In such a technical field with a depth of terminology, it is useful to have a
neuroscience dictionary to refer to. The Dana Foundation has created a useful iTunes application
called 3D Brain that included brain diagrams, useful links, and explanations of different structures and
functions in the brain using plain language.
6. Free Lectures – Podcasts are available through iTunes U on the brain and music research. Search for
The Library of Congress: Music and the Brain on iTunes and download a variety of lectures on recent
findings.

Conclusion
This field of neuroscience and music is a young one but one which we as music educators can and should
engage with. The field offers an interesting and challenging mix of findings that may serve to reinforce long
held beliefs about music education and challenge existing practices. Either way, these findings have emerged
with a basis in science, rather than anecdotal observations, and could provide a new and possibly more
compelling reason for the sustainability and even expansion of the provision of music education in schools.

References
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Bialystok, E. & DePape, A. (2009). Musical Expertise, Bilingualism, and Executive Functioning. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35(2), 565–574
Campbell, D. (1997). The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind,
and Unlock the Creative Spirit. HarperCollins, N.Y.
D’Esposito, M. (2009). Developing and Implementing Neuroimaging Tools to: Determine if Training in the
Arts Impacts the Brain. Learning, Arts, and the Brain. The Dana Consortium Report on Arts and
Cognition, pp. 71-81
Dunbar, K. N. (2009). Arts Education, the Brain, and Language. Learning, Arts, and the Brain. The Dana
Consortium Report on Arts and Cognition, pp. 81-104
Gaser, C. & Schlaug, G. (2003). Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians. The Journal
of Neuroscience, 23(27), 9240.
Gazzaniga, M. S. (2008). Arts and Cognition: Findings Hint at Relationships. Learning, Arts, and the Brain.
The Dana Consortium Report on Arts and Cognition, pp. v-viii
Hannon, E. E. & Trainor, L. J. (2007) Music acquisition: effects of enculturation and formal training on
development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(11), 465-472
Hyde, K., Lerch, J., Norton, A., Forgeard, M., Winner, E., Evans, A. C., & Schlaug, G. (2009). Musical
Training Shapes Structural Brain Development. The Journal of Neuroscience, March 11, 29(10), 3019
–3025
Janata, P., Birk, J. L., Van Horn, J. D., Leman, M., Tillmann, B., Bharucha, J. J. (2002). The cortical
topography of tonal structures underlying Western music. Science (New York, N.Y.), 1095-9203, Dec
13, Vol. 298, Issue 5601
Jonides, J. (2008). Musical Skill and Cognition. Learning, Arts, and the Brain. The Dana Consortium Report
on Arts and Cognition, pp. 11-17
Koelsch, S. & Siebel, W. A. (2005). Towards a neural basis of music perception. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 9(12 December), 578-584
Levitin, D. J. (2006). This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. Dutton Adult.
Levitin, D. J. (2008). The World in Six Songs: How the Musical Brain Created Human Nature. Dutton Adult.
Norton A., Winner E., Cronin K., Overy K., Lee D. J., Schlaug G. (2005). Are there pre-existing neural,
cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability? Brain and Cognition. Nov, 59(2), 124-34;
Patel, A. D. (2008). Science & Music: Talk of the tone. Nature, 453(7196), 726-72
Peretz, I. & Zatorre, R. (2005). Brain Organization For Music Processing, Annual Review of Psychology, 56,
89–114
Peretz, I., Gosselin, N., Belin, P., Zatorre, R. J., Plailly, J., & Tillmann, B. (2009). Music Lexical Networks:
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Schlaug G., Forgeard M., Zhu L., Norton A., Winner, E. (2009). Training-induced neuroplasticity in young
children, Annals Of The New York Academy of Sciences. July, 1169, 205-8
Spelke, E. (2008). Effects of Music Instruction on Developing Cognitive Systems at the Foundations of
Mathematics and Science. Learning, Arts, and the Brain. The Dana Consortium Report on Arts and
Cognition, pp. 17-51
Strait, D., Kraus, N. Parbery-Clark, A. & Ashley, A. (2010). Musical experience shapes top-down auditory
mechanisms; Evidence from masking and auditory attention performance. Hearing Research, 260, 22-
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Trainor, L. (2008). The neural roots of music. Nature. May 29, 453(7195), 598-9.
Trainor L. J., Shahin A.J., Roberts L. E. (2009). Understanding the benefits of musical training: effects on
oscillatory brain activity. Annals Of The New York Academy Of Sciences. July, 1169, 133-42.
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The stethoscope and the stave: Using music education pedagogies to enhance nursing education
Anita Collins and Rebecca Vanderheide, University of Canberra

Abstract
Not only does music education develop our understanding of music, it develops our general aural perception.
The greater our aural perception skills, the more effectively we can use aural information in our daily lives
and workplaces. These skills can also lead to a deeper sense of aesthetic knowing and professional artistry.
Such a broad developmental outcome means that music education pedagogies could be used in a diverse range
of educational and professional learning fields. These concepts served as the basis for a pilot program that
used music education pedagogies to enhance a nursing education program. Nursing students undertook two
sessions designed to develop their aural perception skills with a view to improving their skills in the clinical
environment as well as promote positive wellbeing. The sessions particularly focussed on ways in which
music education could help students with their auscultatory (listening to sounds from the heart, lung etc.)
assessment skills. Music education pedagogies were used to help students listen more effectively, separate and
locate sounds and determine tempo accurately. Focus group feedback found that several of the skills were
helpful in the clinical environment and that with refinement the Open Your Ears program would be a
beneficial addition to the nursing education course.

Introduction
Reimer states that ‘we in music education are nurturers of consciousness’ (2004, p. 26). This broad statement
embodies an important theme of Reimer’s writings, that music education has vast benefits beyond the
understanding and enjoyment of music. One aspect of this hypothesis is that education in the field of music
does not only enhance a person’s understanding of music, but also heightens their general aural perception
skills. This benefit has been strengthen recently through neuroscience research. For example musicians have
been found to have more developed abilities in the areas of auditory processing (Zatorre, 2005), specifically in
the processing of rhythm and pitch of all sounds (Peretz & Zartorre, 2005) that leads to faster and more
flexible language acquisition (Patel, 2008). These findings were the catalyst for an innovative interdisciplinary
project that investigated the possible benefits of using music education pedagogies to enhance the aural
perception and aesthetic knowing capacities of nursing students.
The project has developed out of a conversation between a music education lecturer and nursing
education lecturer at a professional networking dinner. While relating the outcomes of a project at the
Australian National Gallery using visual art to develop the nursing students’ visual awareness of patients, the
questions was asked ‘how do you develop their aural awareness?’ So ensued a lengthy discussion on aspects
such as the nature of the soundscapes of clinical environments, the lack of aural awareness some of the
students display, how their aural awareness affects their practice when they are students and as they continue
through their career. We both left the dinner committed to discovering more about this area with the view to
enhance the current visual arts activity in the Bachelor of Nursing degree with a music activity to improve
aural awareness and perception.

The use of the Arts in Nursing Education

Following this discussion we set out to compile an overview of the current research in the area of music
education and nursing. Little did we know that we had linked two areas of practice that had not been explored
in any depth by health or arts educators. There was a significant body of research on the use by nurses of
music as therapy for their patients (Kumar, 1999; Biley, 2000), the use of music to improve wellbeing in
nursing students (Walsh et al., 2005), a smaller body of research on the use of visual arts in nursing education
(Wikström, 2001; McCaffrey & Purnell, 2007) and an even smaller number of studies including the use of
music (Jensen & Curtis, 2008).
The majority of the studies we investigated focused on the use of the Arts to unlock the aesthetic
knowing of the nursing students in order to improve their practice and ultimately the level of patient care they
were able to provide. Aesthetic knowing lies within the broader field of ways of knowing, which is the
different ways that we as human beings understand, respond, react and interact with the world. Gooch (1972)
defines the two types of knowing as objective, impersonal logic and discrete categories of knowledge proven
by scientific proof and subjective, personal feeling, belief and non-causal knowledge. Aesthetic knowing is
squarely in the subjective type and is an important educational concept in nursing education. Carper’s (1978)

57
work identified the need for an appropriate balance between the scientific practice based processes of nursing
education with the development of ethics, aesthetics and personal knowledge within the students. It is within
this body of research and practice that the Arts have been utilised in nursing education.
Without a defined field of research or practice model to base our project on we needed to define our
own boundaries of enquiry. While using the basis of aesthetic knowing in nursing education and the few arts
based models available to us, we looked further afield to the areas of listening and acoustic ecology. In the 21st
century our nursing students were living and learning in an aurally rich environment, and their practice as
nurses would take place in a particularly confronting aural environment with many mechanical sounds
interlinked with human sounds. In this environment, we would be dealing with students who had ‘become
desensitized and anesthetized to its [sounds] effects’ (Dura, 2006, p. 31). As a consequence we were dealing
with students whose ‘hearing is passive; unconscious and bored’ and through the project we would be seeking
to make their listening ‘active, conscious and interested’ (Dunn, 2006, p. 37). A breakthrough came with the
linking of the project with the field of acoustic ecology. This relatively new interdisciplinary field explores
and describes the relationship, mediated by sound, between the living beings within their environment.
Epstein (2003) acknowledged the connection between nursing and music education that could be developed
within the acoustic ecology field. Although the outcomes of this field are currently more closely related to
musical soundscapes and composition in response to a given environment, the underlying research in the
fields of psychology, physical effects of sound and psychotherapeutic properties of sound informed the
project’s design (Kendell, 2000).

Open Your Ears program

Preparation
With the research basis for the project continue to evolve, we moved into defining the purpose and scope of
the Open Your Ears Project. The research problem was simple; to date, no one had investigated if the use of
music education pedagogies could improve the aural awareness of nursing students. The purpose of the
project was to investigate if and what type of music education activities could improve the student’s aural
awareness and may have the potential to improve their clinical practice. We soon realised that the scope of the
project had the potential to be large and therefore choose to limit the scope to a pilot project with a cohort of
the Masters of Nursing Practice students at Monash University.
To complement this process both lecturers visited one of the hospital wards in which the students
would be undertaking their clinical placements. The purpose of this visit was to immerse both researchers in
the environment that the students would experience. For myself as the music education lecturer, this was a
chance to experience the sound environment in which the students would be working, and for the nursing
education lecturer it provided the opportunity to focus on the sound environment which she would otherwise
taken for granted.
The result of this visit was an emphasis on the need for effective listening skills for nurses, both in
holistic and dissected way. Hospital wards are aurally rich environments and contain individual and repeated
sounds that can have a profound effect on human, especially those who are healing and in recovery. In order
to provide holistic nursing care, nurses need to focus on what their patients were telling them while concurrent
understanding body posturing and positioning and tone of voice (Fuimano, 2004). This holistic approach can
allow nurses to identify changes in physiological or psychological status more effectively and encourage
patients to communicate their concerns and feelings more readily (Bryant, 2009). Using music education
exercises may compliment the visual art components of the students learning and encourage a heightened
level of aesthetic knowing in the nursing students.

Design and delivery of the Open Your Ears program

The broad premise of the Open Your Ears Project was to use music education techniques to improve the
listening and aural discernment abilities of nursing or other health professional students. The program itself
needed to fit into an existing degree structure that had the added time pressure of being accelerated from two
years to 18 months in length. The result was two 120-minute sessions held at the same time on two
consecutive weeks in Semester 1, 2010. As the students did not generally possess a high level of personal
music education the activities were kept short but focused on reinforcing the same skills. The aims of the
sessions were to;

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 1. To refine the ability to distinguish individual sounds in a sound environment and enhance the
development of ausculatory assessment skills (e.g. measuring pulse, blood pressure, breath sounds)
2. To enhance conscious awareness of the patient’s experience of sounds that exists in the clinical
environment

In music education terms, these aims translated into exercises that improved their basic aural skills through
the use of music. All exercises were heavily focused on the personal experiences of the students that then
developed into an understanding of the effect of sound on their patients. Finally, these skills were channelled
into an understanding of the capacity the students will have as nurses to improve the experience of healing for
their patients.

The following examples were used during the pilot program.

Focus pulling exercise – students were asked to listen to the four separate parts of the opening of Pachabel’s
Canon, then sketch the rhythmic and melodic contour of each melody. Finally, they are asked to listen to the
work as a whole and practise focusing their ears on each discrete part. This exercise focuses on the ability to
listen to a sound environment holistically as well as screen and distinguish important sounds such as
adventitious breath sounds or Korotokoff sounds.

Audiation exercise – students were introduced to a number of live musical instrument sounds, asked to
remember the names of the instruments and then, with their eyes closed, identify the single instrument played
and the direction that the sound originated. Additional instruments are added until participants begin to
practise repeating the instrumental sounds in their minds in order to identify source and direction. This
exercise develops the ability to identify and repeat aural information after the initial awareness of the sound.
Within the clinical environment this skills could be useful for beginning nurses involved in situations where
aural stimuli levels are high, unfamiliar and varied.

Tempo exercise – students learned how to first identify a musical beat in a variety of musical examples and
then determine the speed of that beat using musical tempo (beats per second). Using a minute hand on a clock
and markers such as 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 beats per minute participants have a technique for clearly
identifying beats per minute that could be transferred to ausculatory skills.

Feedback
Response to the program was generally positive and began during the first sessions. In spite of the voluntary
nature of the program, more than 60% of the cohort attended the sessions. Students displayed a generally
positive attitude during the activities and were vocal about the connections, both real and anticipated, that they
could make between higher level of aural perception and their nursing practice. The program’s placement
within the degree meant that students attended their first clinical session between the two music education
sessions, and the feedback on use of the new skills in the clinical environment was also positive. The activities
which received positive reactions during the session where those which students could see an immediate use
for, such as how to determine the speed of a beat or how to repeat sounds in their heads. The broader concepts
of the possibility of improved patient care and through awareness of the sound environment and affects of
sound met with less immediate enthusiasm, which may be due to the lack of experience on the students behalf
of the clinical environment and their role in affecting it.
The students were invited to participate in an evaluative survey about their experiences. Of a cohort of
48 students, 39 responded, a response rate of 81%. The results were mixed but did indicate that focus-pulling,
sound identification and naming sounds skills were most applicable to the students’ clinical practice at that
time. The comments were also generally positive and indicated a moderate to high level of interest and benefit
in the program to their clinical skills. These results may well have been influenced by the administration of
the survey, which was eight weeks after the program was completed.

Future Directions
Designing a learning experience based on a large set of assumptions across an interdisciplinary platform was
both a daunting and exciting experience. Overall, the students’ responses to the program were positive and
with the pilot program completed significant revisions and a more focused approach is being undertake. Such

59
revisions need to examine the content and speed of the music learning experiences and may benefit from
participation in skills lab sessions for myself as the music education lecturer. The timing of both the program
and the administration of the questionnaire will need review as feedback suggested that the program may have
been delivered too early in the degree for students to appreciate the potential value to their nursing practice.
Similarly the gap of two months between the program and the questionnaire may have influenced the results.
Only with these revisions can the advantages of the program for sufficiently measured.
The conceptual and philosophical underpinnings of the Open Your Ears Project have the capacity to
be utilised in numerous other fields and professions. The ability to listen effectively and be conscious of our
interpretations of the information from our sound environments is universal and music education pedagogies
could provide the key to developing these skills.

References
Biley, F. (2000)The effects on patient well-being of music listening as a nursing intervention: a review of the
literature. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 9, 668-677.
Bryant, L. (2009). The Art of Listening. Practice Nurse, 37(6) 49-52.
Carper, B.A. (1978). Fundamental patterns of knowing in nursing. Advances in Nursing Science, 1(1) 13-23
Dunn, R. E. (2006). Teaching for Lifelong, Intuitive Listening. Arts Education Policy Review, 107(3),
January/February
Dura, M. T. (2006). The Phenomenology of the Music-listening Experience. Arts Education Policy Review,
107(3), 25-32
Epstein, M.J. (2003). Growing an interdisciplinary hybrid: the case of acoustic ecology. History of Intellectual
Culture, 3(1), 1-10.
Fuimano, J. (2004). Sharp Listening Skills Point Staff in the Right Direction. Nursing Management, 35(5), 12.
Gooch, S. (1972). Total Man: Towards an Evolutionary Theory of Personality. London: Allen Lane, Penguin
Press
Kendall, W. (2000). An Introduction to Acoustic Ecology, Soundscape: The Journal of Acoustic Ecology,
1(1), 10–13, Spring
Kumar, A. M., Tims, F., Cruess, D.G., Mintzer, M. J., Ironson, G., Loewenstein, D., Cattan, R., Fernandez,
J.B., Eisdorfer, C., Kumar, M. (1999). Music Therapy Increases Serum Melatonin Levels In Patients
With Alzheimer's Disease. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, Volume 5, Number 6,
November, pp. 49-57
Jensen, A. & Curtis, M. (2008). A descriptive qualitative study of student learning in a psychosocial nursing
class infused with art, literature, music and film. International Journal of Nursing Education
Scholarship, 5(1), Article 4
Koithan, M.S. (1996). Aesthetics in Nursing Practice and Education. Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 17,
529-539.
McCaffrey, R. & Purnell, M. (2007). From Experience to Integration: The Arts In Nursing Education. Nursing
Education Perspectives, March / April, 28(2).
Patel, A. D. (2008). Science & Music: Talk of the tone. Nature, 453(7196), 726-72
Peretz, I. & Zatorre, R. (2005). Brain Organization For Music Processing, Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2005. 56:89–
114.
Reimer, B. (2004). New Brain Research on Emotion and Feeling: Dramatic Implications for Music Education.
Arts Education Policy Review, 106(2), 21-27.
Walsh, S., Chang, C, Schmidt, L., & Yoepp. J. (2005. Lowering stress while teaching research: A creative arts
intervention in the classroom. Journal of Nursing Education, 44(7), 330-333.
Wikström, B. M. (2001). Work of art dialogues: An educational technique by which students discover
personal knowledge of empathy. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 7, 24-29.
Zatorre, R. (2005). Music, the food of neuroscience? Nature, 434, 312-315.

60
Discovering the role trust plays in the development of effective music teaching faculties
Andrew Close, Ecole Internationale De Geneve

Abstract
An introduction to ongoing research which explores how trust impacts upon interpersonal relationships within
music teaching faculties, and how this in turn influences the development of music curriculum. Trust in
schools has been a neglected area of research, especially in examining teacher-to-teacher relationships. Music
teaching faculties appear to have received very little attention. Understanding how music teaching faculties
function will contribute to an increased effectiveness in developing methodology. The research is in its first
phase, in which information is being sought via a widely distributed online questionnaire, aiming to involve >
80 music teachers as participants. A research instrument has been developed by the researcher using existing
instruments from the Consortium of Chicago Schools Research, Hoy and Tschannen-Moran (2003), and
Kochanek (2005) as models, and is being delivered online. This data, in addition to interviews scheduled for
late-2011, will inform the development of a conceptual model of how trust operates in music teaching
faculties. Possible implications for this research area could include an increase in our understanding of the
interpersonal relationships in music teaching faculties, and an explanation of the factors that may contribute to
the development of distrust within such faculties. This paper outlines some of the relevant literature on trust in
education, what some of the unique stressors music teachers might face in developing effective teams and
how the aforementioned research instrument has been constructed and implemented. Early results were
discussed at the ASME 2011 National conference, but these have not been included in this written form due to
their small sample size.

Introduction
This paper is an introduction to ongoing research which explores how trust impacts upon interpersonal
relationships within music teaching faculties, and how this in turn influences the development of music
curriculum. This research is being conducted in three geographical areas: the United States, International
schools in Europe, and a variety of Australia state and private schools.
Trust in schools has been a neglected area of research, especially in examining teacher-to-teacher
relationships. Music teaching faculties appear to have received very little attention. Understanding how music
teaching faculties function will contribute to an increased effectiveness in developing methodology.
In the manner of a good PYP teacher, let us start by establishing our essential questions:

1. Is trust really so important?

2. Does trust work the same way in all schools?
3. What might be the difficulties specific to Music teachers in establishing trust?
4. What can we do to create, develop or repair trust within our teams?

In the first section of the paper I will define the concept of ‘trust’ and briefly review the literature on trust in
an educational context. This will include a discussion on why trust operates differently between primary and
secondary school structures. Secondly, I suggest several difficulties specific to Music teachers in establishing
trust in their teaching faculties. I will then explain how an online questionnaire has been created from a
number of existing models. Lastly, several suggestions are offered to those readers seeking to create, develop
or repair trust within their music teaching teams; these suggestions are based on the existing literature.

General trust, and trust within education

The existing research literature on trust can be thought of as a series of concentric fields: theories and
methodologies of trust within sociology, within the workplace, within schools, and within teaching faculties.
My proposed research lies within what appears to be an unexplored, fifth circle: trust within music teaching
faculties (see Figure 1 below):

61
 Figure 1. Author’s conception of how his research is related to the existing literature.

The study of trust as a phenomenon has taken on a prominent role in social sciences (Fukuyama, 1995;
Gambetta, 1988; Hardin, 2002; Misztal, 1996; Sztompka, 1999). Luhmann noted, in his very influential text
Trust and Power (1979), that trust was related to the growing complexity, uncertainty and risk characterized
by modern society and our workplace environments. Subsequent studies have viewed trust as an important
element in creating a more productive workplace: Dirks and Ferrin (2001) reviewed over 43 studies of
workplace trust from 1959 to 2000 and confirmed “fairly significant effects of trust on attitudinal and
cognitive/perceptual constructs” (Dirks & Ferrin, 2001, p. 455). Dirks and Ferrin found many of the studies
were premised on trust as having a distinct effect on “positive attitudes, higher levels of cooperation and other
forms of workplace behaviour”, whilst others saw trust as a facilitator of “other determinants on desired
outcomes” (2001, p. 450). Research within the field of psychology reaffirms these views: Costa et al (2001)
confirmed “the importance of trust for the functioning of teams in organizations” (Costa, Roe, & Taillieu,
2001, p.241).
In the last ten years researchers such as Cook, Hardin and Levi have begun to doubt whether trust can
have such a broad effect, particularly in large-scale organizations (Cook, Hardin, & Levi, 2005, Hardin,
2002). They maintain that it does, however, play an important role in small group and interpersonal
relationships.
Trust is a difficult concept to define, prompting some researchers to observe that within the literature
there are “a number of disparate and ad hoc definitions based on equally different assumptions” (Gargulio &
Ertug, 2006, p. 166). The definition I will follow is that used by Hoy and Tschannen-Moran, in part because it
is used as the basis for much of the existing research into trust in the field of education. They define trust as
“one’s willingness to be vulnerable to another based on the confidence that the other is benevolent, honest,
open, reliable, and competent” (Tschannen-Moran, 2004, p. 7).
Trust in education is, according to researchers Tschannen-Moran and Hoy, a “topic that has been
neglected for far too long” (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 1998, p. 350). Yet there is general agreement within
the existing literature that “no matter how innovative a school reform may be, it is unlikely to succeed unless
the people on the front lines of schooling are working well together to implement it” (Kochanek, 2005, p. 79)
and that “[without trust] collaboration deteriorates. Teachers may go through the motions of … departmental
meetings, but there is little real joint decision making or collaboration” (Tschannen-Moran, 2004, p. 132).
The focus from the mid-1980s on trust in education has generally been the result of the work of two groups of
researchers, each linked with a common author: Hoy and colleagues1, and Bryk, Kochanek & Schneider2.

1
See Goddard, Goddard, & Tschannen-Moran, 2007; Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000; Goddard, Tschannen-Moran, & Hoy,
2001; Hoy, Gage, & Tarter, 2006; Hoy, Hoffman, Sabo, & Bliss, 1996; Hoy & Kupersmith, 1985; Hoy & Tarter, 2004;
Hoy, Tarter, & Wikoskie, 1992; Hoy & Tschannen-Moran, 1999; W. K. Hoy & M. Tschannen-Moran, 2003; Tarter,

62
Both groups worked within the Consortium of Chicago Schools Research, which has created a large amount
of data about teachers’ perceptions of many aspects of schooling.
Typically these studies examine how trust is created and sustained within a faculty team and whether
school Principals impact upon the dynamics of trust (Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Kochanek, 2005; Tschannen-
Moran, 2004; Wolfe, 2007). This question remains unresolved, but much of the research (Herriott &
Firestone, 1984; Hoy et al., 1992; Tarter et al., 1989; Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998) suggests that
trust in the principal and trust between faculty members are linked in primary schools:

Figure 2a. Model for systems for trust in primary schools

(Tarter, Sabo & Hoy, 1995, p. 43)

However this body of research also suggests that trust between the principal and faculty members is not co-
dependent in middle and secondary schooling:

Figure 2b. Model for systems for trust in middle and secondary schools
(Tarter, Sabo & Hoy, 1995, p. 43)

There are some debates about the second model (see Hoy & Kupersmith, 1985; W.K. Hoy & M. Tschannen-
Moran, 2003; Kochanek, 2005; Tschannen-Moran, 2004; Wolfe, 2007), but all the literature mentioned earlier
confirms the primary school model. Consequently my own research focuses on middle and secondary school
faculties.
One should also note that gender appears to play a role in both the levels of trust and in how trust
develops in a teaching team. Van Maele and van Houtte found that a “high proportion of female teachers in a
school increases the chance of the staff trusting their principal” because “women’s trust depends on (in)direct
relationships” (van Maele & van Houtte, 2009, p. 578). Male teachers’ levels of trust are thought to be far

Bliss, & Hoy, 1989; Tarter, Sabo, & Hoy, 1995; Tschannen-Moran, 2001; Tschannen-Moran, 2004; Tschannen-Moran &
Hoy, 1998, & Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2000.
2
See Bryk & Schneider, 1996; Bryk & Schneider, 2002; Kochanek, 1999, & Kochanek, 2005.

63
more linked to an identity and affinity with their subject group, rather than an outside third party (Maddux &
Brewer, 2005).
There is a correlation between teacher collaboration and positive developments in curriculum design
and assimilation (Cohen 1981, cited in Little, 1987; da Costa, 1995; Lesnik, 1987; Sgan & Milford, 1986).
Whilst schools have seen a move to more horizontal, collaborative forms of management (Henkin, Dee, &
Singleton, 2000; Henkin & Dee, 2001), Ferguson (1999) notes that this shift not been without problems:

Historically, teachers were prepared for ‘individual practice’ rather than ‘group practice.’ Teachers
were expected to take their students, close their doors, and do their jobs. Working together demanded
little more than the polite acknowledgement and exchange that could be accomplished over lunch in the
staff room. (Ferguson, 1999, p. 2)

Issues affecting trust specific to music teachers

Music teachers, like all other teachers, face many challenges; there are some that are common with other
teachers - assessment, equality, ICT (Philpott & Plummeridge, 2001) - but there are some that are not. Six
issues specific to music teachers stand out as creating tensions and stumbling blocks to the development of a
high trust atmosphere: musical identity, genre, theoretical system, literacy, role stress and isolation (Brown,
2009; Jorgensen, 1997; Kelly, 1999; Scheib, 2003).
Musical identity refers to the tension between an individual’s notion of themselves as a musician and
as a teacher (Ballantyne, 2002; Mark, 1998; Roberts, 2004).
Musical genre refers to the type of music the individual is schooled in – classical, jazz, ethnic,
pop/rock – and has direct impact on the drive, practice and listening habits of that individual (Creech et al.,
2008).
Theoretical system acknowledges that many music teachers were educated in quite different music
theory systems (e.g., traditional anglo-saxon western theory, Suzuki, Jazz/Rock, Solfége, Orff Schulwerk,
Kodály, Dalcroze) and will, to a certain extent, seek to replicate their own background with their students.
Indeed, Jorgensen has commented that most music teachers find it hard to move outside their musical beliefs
and practices (Jorgensen, 1997, p. 77).
Musical literacy refers to the importance that a teacher may place on written notation over memorized
or improvised performance. Brown, for example, suggests “some say that Western European music, with its
tradition of written notation, requires students to know more than musics with aural tradition do." (Brown,
2009, p. 24).
Role stress is an acknowledgement that, unlike other teaching subjects, music appears to demand a
number of conflicting and contradicting demands on a teachers’ time. Pressures resulting from differing
expectations, ambiguity and overload in the music teacher’s role, added to an underutilization of the musical
abilities of the teacher (see musical identity above) create stress factors specific to music teaching (Kelly,
1999; Scheib, 2003).
Despite all the above, isolation stills appears to be a major concern for Arts teachers in general, as
Wilson points out: “one of the most obvious challenges to collaboration in the fine arts teams is that most arts
educators operate in isolation from one another” (Wilson 2000, as cited in Fisher & Brown, 1988).

Discovering the role of trust

Concerned with such issues as mentioned above, this current research is seeking to quantify the level of trust
in music teaching faculties. An online questionnaire has been launched, and, until the end of 2011, can be
accessed at http://uneprofessions.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_6RU4GijiSCzAdV2
This trust questionnaire is being developed by the researcher, using relevant research and existing
trust measures for school environments, e.g. Hoy & Kupersmith’s “Trust Scales” (Hoy & Kupersmith, 1985),
Hoy & Tschannen-Moran’s “Omnibus T-Scale” (W.K. Hoy & M. Tschannen-Moran, 2003), Kochanek’s
“Relational Trust measures” (Kochanek, 2005) and the “High School Teacher Surveys” (CCS, 2003; CCS,
2005; CCS, 2007) and “Teacher-Teacher Trust” measures (CCS, 2007) from the from the Consortium of
Chicago Schools Research website. Questions have been adapted to include specific reference to music
teaching faculties.
The literature reviewed above has demonstrated that trust, a product of everyday interactions, can
facilitate collaboration and curriculum development. The development of such trust and collaboration within
music teaching teams could be challenged by a number of factors particular to the nature of that subject.

64
Therefore, it should be possible to assess levels of trust in everyday interactions within music teaching
faculties and to relate these findings to others on concomitant levels of curriculum development and
collaboration in these same faculties.
Whatever the level of trust in music teaching faculties, the results will be able to be compared with a
large body of equivalent research from the Chicago Consortium of Schools Research. If the levels of distrust
in my survey appear to be significantly higher than the CCSR results, than this current research would seem to
have some merit. As the research progresses, exploring factors behind the trust levels in music teaching
faculties will be achieved through the participants’ information and interviews.

Creating, developing and or repairing trust within our teams

Although not part of the questionnaire or research, such a paper as this always begs the question, “what can be
done to improve our current situation?” What follows here is a brief attempt to share observations and other
resources that the author has found beneficial.
Remembering an earlier definition of trust – “one’s willingness to be vulnerable to another based on
the confidence that the other is benevolent, honest, open, reliable, and competent” (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy,
1998; Tschannen-Moran, 2004) – we should note that vulnerability and the traits of the other person are both
beyond one’s own control. Herein lies the dilemma for anyone who is trying to create, develop or repair trust:
we only trust someone who is trustworthy, someone who exhibits those qualities that inspire trust (Hardin,
2002), and so we can’t change how another person reacts, we can only change our own actions. To create,
develop or repair trust therefore is an act of trust itself – we act in a trustworthy manner, we offer our help and
support to the other person, but whether this offer is taken up is beyond our control.
There are, however, many ways of setting up a positive, supportive environment that is ripe for trust
to develop. Prime amongst these in an educational environment is to establish a fundamental guide or vision
as a basis for all our decisions and actions, and that should be to do what is best for children (Beach & Close,
2011; Kochanek, 2005). If all that we do is for the right reasons – even if we don’t agree on what is the correct
action – we will avoid letting private agendas rule our environment. I suggest pinning your educational vision
up somewhere near your desk so that other music teachers can see what has motivated your decisions and
actions.
Most people forgive and trust someone who is ready to acknowledge their own faults in an
atmosphere of good humour. Be modest, and aware that the root cause of many of our fears is the fear of
looking foolish (Beach & Close, 2011). Letting go of our insecurities is both terrifying and enabling, and trust
cannot be developed in an atmosphere of deceit (including self-deceit).
Spend time trying to get to know your colleagues – try to ask more questions than you are asked. As
Palmer reminds us, “the more you know about another person’s journey, the less possible it is to distrust or
dislike the person” (Palmer, 2008, p.14). This also ties in with many of those issues effecting music teachers
mentioned earlier, because most of them can be overcome (and indeed benefitted from) by a growing dialogue
between team members.
Repairing trust is a difficult task at the best of times. Tschannen-Moran cautions that “each side must
perceive that the short- and long-term benefits to be gained from the relationship are sufficiently valued to be
worth the investment of time and effort required by the repair process” (Tschannen-Moran, 2004). Remember
also not to confuse disappointment and betrayal (Solomon & Flores, 2003), as we often feel that what has
happened is somehow a deliberate attack on us when in fact the other person has not given our reactions much
thought.
Reina and Reina (2006) propose an easy-to-remember four ‘A’s of absolution: admit it, apologize, ask
forgiveness and amend your ways. This is a good way to approach most trust issues, although if the issues
have been festering for long enough, “ask for mediation” might be a necessary addition. Reina and Reina
(2006) also suggest discussing the issue with a trusted colleague in order to gain some sense of balance, and
reframing the experience in order to see what has gone on in a new light. Both these ideas are well worth
trying, and I would suggest speaking to someone outside the school environment as well – problems often
begin to appear far less important when this happens!
Lastly, whether your colleagues have decided to trust you in the same manner that you have
demonstrated your trust for them, or whether they have not, we all need to find a way of letting go, and
moving on. This could be mentally, or sometimes may need to be physically as well.

65
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Fully online teaching and learning in a pre-service teacher unit in music education
William (Bill) Baker, University of Tasmania

Abstract
In an era of constant change for the higher education sector in which universities are required to be responsive
to shifting student demographics and the constant ‘waves’ of technological change, this paper explores the
move to online learning in music education in one university. Part of an ongoing 3 year research project into
the fully online delivery of a pre-service teacher music education unit, this paper presents current literature in
the area of distance and e-learning in tertiary education. Pertinent terminology associated with online
pedagogy is presented with reference to the characteristics of distance learning and a contemporary model of
e-learning. The research question focused on identifying the most important factors for successful learning in
music education in a fully online environment. In light of the literature initial survey data from student
participants are presented and discussed. These data suggest that students place most value upon their contact
with tutors in online learning environment, a result that suggests the role of the academic in online teaching is
as significant as in a face to face mode, albeit a role that is mediated through ICTs. These data also indicate
that an online mode of delivery can support deep learning in music education; however, to achieve this
diligent attention to pedagogical decisions, not least of which is the place of the learner in the learning
process, is required.

Introduction
In 2009 the University of Tasmania (UTAS) Faculty of Education decided to offer all education degrees in a
fully online environment from the commencement of the 2010 academic year. This decision occurred
simultaneously with changes to degree and unit structures. The resulting structures enabled students to
complete the coursework components of any degree fully online without any on-campus attendance
requirements. Face to face teaching of the degrees would continue for on campus students; however the option
of online completion would be standard from 2010, effectively creating two student cohorts distinguished by
mode of study. From 2010 therefore it was probable that students located anywhere in the world would be
completing units in music education. With reference to literature and the initial analysis of data collected from
student participants, this paper explores some of the questions that were encountered in responding to this
shift, and explores what the first cohort of students regarded as important to their success in this mode of
learning.

Literature
Universities around the world have responded to the challenges of online learning in different ways ranging
from a minimal response to embracing fully online learning (Boettcher & Conrad, 2010; Cleveland-Innes &
Garrison, 2010; Drummond, 2008; Epstein, 2006; Guri-Rosenblit, 2005; Jones & O’Shea, 2004; Paechter &
Maier, 2010). Online learning may be confounding for the neophyte practitioner because of the complexities
of domain specific terminology and definitions. In order to locate this study in the literature, and highlight the
approach taken in the unit, with current understandings of online learning it is important to make sense of
some of this terminology. There is confusion about terminology in the area with authors referring to online
learning in many different ways, often with subtle differentiation, including: distance learning, e-learning,
internet-based learning, blended learning and online learning to name a few. Twigg (2001, p. 4) highlights a
confusion of terminology stating that “the terms ‘distance learning’, ‘distance education’, ‘distributed
learning’ and ‘online learning’ are used more or less interchangeably” (in Guri-Rosenblit, 2005, p. 468) – see
also Moore, Dickson-Deane, and Galyen (2010). It is not necessary to understand all of these different
definitions and what they mean, but it is important to understand the different approaches that underpin
distance learning and e-learning as these are pedagogically different but are so often confused.
Cleveland-Innes and Garrison (2010) state that “distance education has seen a pre-occupation with
geographical constraints along with technologies to neutralise distance and increase access. This...reflects a
focus on transactional issues and ubiquitous communications technologies” (p. 13). Underpinning a distance
learning approach is the centrality of ‘access’ regardless of geographical location, including direct
communication between tutor and student usually via assessment. In this model the learner therefore learns
asynchronously, is self managed and motivated, communicates principally with the tutor, and does not
necessarily communicate with other students.

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 Guri-Rosenblit (2005) highlights the scope of ‘e-learning’ stating that it “is a relatively new
phenomenon and relates to the use of electronic media for a variety of learning purposes that range from add-
on functions in conventional classrooms to full substitution for the face-to-face meetings by online
encounters” (p. 469). This definition, focusing on the use of technology is similar to that of Liaw, Huang, and
Chen (2007) who refer to e-learning as “the application of digital media for teaching and learning” (in
Paechter & Maier, 2010, p. 292). Moore, Dickson-Deane, and Galyen (2010) refer to the approach as one of
‘online’ learning, stating that “online learning is described by most authors as access to learning experiences
via the use of some technology” (p. 4).
As was the case with distance learning, ‘access’ is a key feature of online learning, however it is the
place of the learner within the learning process that distinguishes e-learning and teaching. The use of ICTs
enables synchronous and asynchronous student-teacher and student-student communication and hence the
learning in this approach has a far more significant transactional component. Niper (1989) refers to three
generations of distance learning with the first generation being correspondence education, the second
generation being “multimedia teaching” that includes text plus broadcasting/mixed media, and the third
generation being “new interactive communication technologies” (in Guri-Rosenblit, 2005, pp. 467-468). This
positions distance and e-learning on a continuum. This continuum, placed alongside the Moore, Dickson-
Deane, and Galyen (2010) understanding of online learning provides a working understanding of the approach
taken to the unit and the location of this research within the field. The fundamental approach may be
described as the application of ICTs to a learning purpose; however, the unit also includes some critical
aspects of distance learning – an approach that is perhaps contradictory.

The unit
The unit entitled ‘Arts Education: Music and Visual Arts’ is a core unit of the Bachelor of Education offered
in second semester of first year. In 2010 this unit was offered face to face on Launceston and Cradle Coast
(Burnie) campuses in addition to being offered fully online. Six hundred and forty students were enrolled in
the unit at census with 271 (42%) of these enrolled as fully online students. Many of the students had been
transitioned from an in-service education degree and were teaching assistants working in schools whilst
studying, and many were mature age and may not have completed secondary education or may not have been
engaged in formal education for many years.
The unit, taught over a 13 week period, equally allocates time to music education and visual arts on a
weekly basis; however, the three assessment items for the unit - a paragraph answer theoretical quiz, a
reflection on an arts teaching moment, and an integrated lesson plan - require students to draw upon their
learning in both domains. This paper draws upon data from the music education component of the unit.
Because of the large student numbers there were 10 teaching staff in the unit, 2 of whom were profile UTAS
staff and 8 of whom were teachers working in Tasmanian schools who were employed on sessional contracts.
A commonly reported characteristic of students completing core units in music education as part of
education degrees is an anxiety often attributed to previous experiences in working with the arts (Abril, 2007;
Baker, 2007a, 2007b; Commonwealth of Australia, 1995, 2005; Gifford, 1993; Green, 1995; Hanley, 1993;
Hennessey, 2000; Jeanneret, 2006; Russell-Bowie, 2002; Temmerman, 1991). These studies acknowledge the
problematic effect of a lack of confidence amongst generalist primary pre-service teachers upon their levels of
engagement in units such as this one. The unit is therefore designed to enable students to overcome some of
these initial anxieties whilst learning domain skills and pedagogical understandings.
This unit is intended to enable pre-service teachers to plan and implement music and visual art
learning experiences; but, this is not possible without domain knowledge, skills and understandings. The
domain content in this unit is therefore contextualised by its pedagogical application. If they are to engage,
students must know this and must see this paradigm enacted in each online activity. The unit presents students
with opportunities to explore the dimensions of music (Wiggins, 2009), framed by a philosophy of music
education as praxis (Elliott, 1995). Such an orientation includes active engagement with soundscapes,
instrumental and vocal creation and recreation and critical listening in both modes of learning.
The role of the learner in the unit is underpinned by a constructivist/social constructivist orientation.
Learner agency and an active learner were therefore central tenets of this approach. This orientation had
informed the design of the unit in face to face iterations for many years and was seen as the most critical
feature to maintain in the online context. The result of this thinking was to foreground the development of
digital resources, including videos of students undertaking activities and instructor videos demonstrating

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activities, and to explicitly relate these resources to student learning tasks being completed by online students.
Discussion board forums were used to enable students to share their experiences in undertaking the tasks.
The unit therefore combined characteristics of a distance approach with that of an e-learning approach
with varying levels of success in both. The distance components included the provision of extensive resources
released at the start of the semester and intended to foster asynchronous learning and encourage student self-
management of learning. It was anticipated that this approach would enable students to learn in a truly
‘flexible’ manner, and survey data indicate that this was indeed the case. The e-learning characteristics
included use of discussion boards for student-academic and student-student discussion and the use of
demonstration videos. The validity of this approach and some reflections upon it are discussed in the
conclusion of this paper.

Procedure
This research project used online student surveys and semi-structured interviews with colleagues and students
to examine perceptions of online learning in music education. It used a multi method approach within a
constructivist ontology (Blaikie, 1993; Burns, 1997; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Patton, 1990; Sarantakos,
2005). Data presented in this paper have been analysed through the use of inductive category construction
(Hatch, 2002; Miles & Huberman, 1984; Sarantakos, 2005, p. 306).
Following the completion of the unit the fully online cohort was invited to complete an online survey
regarding their experiences of online learning. In December 2010, following the release of grades, all online
students enrolled at census date (n=271) were invited to complete the survey. Seventy one students (26%)
completed the survey. Survey questions included student use of: musical instruments, prescribed texts,
narrated PowerPoints, instructor videos, videos of past students, weekly learning plans, weekly readings,
assessment tasks and discussion boards. The survey included nine questions, of which eight used a likert scale
response format, and seven of which had the option of providing further written comment. One question
sought only written responses in respect of what students regarded as the most important factor for successful
learning of music/arts education in a fully online learning environment.

Data analysis and discussion

Data collected from the survey are substantial, and it is not possible to provide a detailed presentation and
discussion of all of the initial themes in this forum. This paper will present and discuss the non-likert scale
question to do with student perceptions of the progenitors of success in online learning in music education.
The questions asked: ‘what would you consider the most important factor for successful learning of music in a
fully online environment? For example: tutor contact, self management of learning, etc’.
Data were placed in a spreadsheet and colour-coded, reinterpreted and cross referenced with particular
attention to the research question. The resulting themes were cross-referenced and checked for consistency
and validity. This inductive category construction analysis has revealed surprising homogeneity in student
responses to the question, and the next stage of semi-structured interviews will provide further understanding
of these responses. The analysis revealed 39 references to contact with tutors, 24 references to self-
management of learning, 17 references to ICTs such as video presentations, and 10 references to non-ICT text
based resources. The majority of responses that referred to contact with tutors suggest that respondents placed
an onus upon a fairly traditional (if ICT mediated) resource – the tutor.
The responses that highlighted contact with tutors were a mixture of those claiming this was done
well and others that it was not. One positive response was: The student must feel that they have someone to
ask for help if they need it and this was provided by the excellent tutors. Generally responses ranged from
More. Much more, tutor interaction to more complex and layered responses. For some students (n = 8) contact
with tutors was expressed negatively. Six of these responses foregrounded consistency and regularity in tutor
communication via discussion boards as an issue. Of particular importance appears to have been the provision
of consistent information to students from the ten different tutors in the unit. One respondent expressed this as
better tutor contact with students MORE CONSISTENCY [original emphasis] between different tutors and
students; another as more intensive tutor contact; and another as having a [sic.] interaction thing where the
tutor explained a few things of concern when coming to an assignment. For these students the discussion
board did not provide the vehicle for adequate contact with their tutors.
Further to the issue of consistency some students (n = 3) found discussion boards actually led to a
lack of clarity because students would often post erroneous answers to the questions of other students
encouraging what can only be described as a ‘feeding frenzy’ of confused posts. One student expressed this

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experience as: sometimes it is really good to also get feedback from tutors, to confirm that the information
that we are providing each other is correct and that we are not leading each other up the garden path. Whilst
tutor posts often sought to clarify these matters, it was clear that some students would often miss this
clarifying information and hence continue to ask the same question.
Twenty-four responses were coded with reference to ‘self management of learning’, including such
data as self-discipline, self-belief, organisation and engagement in the unit. One respondent referred both to
the use of the discussion board and her own attitude to the learning stating that:

the support when asked for was second to none. When first looking at this unit - the work load seemed
astounding, and this appeared to cause a lot of disgruntled comment on the discussion boards in the
early stages of the unit... as long as you were very self disciplined, followed the weekly guidelines
and practised all the activities - this was an extremely rewarding unit.

The use of ICTs also emerged in the analysis of this question. Respondents referred to discussion boards
(n=2), email (n=2) and PowerPoints (n=2), with the most frequent references (n=7) about online videos. One
student linked the use of these videos to the development of personal confidence stating tutor videos to enable
you to see if you are on the right track. They also help build confidence, and another linking this to a desire to
‘see’ what was required, stating: the videos and online PowerPoints where we were able to see, hear and do
the activities, would of [sic.] been lost without them. The use of non ICT resources such as weekly learning
plans and the activities therein were not referred to widely, although one student highlighted this in respect of
their own construction of meaning, stating that I found engaging in the weekly learning tasks was extremely
beneficial in developing my understanding. I imagine if one did not engage in these experiences learning
would prove more difficult. For this, student weekly activities such as soundscapes, singing, playing, and
moving were significant to their success.
Although this paper has only explored one question from the survey, the themes that have emerged
present a number of areas for further inquiry, including: ways of enabling more consistent tutor contact and
the use of synchronous communication tools, and explicitly developing learner attributes such as self-
discipline. The high number of responses referring to ‘contact with tutors’ is indicative of the importance
online students attach to regular and meaningful dialogue with academic staff. This was evident in both a
positive and negative sense in these data. In the structure of the unit and the assessment tasks, there was no
compulsion for students to post in discussion boards; it was strongly encouraged, however it was not assessed.
What does this mean then for future iterations of the unit? And more importantly what does this say about the
efficacy of the tools to enable the learner to be an active participant?

Conclusion
The data presented herein with regard to tutor contact suggest that interactivity, a key component of e-
learning, was perceived by respondents to have been implemented with only varying degrees of success - an
important finding for further investigation. On the one hand students were encouraged to learn
asynchronously through the provision of materials, whilst simultaneously engaging with relative synchronicity
through discussion boards. In one sense the unit evolved into a distance/e-learning approach that foregrounded
the availability of resources and sought to scaffold student learning, but that did not enable sufficient
interactivity. The data suggest that this interactivity, whilst available to students, was not extended or
embedded sufficiently to compel students to interact. Interestingly the most important factors for success in
learning music in a fully online environment as reported by respondents were contact with their tutor and self-
management of learning. Is this not similar in a face to face context? If this is the case then it is the
engagement in online discussions and the structure of learning that become significant in successfully
adapting teaching and learning to this environment.

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Constructing pedagogy: The nexus between artistic practice, research and teaching
Dawn Bennett, Curtin University

Abstract
This paper draws on the results of research with artist academics – artists employed as academics within
universities principally to teach artistic skills - over a period of almost four years. Through this research we
have sought to understand the experience of working in academia within an artistic discipline, one of which
has been music. Effective music education is shaped by a complex set of relationships, including those
between the musician as educator, practitioner and researcher. Within the higher education environment, all
three activities are increasingly required, and we argue that the link, or nexus, between practice, research and
teaching cannot be denied. Specifically, we ask: How does the knowledge contained within the process and
product of artistic practice construct and inform pedagogy within undergraduate and postgraduate university
teaching programs? In responding to this question, the paper draws on a diverse literature including our own
previous research.

Introduction
Teaching within an artistic discipline such as music requires understanding of the knowledge inherent in the
practice. This knowledge can be found within the creative process (Blom, 2006; Hannan, 2006), the creative
outcome (Bolt, 2006; Crossman, 2006), both (Odam, 2001), or in artistic research about some closely related
aspect (Thome, 1995). It can also come from researchers not engaged in the arts practice being discussed
(Barrett, 2006; Blank & Davidson, 2007). These forms of knowledge and the relationships between them have
led us since 2007 to consider the nexus between artistic practice, research, and teaching. We refer to this as
the ART nexus.
Our previous interviews have revealed that artist academics are similarly curious about the forms of
knowledge embedded in artistic practice, and about how this knowledge can be taught. Participants have
suggested that artistic practice generates knowledge through all forms of intelligence and communicates
beyond its medium; that it is about being a public intellectual and being part of a broader tradition, drawing on
other disciplines including science, psychology and philosophy; and that it concerns being part of an
international community of arts practitioners. When speaking of their personal understanding of their artistic
process, participants have used words such as intuitive, serendipitous, unfolding and unexpected: for example,
theatre director Fiona spoke of there being “a sense that you are entering a world of mysticism when you are
talking about processes of acting” (Blom, Bennett & Wright, forthcoming). The knowledge generated through
artistic research has been described as being about the collaboration between artist and technology, about
gaining aesthetic understanding of a piece of music before the practicalities of practice can start, and about
transferring one culture into another. These insights necessarily contribute to the base from which pedagogy is
constructed.
Within the literature, the issue of teaching research-based practice or practice-based research is often
addressed only marginally or by implication. This suggests that there is much more to be learned about the
teaching-research nexus, and the inclusion of artistic practice adds a third level of complexity and interest.
Against this background, our paper considers how pedagogy is constructed or informed by the ART nexus.

Approach
For this paper, we draw on results from an ongoing study involving fourteen Australian artist academics (eight
male and six female) who work at Australian universities. During three distinct phases of research since 2007,
between one and three interviews have been conducted with each participant. We began by focussing on
issues arising from the review of literature, and with each successive phase we sought to refine the work to
reflect both emerging themes and changes within the higher education environment. Interviews took place in
person and were recorded, and each researcher coded independently before the team discussed the results.

Findings and discussion

We frame our discussion around three key themes which emerge strongly from our study and which also align
with eight of the factors identified by Neumann (1996) in her research on the nexus (or lack thereof) between
teaching and research. The themes are: 1) a strong belief in the teaching-research nexus by academics; 2) the
need to take a broad approach to the question of a nexus between teaching and research; and 3) the role of the

74
institutional reward system and conflicting signals to academics about the importance of teaching and
research.
Three of our participants noted an especially strong nexus between their teaching and their practice.
Clare, a composer, described the constant stimulation of undergraduate and postgraduate teaching and its
influence upon her thinking about music, its contexts and its meanings, as a “peculiar orientation” that
benefitted both roles. Similarly, Simon, a violinist, acknowledged the flow between teaching and
performance, reflecting that teaching had reinvigorated his playing. His involvement with students at the
undergraduate level had prompted a need to research technical and music sector issues that he felt would
benefit the students. Ivan, a performer/composer, reported that he learned a great deal from his post-graduate
students, with some student projects triggering for him a raft of research and new learning. He described this
as “a dialogue of enquiry” more akin to knowledge exchange than to instruction.
Not surprisingly, Neumann’s call for a strong belief in the teaching and learning nexus tended among
our cohort to incorporate artistic practice. Whilst this additional aspect sometimes resulted in conflict and
complexity, it was spoken of as a positive step. Songwriter Damon was one of several participants who agreed
that the three roles “necessarily nurture each other”, but avoided analysing their artistic practice for fear that it
would be compromised. Ellen, a dancer, observed that for students to see their work objectively and
analytically takes both unselfishness and curiosity, and she tried to foster this attitude at the undergraduate
level. Gina, the ceramicist, spoke about the impact of research on her artistic work and on the practice of
students, noting: “I’ve noticed students struggle whilst they’re in the research process, but in the end they all
say it was one of the most important things they had every done as an artist”.
Again aligning with Neumann’s key themes, artistic practice appears to provide the impetus for, and
broader approaches towards, teaching. Within a new fine arts unit, for example, Ken designed pathways that
encourage students “to take these strange journeys to places they are unfamiliar with”. By adopting a broad
approach focused more on “imagination, imaginative capability, capacity to connect things, metaphoric
jumps”, Ken drew on the excitements and creative possibilities he had experienced, and which “potentially
can be activated in the students as well”. He deliberately connected artistic practice and teaching by
undertaking projects he had set his students, because otherwise “you don’t have an understanding of what the
outcome is”. Composer Leo was very clear that he approached his undergraduate teaching from “an artistic
point of view, not from a purely academic one. Reminiscent of Ivan’s dialogue approach, Leo described
himself as “just facilitating the process whereby the composers learn a little bit more but they are still free to
be creative”. These responses align with Cuskelly’s (2006) ‘significant interplay’ and they remind us that the
knowledge flow is multi-directional.
The difficulty of negotiating a nexus between artistic practice, research and teaching was compounded
by the need to meet the various demands of institutional and governmental frameworks. These difficulties
include pressure to upgrade qualifications and produce traditionally notated research papers, which can call
for vastly different skills to those required for teaching or artistic practice. In part, participants’ concerns
related to the time required to enact all three roles, along with administrative responsibilities, to a high
standard. Issues of time also related to the different mindset required for each activity. Artist Gina described
“the free dynamic of potential” within artistic practice compared to a different kind of focus needed for
academic research. She found it “extremely difficult to jump from creative critique to creative practice” and
saw the same dilemma in her postgraduate students.

Closing summary
Belief in the ART nexus seems to stem from careful consideration of the relationship between the roles of
artist, researcher and teacher. It is this thinking that influences the construction of pedagogy by and through
the nexus. Indeed, all of the participants who were successfully negotiating the nexus expressed a strong belief
in the relationship between these three roles. Participants not engaged in research around their artistic practice
were not overtly engaged in deliberate reflection and research, and the nexus was, therefore, not
acknowledged.
The importance of this belief becomes even more apparent in the second key point: artist academics
who take a broad approach to the question of a nexus between teaching and research are those who tend to
report innovative pedagogies. Our research indicates that this broad approach requires understanding that the
knowledge emerging from artistic practice, and which informs teaching, includes psychological,
phenomenological, technical, structural, historical, musical, performative and creative aspects; that it can be

75
explicit or tacit in form; and that it can be systematised and constructed into models or structures of learning
that guide teaching approaches.
A third important factor emerging from the study relates to institutional reward systems and the
signals sent to academics about the importance of each role. This comes as many institutions seek to
understand and recognise artistic practice in line with the new Australian research evaluation framework.
Recognising and encouraging pedagogies and research that is not in written form, and understanding the
innovative approaches employed in artistic research, offers new opportunities to explore how these
approaches can move beyond, and complement, traditional modes of teaching and research.
Rather than a linear progression, participants refer to a true nexus, or connection, that enables artist
academics to position themselves within the questions that surround artistic practice and the scholarship of
teaching. Thus the addition of artistic practice as both contributor and beneficiary of the teaching-research
nexus calls for a fluid model that accommodates a range of approaches, directions and connections. We draw
this from Griffith’s (2004) typology, which posits four orientations stemming from the relationship between
teaching and research (in Jenkins & Healey, 2005, p. 21):

Research-led teaching:
Research-oriented teaching:
Research-based teaching:
Research-informed teaching:
Emphasises research findings with little focus on the impact of teaching on
research;
Emphasises both the process and outcomes of research, and draws on the
research experiences of teachers;
Integrates research and the design of student learning, lessens the divide
between student and teacher, and fully explores interactions between teaching
and research;
Consciously and systematically inquires into the teaching and learning
process.

Griffith’s approach is particularly useful when considering the addition of artistic research, because
negotiating the complexity of such a nexus requires the adoption of a suitable orientation for each new
situation. This fluidity can be variously determined by the needs (or requirements) of the university, the
sector, students, curriculum, teaching approaches, research, and artistic practice. For those participants
successfully negotiating the nexus, it was the orientation they adopted that enabled them to situate their work.
Our findings raise questions such as how the artist academic balances a practice of professional
standard with teaching, research and the requirements of academia; and also how the flow of knowledge
within ART, and the innovative approaches adopted by arts practitioners, can inform and refresh the teaching
pedagogies and research paradigms of other disciplines. Whilst the conflict arising from this nexus remains,
the fluidity of approaches and knowledge within ART are worthy of much greater attention.

References
Barrett, M. (2006). Creative collaboration: an ‘eminence’ study of teaching and learning in music
composition, Psychology of Music, 34, 195-218.
Blank, M. & Davidson, J. (2007). An exploration of the effects of musical and social factors in piano duo
collaborations, Psychology of Music, 35, 231-248. Retrieved on May 6th, 2009 from
http://pom.sagepub.com.
Blom, D. (2006). Preparing Ross Edwards’s Kumari for performance: conceptual planning. In S. Macarthur,
B. Crossman, R. Morelos (Eds.). Intercultural Music: Creation and Interpretation. Sydney: Australian
Music Centre, pp. 111-115.
Blom, D., Bennett, D., & Wright, D. (Forthcoming). How artists working in academia view artistic practice as
research: implications for tertiary music education. International Journal of Music Education.
Bolt, B. (2006). A non standard deviation: handlability, praxical knowledge and practice led research. Paper
delivered at the conference Speculation and Innovation: applying practice led research in the Creative
Industries. Retrieved on June 8th, 2009 from http://artsresearch.brighton.ac.uk/links/practice-
led/Bolt2005.pdf
Crossman, B. (2006). Moving between things: heaven and hell, visual and sonic gestures towards transcendent
oneness. In S. Macarthur, B. Crossman, R. Morelos (Eds.). Intercultural Music: Creation and
Interpretation. Sydney: Australian Music Centre, pp. 45-50.

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Cuskelly, M.R. (2006). Two lives in one: theatre making & teaching. RealTime August – September, No. 74, pp.
2 & 4.
Griffiths, R. (2004). Knowledge production and the research-teaching nexus: The case of the built environment
disciplines. Studies in Higher Education, 29(6), 709-726.
Hannan, M. (2006). Making music:inside/outside. RealTime August – September, No. 74, pp. 6, 8
Hasemann, B. (2007). Rupture and recognition: Identifying the performative research paradigm. In E. Barrett, B.
Bolt (Eds.). Practice as research – approaches to creative arts enquiry. New York: I.B.Tauris, pp. 147-157.
Neumann, R. (1996). Researching the teaching-research nexus: a critical review. Australian Journal of
Education, 40(1), 5-18.
Odam, G. (2001). Research in the arts: issues in the development of new and relevant techniques of arts
research in music, the arts and arts education. Music Education Research, 3(1) 77-86.
Thome, D. (1995). Reflections on collaborative process and compositional revolution.
Leonardo Music Journal, 5, 29-32.

Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge all the artistic academics who have generously contributed to our work. We
also acknowledge our third team member, Dr David Wright (UWS). Expanded findings from this phase of
research are published with JUTLP. For more information, please see: Bennett, D., Wright, D., & Blom, D.
The artistic practice-research-teaching (ART) nexus: Translating the information flow. Journal of University
Teaching and Learning Practice, 7(2). Available at: http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol7/iss2/3

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Childhood to teacher: Pre-service educators’ formative musical experiences and their decision to
become a classroom music teacher
Dominique Courtney Anderson, St. Paul’s Grammar School, NSW

Abstract
This study explores the relationships between formative musical experiences, narrative constructions of music
teacher identity and the influence of these identity constructions on the decision to become a classroom music
teacher among a group of pre-service music teachers. Case studies of 15 participants were conducted.
Participants were from the Bachelor of Music (Music Education) degree program at the Sydney
Conservatorium of Music, a faculty of the University of Sydney. Data were collected through individual semi-
structured interviews with the participants. The study explored the musical, schooling and cultural
backgrounds of these pre-service music teachers. Data were analysed through open coding and narrative
analysis. Narrative responses to questions about formative musical experiences, their relationship to music
teacher identity construction and how these relate to the decision to become a classroom music teacher,
encoded five key frames. These are: individual cultural background; memories of patterns of pedagogy;
impressions of music teachers; the cultural and educational status of music; and music’s importance within
family and social life. The findings of this study contribute to the growing body of research and literature in
this field and generate a number of avenues for future research. These include investigation of the motivations
behind international students studying in the Music Education degree program at the Sydney Conservatorium
of Music, comparison of pre-service music teachers at other institutions, music teacher identity and it’s
formation throughout an entire degree program and beyond and further research in this study’s area over a
larger timeframe.

Introduction
The study is a multi-case study of the influence of formative musical experiences on the decision by pre-
service music teachers to become a classroom music teacher. It is a study of one of a number of musical roles
students identify with at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music, that of classroom teacher (in contrast with but
possibly including aspects of others such as performer, conductor, composer or musicologist) and how
students come to assume this role as a significant aspect of their musical identity (McCarthy, 2007).
Research has shown that there is a strong relationship between narrative and the construction of
identity. Stories arise out of musical experiences and the meanings of these are entangled with the music
making and the human relationships surrounding such musical activity and the dialectic that sustains these
(McCarthy, 2007). While the subject of this study is the relationship between formative musical experiences
and pre-service music teacher identity, it also concentrates on how such experiences are woven into stories.
As will be seen, stories are shaped by individual cultural background, memories of patterns of pedagogy,
impressions of music teachers, the cultural and educational status of music, and music’s importance within
family and social life more broadly.
Each music teacher has their own rich history of musical interests and experiences, each shaped by
unique social and cultural contexts. When investigating musical identity, especially pre-service music teacher
identity, it is worthwhile investigating how past musical experiences shed light on their current values and
ideologies regarding teaching. Pre-service music teachers have an important perspective to offer since in a
sense they are in a liminal space, somewhere between the formative experiences that have shaped their
decisions to pursue music education studies and the full realisation of the musical identity they have assumed
or are in the process of assuming.

Background and themes

The journey from student to music teacher is one of evolution and understanding of self. An individual’s
formative musical experiences shape their developing identity in relation to their specific environment
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Having a strong musical identity is clearly an important element in becoming a well-
developed ‘musician’, whether it is in relation to performance or music educator capacity (Lamont, 2002).
‘Self-concept’ and ‘self-image’ are part of making the transition between student and teacher, especially those
endeavouring to take on the role of classroom music teacher.

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Theme 1: Narrative and experience
Humans are seen to have a base purpose in life to communicate their experiences and ideas to others in order
to make sense of the world around them (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009; Chase, 2000; Clandinin, 2006; Clandinin
& Connelly, 2000; Polkinghorne, 1988; Squire, 2008). Reflection on past experiences, as well as interactions
with other people in various contexts, affects the development of the self in the future (MacDonald,
Hargreaves & Miell, 2002). Narratives are seen as an organisational framework for reflection in story form to
others (Polkinghorne, 1988, p. 13).
The construction of narratives is not a static process. It is ever changing as new experiences are
assimilated into the self (De Nora, 2000; Giddens, 1991; Polkinghorne, 1988). Bruner (1990) and Giddens
(1991, p. 72) both argue that identity and the self are constructed through coherent autobiographical
narratives. These narratives are continuously revised and are filtered through abstract systems such as various
life experiences (Giddens, 1991, p. 5). Through reflections on previous experiences, and filtration of new
information, a continual process of identity construction is facilitated (Ferguson, 2009, p. 88).
In relation to musical experience and construction of music teacher identity, the understanding of
narrative construction allows for pre-service music teachers to “stitch their lives together ... through musical
memories” (Slobin, 1991, p. 6). By relating and retelling self-constructed personal narratives to another
person (in this case the researcher), this research experience acts as a reflection process in the construction of
music-teacher identity.

Discussion: The Study Participants

Fifteen participants were recruited for interview and all were enrolled in the Bachelor of Music (Music
Education) degree programme. Three of these were from the 2009 third year cohort and twelve were from the
2009 fourth year cohort. This sample group comprised six males and nine females aged between 21 and 23.
Table 1 provides details of the participants’ schooling, musical involvement and cultural background.
As cultural background was a significant factor in the study, it is important to note this representation
in the sample. Four participants (three female and one male) were born outside Australia. Six are of Asian
descent (five Chinese and one Burmese), one is of Middle Eastern descent and the remaining six are Anglo-
Australian.

Table 1: Participant information overview

Participant Musical focus and Schooling Cultural background
involvement and experience*
Eric Clarinet, alto saxophone, K-12 private Catholic boys’ Anglo-Australian
prestigious bands school Northern Sydney
Brett Vocal major, began late, tenor Yrs 3-12 private boys’ Anglo-Australian, lived
saxophone school, Sydney in UK in 2004 teaching
Louise Late starter, saxophone/voice, Various primary schools, Anglo-Australian
composition private girls’ high school –
North Shore
Emily Violin – late starter Various primary schools in Iranian born; moved to
West Sydney, Christian Australia in 1994,
high school
Lucy Piano Various schools overseas, Chinese born (Shanghai);
Anglican high school South moved to Australia in
Sydney 2003
Chris Saxophone, many bands Public primary, private co- Anglo-Australian
educational Christian high
school North West Sydney
Courtney Piano/flute, rock band Various North West Anglo-Australian
Sydney primary schools,
Christian co-educational
high school
Holly Clarinet, viola, violin Northern Beaches 2 local Anglo-Australian
public schools

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Paul Jazz pianist Public schools, selective Anglo-Australian
high school
Lisa Piano Various schools overseas, Chinese born, moved to
public high school North Australia in 2003
Sydney
Matt Piano International schools, Burmese born, Asylum
public high school West Seeker now Australian
Sydney, Performing Arts citizen (2000)
high school
Kirsty Piano, trombone, competent Various South West/West Chinese ancestry, lived in
conductor Sydney primary schools, Australia entire life,
girls’ Catholic high school speaks dialect of Chinese
North Sydney
Ellen Piano Various schools overseas, Australian-born Chinese,
private girls’ high school has also lived in Hong
Sydney Kong and Singapore,
Sophie Bassoon/Flute Public primary, private co- Anglo-Australian
educational high school
Tasmania
David Oboe/Piano/Voice/Saxophone Public primary, private co- Anglo-Australian
educational Christian high
school, South West Sydney
*unless otherwise stated, all participants were born in Australia

Narrative construction, musical identity, and becoming a classroom music teacher

The study participants were interviewed using a set interview schedule (see Appendix A). The questions were
formed based on the literature reviewed. Each interview was transcribed and analysed. The analysis process is
explained below. The following is an explanation of how data were analysed using a narrative inquiry style
framework. When considering the results of the data, it was acknowledged by the researcher that questions
posed to interview participants were shaping the narrative that followed. This was known as the “researcher
frame”.

The Research Frame

The presence of the researcher frame concept is explained as follows. First, the research questions are
grounded in the relevant music education literature. The researcher was a pre-service music teacher studying
at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music. Second, the interview questions supply a ‘frame’ around which
participants can construct their narratives and in turn condition the narratives produced. Five additional frames
were identified in the data from studying the relationship between how the participants constructed narratives
in response to the researcher frame. Over 60 codes related to these frames were also identified in the data,
however space precludes every one of these from being discussed.
It is important to note that the frames do not generally ‘appear’ or ‘operate’ in isolation. Each frame
allows the processing of data in relation to cultural, educational and social considerations more generally. The
multiple codes operating within each frame mean that frames often overlap or interact with each other, in
some cases suggesting complex causal links between frames, as will be seen. The five frames are:

• Frame one: Individual cultural background

• Frame two: Memories of patterns of pedagogy
• Frame three: Impressions of music teachers
• Frame four: The cultural and educational status of music
• Frame five: Music’s importance within family and social life

Below is an analysis of how the five frames operate in relation to narrative construction and music
teacher identity formation. Generally, only one narrative excerpt of data is able to be included here. The
frames are shaded to indicate how they ‘operate’ in a narrative excerpt. Further on in the analysis that follows,

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frames are graphically depicted (with both shading and boxes) as operating in conjunction with each other.

Frame one: Individual cultural background

Cultural background is an actual ‘site’ of identity. Music is an impetus for grounding one’s own identity, and
this can be seen in participant responses. The personal experiences of participants in relation to their home
music culture and Australian musical cultures have had a role in their decision to become a music teacher.
Instilling passion for music and an interest in cultures other than their own has even driven some participants
to further music study. Emily reflected on the music of Iran and how it has contributed to her broader
understanding of music:

Emily: Whenever I experienced music, Iranian music, it was always such an expression, like mournful
music and like it’s really nostalgic. It might remind you of a particular thing. It expressed so much so
clearly.

Below is an example of an international student’s decision-making reasoning in relation to parental advice.

Lucy is from a Chinese background, having grown up in her home country and moved to Australia to begin
Year 10. She narrates the traditional view of careers for girls in her country:

Lucy: I got two offers for Uni. One was commerce and one was music education…they [my parents]
agree music suits me better…Traditional [Chinese] view about what kind of career is better for girls.
They think if you are a girl you will have a family later, then your major role will be raising a
child…music teacher means more time to spend with the family.

Lucy’s cultural background has significantly influenced her career choice. Her university offers were very
different to each other, one being business-related (which she later in the interview explained would bring her
more earning power) but music teaching, she explains, would be more suitable as a career for a female in her
society.
Not only is her cultural background shaping her decision – we also see that she relies on her parents
for advice regarding career path. Her parents value music as a means for a woman to assume the conventional
role of mother in a family, which points Lucy in the direction of preparing for a music teaching career.
A number of the Chinese participants explained how they were guided by particular cultural norms
regarding what would be considered a worthwhile career in their home society, particularly for a woman.
Although Australian born and resident in Australia for her entire life, Kirsty commented on her struggle with
her Chinese parents to begin learning music and choosing to study music education:

Kirsty: The whole family dream of having doctor children … it really was a struggle. I had to sort of
convince them that I was going to do well in it … music wasn’t a profession.

As can be seen in these examples and also in the narrative constructions above, individual cultural background
has played a significant role in the music teacher identity formation of these participants.

Frame two: Memories of patterns of pedagogy

Narratives constructed according to this frame encompass themes of pedagogical methods employed by
school and private music teachers, learning venues, formal examinations, impacts of tertiary training and
significant factors influencing pedagogical practice. Memories of patterns of pedagogy have been influential
for two reasons. Firstly, the responses were cast either positively or negatively. The participants who reflected
on positive memories of pedagogy said they were likely to emulate these positive teaching models. Those
with negative experiences were motivated to avoid poor teaching practices and imposing these on their
students, and these experiences themselves have been the impetus for their decision to become a music
teacher. Here is one such memory of a music teacher from a participant:

David: He was a joke … in hindsight he gave me the motivation to be better than him … I was always
trying to outdo him.

Secondly, memories of pedagogy are vividly imprinted on the memories of these participants. By critically

81
reflecting on these formative experiences, participants develop their own unique music teacher identities using
and discarding whatever information they have acquired to develop a stronger identity for their music teacher
careers. Consider the following narrative excerpts, for example:

Chris: Some things you know I’ve been wanting to correct because I don’t agree with what I’ve been
taught, but others I really want to reflect and build on what they’ve taught me as far as teaching is
concerned.
Courtney: I think you teach the way you were taught – at least you know you could change the way you
teach, but they have modelled greatly how I will be able to teach in the future.

Reflections on pedagogy can also be closely related to the impressions that music teachers leave on students.
Emily reflects throughout her interview on a poor high school music teacher who, as a frame of reference, has
significantly contributed to the formation of her music teacher identity. Here she narrates how influential
aspects of her tertiary training shape her decision to become a music teacher. She includes reference to he
secondary school teacher-model.

Emily: Practical experience was definitely a significant factor in my increasingly positive attitude
towards music teaching. Although I was learning the facts of teaching, I didn’t understand what it
meant to be a teacher until I had the opportunity to do so. So I have to say that my high school prac,
more than any study at uni, impacted my decision to one day become a music teacher. Having said that,
it also made me realise just how much work it takes to be an effective teacher who creates music
experiences with relevance for the students. I’m determined that if and when I teach, I will be such a
teacher, as I know first hand what it is to have a [high school] teacher who is the complete opposite!

As Emily narrates, the process of identity construction can be observed as emerging. She links practical
experiences from tertiary education to memories of high school musical pedagogy, signalling how several
factors co-operate in identity construction.

Frame three: Impressions of music teachers

By reflecting on pedagogical practices of former teachers, participants are also reflecting on the impression
those teachers have left on them. These teachers include private instrumental teachers, band
leaders/conductors and mainly high school music teachers. As with memories of pedagogy, participants
reflected on their music teachers in both positive and negative ways. In relation to the formation of music
teacher identity, eight participants reflected positively on their high school music teachers and the remaining
seven, negatively. Brett, for example, reflected on how his music teacher had positively shaped his thinking
regarding his future musical career through his work with him.

Brett: I think Mr Barnes had a big role in my singing life … he worked heavily with me on singing … I
really fell in love with singing.

Brett was encouraged by his high school music teacher to sing which ultimately led him to undertake vocal
training at the SCM. His teacher served as a model in the development of his music teacher identity. In the
following excerpt, he casts his thought in the form of reported speech:

Brett: I had a good music teacher which I thought, “I want to be like him,” ‘cos he was that good; it was
like that. I thought, “Geez, I want to be that”.

This indicates an acknowledgement of the self, which is important in subconscious identity formation.
Acknowledging that he processed the impression at the time, he relates his ‘self’ to a teacher-model and
identifies with the model positively, thus demonstrating music teacher identity construction at work.
Here is another positive impression of a music teacher, this time a female band director:

Kirsty: My band director…she had an education degree as well, so talking to her made me think, “Oh
yeah, this is what I really wanna do”… you know, like take a band in the school but also be qualified to

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 teach in the classroom.

Here, as elsewhere in the data presented, the pre-service music teachers participating in the study model
themselves on teachers of the same sex as themselves. Kirsty narrates the origin of her desire to both conduct
a school band program and qualify as a classroom music teacher. Her music teacher identity is being
constructed in relation to a band director model. She also reflects her thinking process in the form of reported
speech, clearly indicating how, during her high school music training, like Brett, Kirsty was already
constructing her future music teacher identity.
Another kind of narrative construction in relation to the over-arching frame is indicated in the following
excerpt, while recalling a negative memory of pedagogy:

Emily: But it was always just, “Okay, compose this,” and [I] just felt so like, “Where do I start? What
do I do?” So it was never enjoyable for me.

As above, reported speech is used by Emily, but here in the form of quoting the music teacher then recalling
her own thinking. Emily recalls the pedagogical approach of the teacher (a memory of a pattern of pedagogy)
however in the form of a lasting negative impression. Emily’s feelings of confusion at the time are conveyed
through a rhetorical question. In this example the frames clearly interact with each other to form links between
frames and in turn, codes.
Chris had five saxophone teachers over a period of five years. He relayed stories about each of them in
chronological order. For each he constructed narrative scenarios to convey information about the personality
of each teacher. In this example he speaks of his third teacher who bullied him during his lessons:

Chris: The third teacher I had, she was really tough and pretty cynical. You know, you’d get a scale
wrong in front of her and she’d be like, “Well, did you actually do any practice this week?”

Experiencing such negative interactions with a music teacher clearly left an impression on this participant,
contributing to how he views music teachers and hence suggesting how in response he is constructing his own
music teacher identity. Again, in this example, Chris recalls a memory of pedagogy, indicating how the
frames interact with each other.

Frame four: The cultural and educational status of music

This frame addresses arising themes such as the status of classroom music in Australia and other countries, the
status of private tuition and teachers, negative and positive opinions of Australian music teachers and also the
status of the SCM as a music-training institution.
From the data, it was apparent that participants highly regarded the subject of music – whether it was
related to teaching specifically or in general life. Opinion of the subject itself is highly influential in their
decision to teach it in the classroom.
Through reflection on opinions of music teaching as a profession, participants assessed their prior
knowledge and understanding of their future profession in relation to their formative music experiences and
also social experiences of teaching. A clear distinction between positive and negative opinions was apparent
in this frame.
In relation to other cultures, the data showed that in China, music was not a serious subject and only
detracted from academic study. In Iran, music is highly valued in society and therefore becoming a music
teacher is respected. In Burma, although not paid very well, teachers command a high degree of respect as
highlighted in the narrative excerpt below.

Matt: In the professional field they are valued … put against god … they believe that teachers and
parents, you have to give them respect, same as their god.

This is in contrast to Chris’ opinion of respect for music teachers in the Western Sydney region:

Chris: From my experience and what I’ve heard, the further west you go the less teachers are respected.

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This narrative excerpt communicates a mixed (positive and negative) view of the status of music:

Kirsty: Teaching is a thing you do if you can’t get a good enough UAI…but people don’t think any less
of them [teachers]. They respect their job because you know our education system compared to other
countries is really good.

This participant believes teaching has low status but this is offset somewhat by the relatively high standard of
Australian education. The excerpt indicates how the participant rationalises her enrolment in a pre-service
music education degree and hence constructs her own music teacher identity.
Here is an opinion of the music education degree from within the SCM, which turns into a generalised
personal opinion of teaching in society:

Holly: I feel performance students look down on the education side of things and a lot of people reflect
on teaching in general – they say that thing … “Those that
can’t do, teach”.

Holly recites the colloquial phrase “those that can’t do, teach,” which often arose in the participants’
narratives. The prevalence of this notion in participant responses across the sample suggests low self-efficacy
in the area of performance among pre-service music teachers at the SCM. Despite the performance-related
accomplishments of the participants and noted high self-efficacy in music at the commencement of tertiary
study, this suggests the presence of a significant element of self-doubt in the area of musical performance
skills among pre-service music teachers, which in specific ways may be part of the unspoken culture of the
institution itself (further research could consider this notion). Among the study’s participants at least, the
perception was prevalent that at the SCM the pre-service music education degree is valued less highly than the
performance degree.
Many participants were drawn to study at the SCM because of the prestige of the institution,
highlighting the presence of Bourdieu’s notion of habitus in the decision making process. The SCM serves as
an ‘image’ of status and recognition in the music education world. All participants remarked that it was the
best place for the study of music and to become a music teacher. Lucy in particular commented on the
building itself being “impressive” and that studying there would be highly regarded back in her home country.

Lucy: I think the building, the first impression it’s really good. And then sort of you know learning
music in a Western country was also impressive.

Participants also remarked on how their music teachers’ thought that the SCM was the best place to study due
to their own prior affiliation with or knowledge of the University.

David: I grew up in south western Sydney and there was this kind of aura about the Con, that it was you
know, the place to go … I guess I studied Music Ed because I want to be a teacher and you get a badge
when you leave Sydney Uni.

Here we see how teachers themselves can be influential on the musical identities of their students. Instilling
the idea of “cultural capital”, an essential part of habitus, in their students, they have built an image of the
SCM as a positive and impressive place to study.

Frame five: Music’s importance within family and social life

It was apparent from the data that parents had a significant influence on their child’s decision to become a
music teacher and subsequently have been influential in the construction of their music teacher identity. The
ways and extent to which participants’ parents value music (both positive and negative) have created strong
and lasting impressions and contributed significantly to their decision to become a music teacher.
In this narrative music teaching is projected by the parent as being socially beneficial, as constituting a
kind of service to society (it also indicates that music is seen as a pursuit that is ‘unacademic’, one particular
cultural view of music):

Courtney: Mum really encouraged me to be a teacher … especially music teaching because it’s an area

84
 where you can really care for the kids because they don’t often excel in other areas, but music is
something you can help those kids that aren’t quite academic, really kind of blossom.

In contrast, Kirsty’s parents did not value music as a field of study:

Kirsty: my parents didn’t want me to do music at all … it really affected that way I thought about it
because fifty percent of me was like, you know, “Totally doing it because damn I’m going to prove you
wrong!”

This participant resolved to study music to prove something to her parents, almost as a form of rebellion. The
participant once again projects her thoughts at the time as reported speech, acknowledging the self, indicating
that she has critically reflected on her own construction of music teacher identity. Her determination to
become a music teacher was initially motivated by this challenge to her parents’ cultural viewpoint. This was
not the only factor that affected her music teacher identity construction, as she acknowledges, however it did
play a major role.
Positive early experiences within the home have impacted all participants’ future identities in music in
relation to musical taste, commitment to their study and becoming a teacher. The data realised that positive
parental/familial interactions with music in the younger stages of life can be influential on future musical
participation. Although, at times, negative responses were recorded, positive parental encouragement, funding
and love of music were prominent factors in the musical identities of these pre-service music teachers. A
broad range of familial musical experience was recorded. Some participants had no musicians in the family
whereas others came from a highly musical background. Despite these varying relations to music within the
home, all parents encouraged music itself as a suitable recreational activity at the very least.
Early experiences with music in the home were all positive. Only two participants mentioned that they
were ‘forced’ into musical study (Ellen and Lucy). Lucy reflected on the reasons behind her mother beginning
her piano tuition.

Lucy: When I was little my mum forced me to learn the piano … she just thought if you can play the
piano you can enjoy music and then you know make your life a little more colourful.

Although ‘forced’ is a negative word, we can see that Lucy’s mother had positive intentions for her daughter’s
musical learning. Many participants started musical training at a very early age and so at times it would be
only natural that parents needed to be prominent in the musical practice or instigation of musical study with
their children.
Many parents instilled in their children a love of music but also the idea that teaching music would be a
stable career path that would support a flowing income. Matt recalls how his mother advised him:

Matt: [Mum] said it’s better to do education so that you can have a secure job.

Here, music is perceived by Matt’s mother as offering job security, important to someone such as Matt and his
family who moved to Australia seeking political and social stability.

Conclusion
Educational implications
Since music teachers provide modelling for the future musical identity formation of their students, it is
important for pre-service music educators’ to reflect on their own formative musical experiences in order to
better understand their identity as well as what parts of that identity they will consciously model for their
future students. This study agrees with the literature regarding the notion that music teachers and other factors
including parents and schooling have a significant influence on identity formation.
The study also establishes that cultural background can play a significant role in the musical identity
formation of pre-service teachers. The context in which one learns, where one grows up and where one lives
shapes one’s actions, especially relating to music (Roberts, 1991). In particular, this study highlights that
participants who reside in Australia (yet are from a non Anglo-Australian cultural background) are
significantly conditioned by both the values of their home culture and the values of Anglo-Australian society.
Significant differences in relation to career choice were evident in the narrative data.

85
Suggestions for future research
There is much room for further research on this topic. Future research could profitably concentrate on pre-
service teachers’ cultural backgrounds and how these more specifically shape music teacher identity
formation. Comparable studies could be conducted in other institutions in Sydney, in other States, and around
the world, to consider the identity construction of pre-service music teachers more broadly.
More specifically, this research could be consulted by the SCM to better understand and cater for the
emerging needs of students during this formative stage in their lives and to assist in future planning of the
music education degree programme. It could also be used in the development of strategies for recruiting
international students to the music education programme.
This study contributes to the broader literature and research in the fields of music teacher identity
formation and narrative inquiry in music education. It supports the notion that music teacher identity is
significantly affected by formative music experiences and the shaping of identity in relation to these
experiences significantly contributes to one’s decision to become a music teacher. The study also supports the
findings that parents and music teachers have the greatest influence on pre-service teachers’ decision to
become a music teacher.

References
Abramo, M. (2008). Music educator as social agent: A personal narrative. In L. Thompson & M. Campbell.
(Eds.) Diverse methodologies in the study of music teaching and learning (pp. 91-110). Charlotte, NC:
Information Age Publications.
Barrett, M. & Stauffer, S. (Eds.). (2009). Narrative inquiry in music education: Troubling certainty. New
York: Springer.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1993). The forms of capital. In C. Calhoun, E. LiPuma, & M. Postone. (Eds.) Bourdieu. Critical
Perspectives (pp. 61-88). Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bresler, L. (2006). Embodied narrative inquiry: a methodology of connection. Research Studies in Music
Education, 27, 21-43.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chase, S. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Multiple lenses, approaches, voices. In N. Denzin., & Y. Lincoln. (Eds.),
The handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 435-454). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Clandinin, D. (2006). Narrative inquiry: a methodology for studying lived experience. Research Studies in
Music Education, 27, 44-54.
Clandinin, D., & Connelly, F. (2000). Narrative inquiry experience and story in qualitative research. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Clandinin, D., Huber, J., Huber, M., Murphy, M., Murray-Orr, A., Pearce, M., & Steeves, P. (2006).
Composing diverse identities: Narrative inquiries into the interwoven lives of children and teacher.
London: Routledge.
DeNora, T. (2000). Music in everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferguson, K. (2009). Filtered through the lenses of self: Experiences of two pre-service music teachers. In M.
Barrett., & L. Stauffer. (Eds.) Narrative inquiry in music education: Troubling certainty, (pp. 87-106).
New York: Springer.
Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. United Kingdom:
Polity Press.
Lamont, A. (2002). Musical identities and the school environment. In R. MacDonald., D. Hargreaves., & D.
Miell. (Eds.) Musical identities (pp. 49-55). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lee, M. (1993). ‘Exploring the economy of symbolic goods’ In Lee, M. Consumer culture reborn: The
cultural politics of consumption (pp. 25-39). Routledge: London, 25-39.
Macdonald, R., Hargreaves, D., & Miell, D. (2002). Musical identities. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McCarthy, M. (2007). Narrative inquiry as a way of knowing in music education. Research Studies in Music
Education, 29, 3-12.
Polkinghorne, D. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. New York: State University of New
York Press.

86
Roberts, B. (1991). Music teacher education as identity construction. International Journal of Music
Education, 18, 30-39.
Slobin, M. (1993). Subcultural sounds: Micromusics of the West. Hanover: Wesleyan University Press.
Stakelum, H. (2008). Creating a musical world in the classroom: application of a Bourdieuan approach
towards understanding teacher practice. British Journal of Music Education, 25, 91-102.
Tranter, D. (2006). Becoming self-conscious: Exploring habitus. Refereed paper presented at AARE 2006
conference December, University of Adelaide.

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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Introductory questions
1. Name.
2. Gender.
3. How old are you?
4. What instruments do you play?

Studying at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music

5. Why did you decide to study music education at the Sydney Conservatorium of Music?
6. Before beginning university, did you have any teaching roles? If so what were they?
7. Do you plan to continue teaching after your degree is completed? Why or why not?
8. In what ways have the last three/four years of tertiary music education impacted your decision to
become a classroom music teacher?
9.
Parental influence on decision to study music
10. Have your parents ever studied music? If so, what instruments, how long and to what extent?
11. How did this impact on your decision to become a music teacher?
12. Did your parents have an influence on you choosing to become a music teacher? If so, how and why?

Style of music learning – formative experiences during childhood

13. What were your musical experiences at home?
14. When did you first begin learning music?
15. Was this formal or informal? (Early childhood music groups, formal music lessons, self taught,
traditional methods?)
16. Did you ever sit for any formal music examinations such as AMEB? If so, on what instruments and to
what grade?
17. Do you think that AMEB exams made a difference in you choosing to become a teacher? If so, why
or why not?

Style of music learning – school music learning context

18. Where did you go to school?
19. What impact did your school music learning experiences have on your decision to become a music
teacher?
20. a) Describe your school music teachers.
b) What teaching methods did they use? What was their approach to teaching?
c) Do you believe they had a significant impact on you choosing to become a music teacher? If so,
how and why?
d)
Geographic location and context

21. Were you or your parents born in a country other than Australia? If so, where?
22. How did the traditional or cultural differences in music learning have an impact your own music
learning?
23. How is the vocation of music teaching seen in your country/culture?
24. Where did you live while growing up? What area? (Rural/regional/metropolitan)
25. Do you believe where you lived had an impact on your school music learning? Why or why not?

Personal opinion of influence and extent of formative musical experiences impact

26. Do you believe that your formative musical experiences have had an impact on your choosing to
study music education? If so, how? Why/Why not?

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Shared concerns: Investigating instrumental teachers' discussions in an asynchronous web forum
Eleanor McPhee, Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology, Inc.

Abstract
Instrumental music teachers generally work in professional isolation in an environment where there is little or
no communication between staff and little access to professional development. Whereas instrumental teachers
are highly trained and experienced as performers, they rarely have had any training as teachers and the
isolated nature of their profession means that they infrequently have opportunities to see how others teach.
This study investigates a four-week discussion and collaboration between ten experienced instrumental music
teachers utilising an online discussion platform. The study aimed to firstly, determine issues of significance to
experienced teachers who are teaching high school aged students and to explore the similarities and
differences between this teaching cohort and the findings of research into instrumental teachers operating at a
tertiary level. Secondly, it aimed to ascertain whether an asynchronous online forum could become an
effective medium for shared reflection and group problem solving. Results suggested that experienced
teachers of high school aged students are concerned with matters involving student retention such as inspiring
students, strategising practice and making the repertoire for the instrument relevant to students who have no
previous exposure to this. The asynchronous online forum allowed peer scaffolding of knowledge as the
discourse moved from a sharing of experiences to more significant negotiations of meaning with only minimal
focusing of the issues by the researcher.

Introduction
Instrumental music teaching is a solitary profession and therefore researching within the intimate environment
of the one-to-one music lesson offers challenges. Because lessons operate behind closed doors, “research
access to the environment raises complex educational and ethical issues, and data has perhaps therefore been
thin on the ground” (Gaunt, 2004, p.57). Many instrumental teachers in Australia lack formal pedagogical
training that is specific to applied music and, due to the isolated nature of the profession, opportunities for
professional development are few and far between. This paper aims to investigate a four-week collaboration
between ten experienced instrumental teachers teaching one-on-one utilising an asynchronous web forum. The
research aimed to discover issues of significance to experienced studio teachers who are predominantly
teaching students of high school age (12-18), and to explore the differences between this teaching cohort and
issues of instrumental teaching at a tertiary level as explored by previous research. It also aims to determine
whether an asynchronous online forum could become an effective medium for shared reflection and group
problem solving and therefore be a useful form of informal professional development for studio music
teachers.

Background
One of the most important aspects of research into one-to-one instrumental music teaching concerns the lack
of formal teacher training. While classroom music teaching is very structured and its pedagogy stems, largely,
from empirical research, there has been little research on the development of instrumental teachers.
Instrumental music teaching is part of an oral/aural tradition that goes back hundreds of years and information
has always been transmitted from teacher to student in an imitative way. In many cases a musician’s ability to
teach develops with experience and reflection however this is by no means the rule. Although some countries
require aspiring instrumental teachers to have pedagogical training with an applied instrumental teaching
focus before seeking employment, this is not the norm in Australia where a majority of instrumental educators
teach themselves to teach. In her investigation into the viability of a national accreditation system for
Australian piano teachers, Gwatkin (2008) notes that “there is currently no national policy or organization for
national accreditation, minimum qualifications, mandatory registration, or ongoing professional development
for studio piano teachers” (p. 3). Watson (2010) concurs, suggesting that “the existing legislative requirements
of the state and territory teacher registration boards do not address a means by which musicians can receive
approved pre-service teacher education for instrumental music teaching only” (p. 200). This situation means
that many instrumental teachers in Australia learn to teach via informal means. This suggests that perhaps
informal learning situations would be a useful way for teachers to develop their pedagogical knowledge
without spending time and money on accreditation that either does not have an applied music teaching focus
or, if it does, is not a recognised requirement for employment as an instrumental teacher.

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 Research into instrumental studio teaching has, for the most part, focused on teaching at a tertiary
level and either takes the form of studies that focus on pedagogical techniques that work for teachers on the
basis of the teachers’ personal experience (Duke & Simmons, 2006; Gaunt, 2004, 2007; Purser, 2005), or are
descriptive studies that present generalized impressions of teaching (Cheng & Durrant, 2007; Duke, Flowers
& Wolfe, 1997; Low, 2000; Neill-Van Cura, 1995). For research that investigates the pedagogical concerns of
instrumental teachers at a tertiary level, expression/interpretation is a major focus (Burwell, 2003a, 2006;
Persson, 1996; Purser, 2005; Arrais & Rodrigues, 2007), as are issues of facilitating student independence
(Burwell, 2003a, 2005, 2006; Gaunt, 2007, 2010; Persson, 1996, 2000; Purser, 2005), the teacher/student
relationship (Gaunt, 2007, 2010; Persson, 1996, 2000; Purser, 2005) and technique (Burwell, 2003a, 2006;
Young et al., 2003; Zhukov, 2008). To a lesser extent teachers are also concerned with critical awareness
(Burwell, 2003a; Purser, 2005), aural awareness (Burwell, 2003a; Purser, 2005), professional isolation
(Gaunt, 2007; Purser, 2005), developing students’ career aspirations (Gaunt, 2010), teacher effectiveness
(Kurkul, 2007; Persson, 1996) and modeling (Purser, 2005).
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) represents a way in which instrumental teachers can
share knowledge given the relative isolation of their profession as CMC presents an effective way to support
collaborative learning (Hirsch, 2005). The pedagogical potential of CMC in music education has been
explored previously (Bauer, 2001; Thompson, 1999; Woody & Fredrickson, 2000) and in an Australian
context (Ballantyne et a., 2009; Merrick, 2002) however not in a studio music situation. Asynchronous online
discussion is a particularly useful forum for studio music teachers because its lack of time constraints allows
participants to respond to discussion at a time of convenience to them and this factor encourages reflective
learning, in-depth thinking and meaningful processing of information (Black, 2005; Dixson, Kuhlhorst &
Reiff, 2006; Gilbert & Dabbagh, 2005; Hara, Bonk & Angeli, 2000; Lang, 2000).

Method
This paper represents an aspect of a larger study and asks the questions:

1. What are the issues of significance for experienced studio teachers who teach high school aged
students?
2. In what ways do these issues differ between this teaching cohort and findings from research into
instrumental teachers operating at a tertiary level?
3. In what ways can an asynchronous online forum become an effective medium for shared reflection
and group problem solving?

A qualitative case study forms the methodological framework of this study as this approach results in a
rich and holistic account of a phenomenon anchored in real-life situations (Merriam, 1998).
The study was based upon the discussions of ten instrumental music teachers over a four-week period within
an asynchronous online discussion forum built using open source blogging software. Participants completed a
profile questionnaire and upon return of this were given access details for the discussion forum that was built
using wordpress.com. Five questions for discussion were drawn from a survey of relevant literature:

1. Why do you teach instrumental music?

2. What do you consider to be the most important goals for a studio music teacher?
3. How do you structure an average lesson?
4. How do you monitor or assess the quality of your teaching?
5. What is your teaching philosophy?

Participants
The participants were all instrumental teachers who work in universities, secondary schools, primary schools,
private music schools and in their own studios in New South Wales. Participants were selected to be a
representative sample in terms of gender and instruments taught however, due to the fact that not everyone
who returned the questionnaire posted on the forum, the sample ended up having more female than male
participants and percussion and voice were not represented. Experience was determined by the number of
years teaching and current number of students following a logical assumption that an unsuccessful teacher
would have difficulty sustaining a studio of 20 or more students over a number of years. Profile questionnaires
were sent to 32 potential participants who were either know or recommended to me through my professional

90
networks or were approached via the Music Teachers Association website.
All participant names have been changed to protect their identities, however as participants all put much
thought into choosing blogging aliases that represented them, I have chosen pseudonyms that reflect the
original name choices of the participants.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data gathered for this study came from the profile questionnaires, the transcripts of the forum discussions and
emailed correspondence between the participants and researcher. The data was coded for musical/pedagogical
themes and types of discourse using the metadata of the web forum itself to sort the themes into categories.
The types of discourse were determined using a coding scheme developed by Garrison, Anderson &
Archer (2001) with coding descriptors further developed for use with this model by Bai (2009). This was used
to classify each discussion post into one of the four phases of knowledge construction.

Phase 1 Triggering Events •Presents background information that culminates in a question

Phase 2 Exploration
Phase 3 Integration
Phase 4 Resolution
Garrison, Anderson & Archer (2001) adapted by Bai (2009)
(Recognition of a problem)
• Asks questions to address puzzlement
• Takes discussion in new direction
• Presents many different ideas/themes, some could be
unsubstantiated contradictions of previous ideas (Divergence)
• Exchanges information including personal
narratives/descriptions/facts (not used as
• evidence to support a conclusion)
• Adds to established points but does not systematically
defend/justify/develop addition (Brainstorming)
• Being explicitly characterized as exploration
• Reference to previous message followed by substantiated
agreement. (Convergence)
• Builds on or adds to other’s ideas (Convergence)
• Provides justified, developed, defensible, yet tentative hypotheses
• Connecting ideas or synthesizing ideas by integrating information
from various
• sources – textbooks, articles, personal experience.
• Creates solution
• Various application to real world
• Testing solutions
• Defending solutions

Findings
The participants posted on the forum a further 11 issues that were of concern to them and these were added to
the existing list of five questions drawn from the literature. The resulting 16 issues were discussed online and
at the close of the forum teachers were asked to email their thoughts on the effectiveness of the study to the
researcher to allow a fine-tuning of the discussion forum.
The following table illustrates the 11 further issues in order of significance, determined by the amount
of discussion on each question. It should be noted that the last four questions of the displayed list were posted
in the last week of the study and therefore the small response to these issues could well be due to the fact that
this study finished in the second week of December and therefore coincided with end of year performances
and should not necessarily be construed to mean a lack of participant interest in these issues.

91
Issues raised by participants

Making ‘classical’ music relevant for students 10 posts

Teaching students to be musically independent 8 posts
The role of modeling in instrumental lessons 7 posts
*Student retention 5 posts
Best teaching moments 5 posts
Student motivation 5 posts
The impact of performing on teaching 4 posts
*The parent/teacher relationship 4 posts
*The value of ensemble playing for students 3 posts
Issues extrinsic to teaching (business skills) 1 post
The ways in which one learns to teach 1 post
* Issues that are not considered by the literature on issues of tertiary studio teaching

The issue of facilitating student musical independence became an over arching theme that appeared in
various discussions throughout the forum and also appeared in the literature. This theme is notable because
whereas the expectation at a tertiary level is for students to develop musical independence for themselves, the
onus appears to fall to the teacher to scaffold this in school-aged students. This theme raised further issues of
modeling, expression, interpretation, experimentation and inspiration. The question was first raised by band
director and piano teacher, Keaton Fan:
We have all seen young pupils who can perform beautifully, but what they perform is an exact clone of
their teacher’s playing. We know the teacher who makes every note beautiful but never looks at the context of
that note. How do we not create little clones of ourselves and produce really thinking independent young
musicians?
This question provoked discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of modeling for students and
this proved to be a polarizing issue as some teachers felt that excessive modeling and demonstration was a
factor in a lack of students’ self expression and independence and allowed students to imitate without thought.
On the other hand, many of the teachers felt that modeling was essential because many students had no
experience of classical music prior to learning their instrument and therefore teacher modeling provided an
important means for them to know what they should sound like. KeatonFan provided a clarification of this
issue:

Of course a teacher must play with and for their pupils. How else can they really experience good
playing? The pupils I worry about are the ones who are drilled to the point that being able to read has
no use and every note has been drilled to perfection.

This clarification provoked various suggestions as to how one can model sound and expression for
students while allowing them some freedom of choice with their playing. The solution agreed upon was that
teachers could spend some lesson time playing with, rather than for students. This could take the form of
unison, duets and piano accompaniments to allow students to experience music as a whole context and, in the
case of piano teachers, playing one hand while the student plays the other. It was decided that this would
allow students to match the teacher’s tone and sound but would give them less opportunity to simply mimic
without thought. It was also decided that teachers must take care to strike a balance between modeling and
getting students to play alone and there should be a variety of musical experiences for students in every lesson
such as teacher modeling, student performance, ensemble playing between teacher and student and the use of
recordings for analysis and discussion. GreenReed noted that:

There are mimetic elements to teaching/ learning that cannot be captured by the exchange of
propositional type speech, no matter how analytical, how well researched and thoughtful, or how
successful we think our methods are.

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 The participants believed, and this is supported by the literature (Burwell, 2005; McPhee, in press;
Persson 1996, 2000; Purser, 2005), that students need to be taught how to create their own unique and
personal interpretations of music. Pamina said:

I think part of teaching music is to give students the tools of interpretation. I had one teacher when I
was learning that I learnt so much from this way – and I try to do the same things with my students.

Strategies for teaching interpretation and expression were distinct from strategies that helped students
to create their own personal expression of the music and included teacher modeling to demonstrate the
expressive characteristics of the music, duets as they “provide a short cut to bring up issues of balance,
intonation and tone colour” (GreenReed), analysis and discussion of a number of recordings of the same piece
to offer a variety of interpretative choices, encouraging students to listen to recordings of their own playing as
this can highlight a lack of expression and having students play for each other to see how other students
approach music of a similar difficulty.
Strategies to facilitate the development of a student’s personal expression of music included having
the student experiment with the interpretation of a piece even if it may not be within the bounds of correct
style, the teaching of improvisation and the use of reflective discussion, which TheWellTemperedTeacher
describes:

I think that individuality can be promoted with a combination of leading questions, discussion about
what the piece means to the student, how they want to play it (thereby finding appropriate ways
physically to achieve this).

Possibilities for developing a student’s creative thinking were also raised as a way of scaffolding
personal expressive choices although teachers seemed unable to give concrete examples of how this could be
achieved. Pamina was the exception to this, noting that she likes to ask students:

to create a short story about what is happening in the music (i.e., something short and silly like a twig
going down a river, and getting caught behind a rock or getting taken away with some rapids).

A total of 80 participant responses were analysed and coded following the Garrison, Anderson and Archer
(2001) modified by Bai (2009) coding schema. Each individual response was taken as a unit for analysis. This
ensured that the length and content of the message was determined by the author rather than the researcher
through the application of one or more codes. Only two responses fell into two categories and in both these
cases each post provided a resolution (phase 4) and then asked a new but related question (phase 1). The
resultant categorization of posts was as follows.

P1 triggering events P2 exploration P3 integration P4 resolution

18 9 13 42

The high percentage of resolution responses is notable because it is at odds with the findings of Garrison,
Anderson and Archer (2001) and Bai (2009) who both found that close to 50% of responses fell into the
exploration phase. I would hypothesize that this is to do with the relative levels of expertise of each
participant base as the aforementioned studies were investigating the responses of students whereas this study
investigates the responses of experts.
The questions that had the largest number of discussion responses were also the ones that showed
examples of shared reflection and group problem solving, evidenced in the presence of all four response
categories. These questions were:

• How do you make “classical music” relevant to the contemporary student? 10 responses.
• How do we produce really thinking independent young musicians? 8 responses.
• What is the role of modeling in instrumental lessons? 7 responses.

93
Conclusion
What are the issues of significance for experienced studio teachers who teach high school aged students?
The findings indicated that the issues of significance for experienced studio teachers who teach school-aged
students are essentially the same as those of research into tertiary instrumental teachers. Whereas, according
to the literature, tertiary instrumental teachers seem to consider student motivation and musical independence
to be the students’ responsibility, teachers of school-aged students take personal responsibility for these issues
and this could be seen in this study by the number and variety of discussion posts pertaining to these issues.

In what ways do these issues differ between this teaching cohort and findings from research into instrumental
teachers operating at a tertiary level?
Teacher modeling and its role as a potential disincentive for student interpretive independence has been
widely investigated by previous research. Whereas this is a valid concern for teachers of highly skilled
conservatoire students, at a school level, the many and varied advantages of modeling for students – a
demonstration of tone, style, variety of interpretative choices, the teaching of ensemble skills, to inspire or to
simply demonstrate the sound of the instrument – outweighs any perceived loss of student musical
independence.

In what ways can an asynchronous online forum become an effective medium for shared reflection and group
problem solving?
The discussion forum’s effectiveness as medium for shared reflection and group problem solving would seem
to be dependent on the question that initiates the discussion. In many cases the responses provided were
resolutions based on personal experience to the questions posted. In the case of the three questions that
provoked the most response, the first response in each case was a resolution response but this was followed by
in-depth discussion by further participants as if the first resolution response provided the catalyst for more
reflective discourse.

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Is musical achievement linked to learning styles? An investigation into a Year 6 instrumental band
program
Fiona Camp, Overton Anglican Community College, Victoria
Neryl Jeanneret, The University of Melbourne

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether musical achievement is linked to learning styles. This
paper outlines a study involving 56 students from a Year 6 Band Program at a Preparatory to Year 12 School
in the northwest suburbs of Melbourne. Academic results from students’ assessed musical performances were
compiled and compared with the results of a learning styles questionnaire. (Reid’s Perceptual Learning Styles
Preference Questionnaire PLSPQ). Performance assessment content was derived from the American beginner
instrumental band method series by Bruce Pearson, the ‘Standard of Excellence’, with the framework of the
assessment modelled on the Victorian Essential Learning Standards. Students in the program were assessed on
their ability to perform a range of pieces and techniques therefore demonstrating their developing
understanding of both the theoretical rudiments of music and performance techniques specific to their chosen
band instrument. All teachers in the program designed instrument-specific content from these resources,
framed to all students in an identical format. Learning style items from Reid’s PLSPQ covered six major
styles- Kinesthetic, Individual, Group, Auditory, Visual, and Tactile. The results showed that there were
differences amongst the students regarding learn-ing style, gender and achievement level. Akin to the XVIII
ASME Conference: Making Sound Waves: Diversity, Unity, Equity; the results and conclusions of this paper
reflect the conference challenge for educators to ensure that in an era of constant technological change that
programs maintain current, relevant and provide equal opportunities for diverse voices to be heard.

Introduction
The key impetus for undertaking this research was the awareness and observation of the multiple forms of
engagement that can occur in instrumental music education. When playing or operating an instrument,
numerous modes of engagement can be happening simultaneously. For example, there is kinesthetic
engagement in pressing the keys, aural engagement hearing and adjusting the sound, oral engagement in
making the sound on the instrument, visual engagement and skills when reading the music, and cognitive
engagement when processing and translating the written music into sound. Anecdotal evidence pointed to
different students responding in different ways in instrumental classes and the question arose about whether
individual learning styles might have an impact the students’ musical achievement.

Learning ‘styles’
Many definitions of “learning styles” were similar in nature with small differences apparent in the elaboration
of the meaning. At the most fundamental level, learning styles refer to various methods or ways of learning
and it is presumed that these are different for different individuals. It is also presumed that catering to an
individual’s learning style will produce better outcomes. There have been a variety of models of learning
styles proposed since the 1970s including Kolb’s (Kolb & Fry, 1975), Honey and Mumford’s (Honey &
Mumford, 1982) and the Sudbury Model of Democratic Education (Greenberg, 1987). One of the most
popular and widely used is the VARK model (Fleming & Mills, 1992) where categories of learners are listed
as visual, auditory and tactile/kinesthetic. There have been criticisms learning styles including questioning the
theoretical basis for such assertions, the danger of labeling children and stereotyping groups based on
ethnicity, and weaknesses of learning styles instruments (Curry, 1990; Stahl, 2002; Coffield, Moseley, Hall &
Ecclestone, 2004). Coffield et al. (2004) are supportive of knowing about students’ learning styles, saying,
“how can we teach students if we do not know how they learn?” (p. 1) and Nolting (2002) proposes that
learning effectiveness can be improved when students understand their learning styles. While there were
studies about the identification of learning styles that did address these concerns, they frequently conceded
that weaknesses lay in the choice of instrument and method of implementation. As a way of bringing some of
these issues to the fore, Dembo and Howard’s (2007) research aim was to “initiate a dialogue among
educators who continue to make assertions about the usefulness of identifying students’ learning styles
without little or no research support” (p. 101).
Another issue that arose in the literature was that of teachers and educators as ‘consumers’ of learning
style instruments and the popularity and commercial appeal of learning styles literature and instruments. With

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technological advancements and instant access to the internet, there is apparently great appeal in educational
systems to remain up-to-date with regard to testing instruments. Language surrounding popularity as a
strength and reason to test for learning styles seemed a key point for some researchers. For example, in
Wintergerst, DeCapua and Itzen (2001, p. 387) there were such statements as: “a popular learning styles
survey instrument is the…”; “among the most popular of the learning style assessment instruments is…”.
Coffield et al. (2004, p. 2) summarise the main issues surrounding learning styles research saying,
“beneath the apparently unproblematic appeal of learning styles lies a host of conceptual and empirical
problems…the learning styles field is not unified”. This issue influenced the selection of the instrument and
method in this study. In relation to the argument about whether test or not to test, with much deliberation, it
was decided that using a tool that had been tried and tested with positive results would make for an interesting
experiment. Reid’s (1987, 1995) Perceptual Learning Styles Preference Questionnaire, which had been used
successfully by Wintergerst et al. (2001) to assess the learning style of English as Second Language (ESL)
students, was chosen.

Method
Reid’s (1987) Perceptual Learning Styles Preference Questionnaire contains six learning style areas:

• Group
• Individual
• Visual
• Auditory
• Tactile
• Kinesthetic
It is a standardized 30 item questionnaire that measures key qualities of personal learning preferences over
any learning ‘discipline’ or ‘subject. Despite this instrument being used to initially assess learning style
preferences of ESL students, it was considered to be a basic questionnaire that could be applied to any
generalised study. Each item number in the PLSPQ required a Likert scale answer ranging from 5 (Strongly
Agree) to 1 (Strongly Disagree). A sample question from the PLSPQ is below in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Sample question from Reid’s PLSPQ

Q. 3 I get more work done when I work with others
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree

All students in the Year 6 Band Program were invited to participate in the study, which resulted in 56 students
completing the questionnaire. Once students had completed the questionnaire, each learning style area was
totaled and students’ preferred learning style was matched to their music in-class performance results and
instrument type.

Results
Of the 56 students who completed the questionnaire, 27 (48%) were males and 29 (52%) were females. Table
1 shows the distribution of instrument types played by the respondents and Table 2 shows the distribution of
their music performance results.

Table 1: Instrument coding and percentage of subjects according to instrument (N=56)

Instrument Code N %
Clarinet Cl 15 27
Flute Fl 18 32
Saxophone Sax 2 3
Trumpet Trum 13 23
Trombone Trom 8 15
Total 56 100

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Table 2. Grade coding and distribution of academic results, all subjects (N=56)
Grade/Code N %
A+ 10 18
A 17 30
B+ 15 27
B 7 12
C+ 4 7
C 0 0
D+ 0 0
D 2 4
E+ 0 0
E 1 2
Total 56 100

Overall it can be seen that a balance of male to female respondents took part in the study, with a large number
of high achievers. This initially was thought to be a disadvantage for the study with the lack of lower
achieving students and this will be discussed later. Five analyses were done with different combinations of
variables (Table 3).

Table 3. Analysis order with detail of variables

Analysis Variables
number
1. All subjects, all instruments, all academic results.
2. Gender- Male/Female, all instruments, all academic results.
3. All subjects, Instruments- Cl/Fl/Sax/Trum/Trom, all academic results.
4. All subjects, all instruments, Academic Results- A+ through to E
5. Gender- Male/Female, Instruments- Cl/Fl/Sax/Trum/Trom, all
academic results

Of particular interest was the spread of highest ranked learning styles for all subjects from Analysis 1 (Figure
2).

Figure 2. Frequency distribution of highest ranked learning styles Analysis 1

12.5

10.0
Totals

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0
Aud Gr Gr/Aud Gr/Tac Ind Ind/Vis Indiv Indiv/Vi Kin Kin/Aud Kin/Gr Kin/Ind Kin/Tac Tac Vis

Learningstyles

98
The two preferred learning styles overall were that of Kinesthetic and Group. There a number of other
students who demonstrated multiple learning style preferences, with those that had tied results featuring
Kinesthetic and Group. As global statistics Group made up 30% of all students’ preferred learning style, and
Kinesthetic made up 23%. There were clear gender differences in preferred learning styles. In Figure 3 it can
be seen that Group and Kinesthetic feature as the two main preferred learning styles. A clear gender difference
was female subjects preferring Individual methods of learning while a commonly shared preference by both
genders was tactile.

Figure 3. Frequency distribution of Highest ranked learning styles, female versus male subjects.

M
2
Frequency

Gender
0

4
F

0
Aud Gr Gr/Aud Gr/Tac Ind Ind/Vis Indiv Indiv/Vi Kin Kin/Aud Kin/Gr Kin/Ind Kin/Tac Tac Vis

Learningstyles

Figures 2 and 3 revealed many insights into the dynamic of the cohort and vital information for the
Year 6 Band program. The main form of instruction in the Year 6 Band program is Auditory and Visual. That
being stated, these two methods were clearly not preferred by the students in the study. However the forms of
interaction by students carrying out the work in the program are largely Group and Tactile actions.
Once all analyses were completed, the most significant contribution to the program came in the
creation of student learning profiles. Put simply, the results of the five analyses were summarised into a table
with an overall picture of types of students in the program:

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Figure 4. Student profiles

To interpret the above, the student profiles can be read both horizontally and vertically. The levels of
information occur in the following order:

1. Gender result
2. Cohort level results
3. Achievement level results
4. Most likely played instrument for that gender and level of achievement.

It was decided to rank the gender preference first followed by the cohort in order to assist with key
information. In the case of male subjects Group learning tied with gender and cohort preference, so it was
only listed once. It is interesting to observe the instrumental tendencies according to gender and achievement.
It could be concluded that female subjects are most liked to play a woodwind instrument, regardless of
achievement level, and male subjects are similar with brass instruments. Male students who achieve at a
medium level were more likely to play a wider range of instruments. Low achieving students were more likely
to play trumpet and trombone, and all students regardless of achievement level, gender or instrument prefer
some level of Tactile instruction. It is important to note that this profiling serves as a guide and further
conclusions with respect to the above observations will be discussed in the conclusion.

Conclusion
In answering the question, “Is musical achievement linked to learning styles”, it could be argued that in this
study small connections were found. The true purpose of this study was designed from the lack of knowledge
as to why some students were not achieving to high school-based assessment standards. Evidence from this
study indicates that high and medium levels of musical achievement can be linked to particular learning
styles. In investigating the link between musical achievement and learning styles evidence suggests that there
is a clear difference in

• overall learning style preference in Year 6 students,

• gender differences,
• opposite preferences for learning- i.e. Group versus Individual, and
• lack of preference for Auditory and Visual learning.

The knowledge gained for learning preferences for high and medium achieving students is useful at
many levels: for the school, the curriculum and the educator. The Year 6 Band Program having been in
operation for 13 years could be considered a successful program due to its longevity and the level of

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achievement demonstrated in this study. The large preferences for Group, Tactile and Kinesthetic learning
could contribute to the levels of achievement in the operation of a musical instrument. The teachers of the
Year 6 Band Program should acknowledge that there are still students with low results, and testing for
individual learning styles may result in the need to review the program structure, delivery of lessons and
testing procedures. This being said, many of the high results indicate that there are areas of this program that
are suiting the needs of many learners. Revisiting the literature and whether or not to test for learning styles
remains contentious. Many of the initiatives revolve around thinking skills, keys to success and habits of
minds. Reporting results of any nature to a group or organization carries some implication of impact involving
programs, curriculum reviews, cohorts of participants and future directions. With regard to general school
implications, findings may provide a solid platform for improving practice or remaining with current program
structures.
The lack of lower achieving students could mean that the study results do not represent an accurate
picture of results, however in turn this could transform into a positive with the percentage of students that
have achieved high levels of results. The PLSPQ design interpretation from a previous ESL questionnaire, de-
contextualised into a general learning style study could affect particular aspects of validity. Additionally the
instructions to participants to answer the questions in a general sense and not with respect to a particular
‘subject’ could also be a limitation. The experimental nature of matching learning styles to musical
achievement could be seen as a limitation as much of this testing has not occurred in the research field. In
stating this, further research could be suggested on a greater scale to further validate the study and expand
knowledge.
Despite some difficulties in discerning the results in areas of minority, such as instrument type
coupled with achievement levels and gender, most aspects of the study potentially speak strongly for further
research. With specific regard to the Year 6 Program, large differences exist in learning styles, yet strong
numbers for particular styles prevail. The large differences in gender indicate that more research into beginner
instrumental music students is warranted. Many of the limitations could indeed transform into future positives.
Consideration for a questionnaire relating to music studies could occur, as well as student and teacher
reflection on creative processes could occur to inform practice. With respect to the longevity of the Year 6
Program, the need for reflection on structures, curriculum, materials and program delivery is necessary in an
era of technological revolution. This would ensure that this research paper has “made waves” in both the
results discovered and in areas for future enhancement. The potential for further improvement through active
review ensures that the instrumental program remains current, relevant and continues to provide excellent
opportunities for young musicians to equally access high quality, best-practice music education.

References
Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E. & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Should we be using learning styles?
Retrieved December 4, 2007, from the London: Learning and Skills Research Centre:
http://www.LRSC.ac.uk
Dembo, M. H; & Howard, K. H. (2007). Advice about the use of learning styles: A major myth in education.
Journal of College Reading and Learning, 37(2), 101-108.
Dunn, R., Honigsfeld, A., & Doolan, L. S. (2009). Impact of learning style instructional strategies on students’
achievement and attitudes: Perceptions of educations in diverse institutions. The Clearing House, 82(3),
135-140.
Fleming, N. D. & Mills, C. (1992). Not Another Inventory, Rather a Catalyst for Reflection, To Improve the
Academy, Vol. 11, 1992, p. 137.
Greenberg, D. (1987). The Sudbury Valley School Experience. Google Books. ISBN 99931-833-9-3.
Honey, P. & Mumford, A. (1982). The Manual of Learning Styles. Maidenhead, UK, Peter Honey
Publications Hyman, R; Rosoff, B. (1984). Matching Teaching and Learning Styles: The Jug and
What’s in it. Theory into Practice, 23, 35-43.
Kolb. D. A. & Fry, R. (1975) Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (ed.) Theories
of Group Process, London: John Wiley.
Lunenburg, F. & Irby, B. (2008). Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation- tips and strategies for students
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Nolting, P. D. (2002). Winning at math: Your guide to learning mathematics through successful study skills.
(4th ed.). Bradenton, FL: Academic Success Press.

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Pearson, B. (1993). Standard of Excellence Enhanced Comprehensive Band Method. San Diego: Neil A. Kjos
Publishing.
Reid, J. M. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 21(1): 87-111.
Reid, J. M. (1995). Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Stahl, S. (1999). Different strokes for different folks? A critique of learning styles. American Educator, Fall,
1-5.
Wintergerst, A. C., DeCapua, A., & Itzen, R. C. (2001). The construct validity of one learning styles
instrument. System (29), 385-403.

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The importance of music in the education of children
George Spartel

Abstract
Music is important to all of us, but is especially important to children and their development. Why? I’ve been
cogitating on this question for a long time. Music and children have been a long-time preoccupation of mine,
since I joined the cast of ABC’s Play School back in 1985, nicely coinciding with the birth of our first child.
In this paper, I try to unpack the role of music in the education of children by, firstly, looking at my own
experience with music as a child, then, by talking about my observations as a performer in Play School, and
finally, by critically evaluating such classics as “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star”, “Eency Weency Spider”, “If
All the World were Paper”, and, last but not least, “Mr Frog”.

Music is important to all of us, but is especially important to children and their development. Why? I’ve been
cogitating on this question for a long time. Well, since I was asked to do this speech I’ve been cogitating.
Although, music and children have been a long-time preoccupation of mine, since I joined the cast of ABC’s
Play School back in 1985, nicely coinciding with the birth of our first child. I’ll try to unpack the role of
music in the education of children by, firstly, looking at my own experience with music as a child. Then, by
talking about my observations as a performer in Play School. And finally, by critically evaluating such
classics as “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star”, “Eency Weency Spider”, “If All the World were Paper”, and, last
but not least, “Mr Frog”. I should point out that when I get to the Classical songs, in the true spirit of
children’s concerts, I call upon you all to supply that essential element in Play School: audience participation.
We clearly understand the role of music in teaching and re-inforcing numeracy, literacy and motor
skills. Children learn quickly when music is the shoulders upon which learning stands. But what other role
does music play? In trying to answer this question I look to history. Some may say ancient history. Me as a
child: [Play 20C fanfare] We all have memories of how music can affect us. Indelible impressions: some
moment, some piece of music never forgotten. My first recollection: at the movies, or the pictures as they
were called, when I was around seven years of age. The lights would go out. The curtains would part. The 20th
Century Fox logo would appear and a brief 20 seconds of music would play. Well! When the strings would
go, “da dah dah dah… dah dah dah,” I don’t know what happened. How that made me feel! I can’t describe it.
What it awakened, I can’t say. But, my body seemed to lift from the seat, … for maybe 4 seconds I could
fly….to a seven year old it was spiritual… Passiona (a soft drink in the 1950s). My second recollection: I was
standing in a street in Carlton, Melbourne, a hot summer’s day. I was busy being seven years old: probably
kicking a can, throwing a stone, generally “doin nothin’”. Then, standing outside someone’s house, I hear on
the radio the opening percussive bars of “Jailhouse Rock”, launched into by a wailing Elvis Presley. I’d heard
the song before. I was seized by the desire to hear it again, but up close. So, I took off like a cheetah, trying to
get home before it finished. It felt like my life depended on it. I burst into the house. Rush past my quizzical
mother. Switch on the radio. Then, breathless and disappointed I am to find, Elvis had, not for the last time,
left the building. My last recollection: around eight years old, in school, while being taught a song by Brother
Duane. The class was learning the song bit by bit. Finally, we sang it non-stop from beginning to end. This is
how it went: “There was a little dog, sitting by the fire side. Up popped a little coal And in the little doggies
tale it burnt a little hole. Away ran the little dog to fetch a little pool. To fetch a little pool and….wiggle
waggle wiggle waggle went the doggie’s tale!” To this day, I remember the eruption of joyous laughter at the
end of “wiggle waggle…” Whatever it was, we got it as one: The imagery of the tale wagging frantically, our
falsetto “wiggle waggle”, a sense of shared joy. Whatever, our imagination had been engaged. What are these
recollections meant to demonstrate? Things are being stirred up, things are happening, feelings, sensations. “I
like ice-cream. I like the colour red. I like that piece of music.” As a child, you can’t fully verbalize what is
being stirred and excited.
Apart from maybe saying, “Again.” You may not be musically gifted, you may be tone deaf but, I
believe, no-one as a child is exempt from the influence of music: of being stimulated, excited, nourished,
advanced, entertained, etc, etc, in a most private, personal way. In a way that is helping the child to define and
understand WHO he/she is. [Play: Play School theme].
The Play School theme: A clarion call to come, watch, enjoy, and without realizing it, LEARN. When
the Play School theme starts up, children of all ages, sit up, and if they are not already in the room, hasten to a

103
comfy position and sit and watch and participate.
It’s no surprise to me that in The Pied Piper of Hamlen, the children were controlled by music. No
surprise that the pied Piper led the mice even to their destruction, because Music has the potential of a spell. It
can remove distractions, quell anxieties, change the mood of all of us.
Trying to understand the nexus that exists between children and music was the least of my concerns
when I started Play School. My main concerns were how to take half an egg carton and a piece of pipe
cleaner, and make an Eency Weency spider, without my fingers shaking while in a close-up, knowing two
million people were watching. That was my main concern, for a long time. Or, how to sing a song about
flying through space, while strapped into a cardboard rocket- ship, trying not to bump into the silver-paper
moon and stars. Trying to come in at the right place in the introduction of a song, while flying through space,
straining to pick out the anacrusis. In those days we used to refer to the anacrusis as “the part that
goes…boom, boom, boom- Up in the air I fly zoom, zoom a zoom, zoom, zoom…Warren, can you give me a
really clear boom, boom, boom?”
My time as a Play School presenter had many recurring benefits and enjoyments. Not the least
enjoyment was that the public embraces Play School. Loves Play School. Many times I would be regaled by
an adult member of the public who would say: “We Love Play School. We watch it all the time.” Sometimes,
not as often, but just as memorable, would be the follow-up question: “Don’t you feel like a dickhead?” And I
must admit, it did take me a while, maybe a couple of years, to relax and take in just what I was becoming an
integral part of. To be honest, I did have to shake off the prejudice that I was somehow playing to an inferior
audience. Children. Fortunately, the birth of my first daughter stopped that nonsense. I was able to see from
cradle to Primary School, just how important Play School was, and how it had to cater for a complex and
diverse demographic: the learner: 0 to 8 years of age.
I began to understand the meticulous gestation of the script (no, we don’t make it up): the refining, the
re-evaluating, in script meetings, rehearsals- right up to the seconds before the taping of an episode. And in
the discussions, the criteria never changed: “How will this affect the child viewer? What is the effect, the
consequence of this sequence, this song, this phrase, and, believe it or not, many a half hour was spent
debating the significance of, this word? I realized how much the producers valued their responsibility.
How important it was, because it all MATTERS. It all means something- positive or negative- to the
learner. The child might only say: “I like Benita.” Or “John, he’s silly.”
But, of course, there’s a lot more going on. For example, I recall my established wardrobe was a t-
shirt. One day I was asked to wear a shirt with a collar. I did wear the shirt and not the t-shirt, and I recall, I
did feel slightly restricted, while taping. After transmission of that episode, a mother reported her child as
saying: “What’s wrong with George? Is he sick?” The simplest of comments reflect a subterranean vein of
multiple impressions and sensitivities. Alright, I’m saying the obvious. Children are, or nearly are, a blank
canvas, are highly impressionable and those impressions stay, consciously or subconsciously, for the rest of
that child’s life.

So, how does music play its part?

Music, in film, operates as a subtext. The schoolboy is talking to a girl and his words are saying that he hasn’t
yet packed, for the music excursion, to the USA for which he is leaving in a few days time. He is going away
for 2 weeks. On the surface, the schoolboy is just chatting with the girl. However, the music playing, in the
background, is saying: “I have tender feelings for you, and I will miss you.” That’s what the music is saying.
Similarly, in Play School, music operates as another form of text. When I was flying through space in
the cardboard rocket-ship, bumping into stars and the moon, the music was suggesting: “Flying through space
is fun.” Also, and I don’t think I’m drawing too long a bow by suggesting, the music was subtextually
advising: “New frontiers, new experience, exciting things are ok. Don’t be concerned. Life can be fun, even if
you do crash into an occasional star.”
I did Play School for around 20 years. Most of that time, the legendary Warren Carr supplied the
piano music. His playing was off-camera, but his presence was such a strong factor affecting those
“impressions and sensitivities” I referred to earlier. His piano tinkling was much applauded by industry
musicians, who understood the skill necessary to play this piano style, called Stride- a name given, I would
assume, by the breadth of rhythmic note playing, by a lively left hand. The quality of his playing was bouncy,
happy, comical, quizzical, “story-tellingal”, essentially an optimistic attitude to life. So here, music is
projecting a message, or many messages. I’m going to show a clip of a song I performed and this clip was
shown on the ABC. And I ask you, rhetorically ask you, what is the key message that YOU think a child

104
might take from it? [Play: Surfing with the seagulls]
I tried to write an effective children’s song. My message I tried to get across was: “Exercise. Get fit.
Enjoy new experience. Look at the many and varied ways to enjoy the outdoors in this great country. The
message they took? What do you think it was? In many cases they took the intended message. But in some
cases, the message they took was: “When you do the action of surfing, you stand on a table.” Yes, children all
over Australia were surfing, but only after they’d spontaneously and precariously climbed onto a table! The
“horrorful” thought of a million injured children was only superseded by the “horrorful” thought of a million
law-suits. I had not, till that time, fully understood that music contributes to, or collaborates in, the end
message. Everything is important.
Everything counts. Play School production people were obsessed with this, and so they should be. Let
me illustrate. During taping of a sequence in Play School where I was playing a father, being jolly, singing
and laughing, I improvised a line I‘d not used in rehearsals.
While dancing and laughing, I spontaneously called out: “Ho! Ho! Ho! ‘…I feel like Father
Christmas!” Not one of the great ad-libs in the history of show-business, but it came out of the moment. Just
before the program went to air, I was called in to dub over that ad-lib, and I was asked to turn it into “Ho, Ho,
Ho, I feel like father dancing!”
Whether you agree with the intention to avoid cultural sensitivities or not, the creative crew at Play
School were onto every nuance. However, they could not control everything. Naughty John, as he was fondly
called, John Hamblin, rehearsed his “adlibs”. But kept them to himself, until the taping. Sitting at a table,
while Benita systematically put down a plate then a spoon, John jumped in with the line, “I suppose a forks
out of the question?” Only after a few years into my association with Play School did I felt comfortable
enough to take in such things as the way the scripts were constructed, the way the music was strategically
weaved into the fabric of each 30 minute episode, calculated to engage and hold the learner. To ACTIVATE
an audience participation sequence, or to CALM AND SETTLE, just before the iconic line: “It’s time for a
story“.
It’s been said that fairy stories represent what is good and bad in life. That fairy stories prepare
children for life. Since reading Red Riding Hood, I have to report I have never visited grandma by taking a
short cut through the forest, nor have I ever possessed a red riding hood. See, it works. Music, in songs,
performs a similar role. I would suggest that music can be different in that it signposts what should be valued.
(Like the boy going away to the USA, the music is signposting the quality of feelings between the boy and the
girl). The music is saying: this is important, be aware of this, experience this. Another example: I’ve read
Peter and the Wolf in front of orchestras many times, and each time, I found it a great mental block, to read
the bit at the end, where the wolf still has the duck in its stomach. It reads: “and if you listen very carefully,
you might just hear the duck quacking inside the wolf’s stomach, because the wolf in his hurry had swallowed
her… alive…” Oh my God! This is dark, dark. Frightening- not just for children. However, this darkness
doesn’t over-whelm the narrative’s ending because of the narrative SPELL created by the music. The ending
is dominated not by the words, but by the sense of triumph in Peter’s act of heroism. The positivism of Peter’s
deed, as reflected in the music, overwhelms the darkness in the duck’s unfortunate predicament.
So. Let’s now look at some children’s songs and try to understand some of the messages, the values
that music is promulgating, this time in perfect synchronicity, with the lyrics of a song. In a selection of
children’s songs it is possible to construct a value system that encompasses the fundamental challenges that
Life has to throw up. A value system, or to borrow the words of someone else; “A Theory of Everything.”
“I Can Run As Fast As You”, Not only a declaration of capacity, but in the case of “I can run as fast
as you”- you see it in the children’s faces- their frenetic activity, that the music is like a joyous celebration of
physical capacity. Motor skills. “Everybody Jumping”- not I am jumping but EVERYBODY, invokes the
spirit of communal participation, to participate on the basis of a philosophy that could be summed up in the
words, “Yes, we can.”
Which brings me to that other classic, “Standing on one leg.” It’s a beauty! The words go, “standing
on one leg is quite tricky, come and try it too everyone. One foot in the air and you hold it tightly there then
you hop, hop, hop, hop, that’s how it’s done”. The words and the music are suggesting: “Come on have a go!
Its difficult! But that should never put you off.”
Music is the bridge to numeracy. Music is the bridge to language: via repetition, imitation and fun.In
addition, music is a bridge to a philosophy on life: Let’s look at that well-worn classic: “Eency Weency
Spider”? To get a sense of how it works. Let’s sing it with actions. (sings)
To me, it’s saying: “if you don’t succeed try, try again. And always look on the bright side of life,

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because the sun WILL come out, and will dry up all the rain.” Then we come to “Twinkle, twinkle. Twinkle
Twinkle Little Star”. Wow! Now, here is a song with cosmic weight. Let’s sing it: (sings) “How I wonder
what you are! How I WONDER what you ARE!” This, to me, brings up questions of the deepest significance.
A star. The universe. Where did it come from?
Where did EVERYTHING come from? How did life begin? Is there a God? Resonances. Next: “Mr
Frog”, Now we all have to get up and sing this with actions: (SINGS) Why did he jump back in the pond? “I
might catch a cold”… fair enough. Although, this is a consequence that would not ordinarily concern an
amphibian, Mr Frog is making a CHOICE. Mr Frog says it’s ok to change your mind, even when it may
involve a slight lack of courage. For the last song, I refer to the words of the Swiss psychologist: Piaget. He
says: “During the Concrete Operational Stage, children gradually develop the ability to… This occurs when
children are able to take in many different aspects of an object,simply through looking at it. Children are able
to begin to imagine different scenarios, or 'what if' something were to happen. This is because they now have
more 'operational' thought.”
This brings me to one of my favourite Play School songs, in which, I believe, the music is NOT in
perfect synchronicity with but transcends the literal meaning of the words. “If All the World Were Paper.” It
goes: If all the world were paper. What a strange world it would be. With paper sun and a paper moon and a
paper bird in a paper tree. Hey hey hey you’d stand and stare, if there was nothing but paper everywhere .Hey
hey hey would would you do? If everything were paper and so were YOU!”
Disturbing? Bizarre? An episode of the Twilight Zone. A science-fiction nightmare. Whatever, the
magic “if”, the offer to ponder, is positive and mind-expanding. And why doesn’t the bizarre aspect over-
power the offer to ponder? MUSIC. Music emphasizes the whimsical. Says it’s ok to think outside the square.
Music assures the child that this is a safety zone. “Look at this in the best, happiest and safest way you
can.”And, in the one word of John Lennon: “Imagine”.
If we take music out of the equation of children and their education, then how grounded, drab and
even unsustainable would learning be? I doubt that music soothes the savage beast but I’m sure, by drawing
from 17 years of performing live and on TV to children in Australia and South East Asia, that music engages
children in a way that is far more complex than it would first appear. From a PERFORMER’S point of view?
Let me tell you, in the forum of performance, in front of 500 mainly children, it is never far from the
performer’s mind that this is the most honest audience one can perform to, and, if the performer should not
meet the requisite standard, the event is never far from an immediate descent into chaos and disaster… and
disgrace… and penury… You get the picture. An adult audience will be placated by the thought of a drink at
interval. An audience of children need engagement; and they want it NOW! That is why the tyro performer,
not having cracked the code, gives himself away by the fixed expression on his face: the permanent smile, the
glazed, non-engaged eyes. Like this (demonstrates)… “Is everybody happy?” (Please be happy because I’m
terrified!).
Music is the “go to” element. Music is the parachute, the safety net. Music is…Thank you music!
That’s the performer’s point of view. A little hysterical, but nonetheless grateful for having been empowered
by the almost magical property of music, and the effect it has on children. Most importantly, Music is the way
for a performer, or teacher or parent, to ENGAGE with the child in a happy, up-lifting and even loving way.
As a way to finish on the importance of music to children and their education, I quote from Robert
Browning’s The Pied Piper. The piper leads the children away from their town and families, never to be seen
again, by playing his music. These are the images seen, and sensations felt, by the children, when hearing his
music. I quote:

He led us… to a joyous land,

Joining the town and just at hand,
Where waters gushed and fruit-trees grew,
And flowers put forth a fairer hue,
And everything was strange and new;
The sparrows were brighter than peacocks here,
And their dogs outran our fallow deer,
And honey-bees had lost their stings,
And horses were born with eagles' wings;

Music can cast a spell: The Pied Piper, Play School: Music is the message: The right message? Enjoy

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life but take care. The wrong message? Climb on a table. Music is a personal epiphany, found in a 20th
Century Fox fanfare. And finally, for children, music is REASSURANCE. Music signposts that it is safe to
drink, from the curiosity pool of Life.

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Ecological composition: The value of recycling your material
Graeme Wright Denniss

Abstract
Recent changes to the Music Curriculum in Queensland and around Australia have led to Composition
becoming a much more important subject for students, especially in their senior years. This paper is outlines
some simple but effective techniques for creating structurally sound and well-crafted compositions, using a
minimum of thematic material. Each technique is illustrated by examples from the presenter’s own
compositions for Music Education, with particular reference to the work: “Uncommon Denominator, Three
Movements in Compound Time” for String Orchestra, recently recorded by the Junior Strings of the
Queensland Youth Orchestra. Many student composers find themselves in the following situation when
working on their compositions: they have made a good start and have created some meaningful sounds, but
don’t know what to do next. Often they will decide to write something new, but this is not always the best
way forward. The introduction of too much new material can lead to a rambling quality where the music lacks
cohesion, causing problems to its underlying structure. A better solution is to find something new to do with
what has already been written, techniques which can be called “Ecological Composition”. This paper will
examine various Minimalist techniques of “Ecological Composition”, outlining ways of reusing and recycling
existing material.

Introduction
Recent changes to the Music Curriculum in Queensland and around Australia have led to Composition
becoming a much more important subject for students, especially in their senior years. This paper is designed
for students and teachers alike, and outlines some simple but effective techniques for creating structurally
sound and well-crafted compositions, using a minimum of thematic material. Each technique is illustrated by
examples from the presenter’s own compositions for Music Education, with particular reference to the work:
“Uncommon Denominator, Three Movements in Compound Time” for String Orchestra, recently recorded by
the Junior Strings of the Queensland Youth Orchestra.
It must be stated from the outset that certain aspects of composition cannot be taught. Inspiration and
intuition are personal matters and have to come from the composers themselves. It is however possible, and
desirable, for developing composers to learn a wide variety of techniques, and it is in this area, of fostering
understanding and utilisation of these techniques, that Music Educators have a vital role.
Many student composers find themselves in the following situation when working on their
compositions: they have made a good start and have created some meaningful sounds, but don’t know what to
do next. Often they will decide to write something new, but this is not always the best way forward. The
introduction of too much new material can lead to a rambling quality where the music lacks cohesion, causing
problems to its underlying structure.
A better solution is to find something new to do with what has already been written, techniques which
can be called “Ecological Composition”. This paper will examine various Minimalist techniques of
“Ecological Composition”, outlining ways of reusing and recycling existing material.
The concept of reusing and recycling in composition is not a new one. In fact, it has been one of the
mainstays of composition throughout history, the First Movement of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony
immediately coming to mind as a good example of reusing the same theme over and over. In this work, the
forward impetus of this music comes from dramatic contrast, thematic development, and continuous
movement through keys, with contrast, both in dynamics and themes, an important way of working.
On the other hand, the techniques of Minimalism, which have evolved over the last 40 - 50 years,
have given us different ways of composing, which reuse and recycle the musical material in a simple and
effective manner, and do not require the depth of Beethoven’s compositional knowledge in order to sound
good.
Minimalism tends to avoid contrast as a way of generating musical scope, and usually employs a
limited number of sounds within a fairly static harmonic framework. Whereas the music of Beethoven often
stirs and engages a wide range of emotions, Minimalism usually seeks to create a single emotional state,
which can sometimes be a meditative trancelike state of mind, or at other times being very energetic and
exciting. The quality of maintaining a single mood has made this style of music popular with film composers,
providing music which reinforces the particular emotional states or atmospheres found on the screen.

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 The essence of Minimalism is repetition, both of small melodic fragments and of large sections, but
herein lies a problem: How can we make repetition interesting to the listener? The following discussion will
present various techniques of Ecological Composition, with suggestions as to how to create and maintain
interest.

ECOLOGICAL COMPOSITION TECHNIQUES

1. Ostinato. An ostinato is a pattern of notes which is repeated. The name comes from the Italian word
meaning “obstinate” or unchanging. The ostinato can form the bass, melody or accompaniment, and the first
to be discussed is the Bass Ostinato. The Bass Ostinato can be a short repetitive figure or a longer line with
harmonic implications.

(a) One bar bass ostinato

The short one bar bass ostinato is rather akin to a “pedal note”, due to the recurring first note, often the Tonic,
which provides the foundation above which various melodic and harmonic textures can be explored. An
example of this type of ostinato is found in the presenter’s piece for solo piano: “B for Bass”, where a simple
figure consisting of B, F sharp and the upper B forms the basis for the composition. Later an extra F sharp
going down is added to create more rhythmic flow. Above the bass, the right hand begins with low pitches
and creates an arch-like contour, in a two- part texture utilising triadic and quartal harmonies. A major theme
is introduced early in the piece and is repeated later on, creating a type of ternary form, ABABA, where the B
section is unchanged while the A section develops, building to a climax and coming to rest.

Fig 1 “B FOR BASS” from “Preludes” for Solo Piano

Another piece for solo piano, entitled “Pink Money”, uses the same technique of a one bar bass ostinato, this
time within a jazz style in 7/4. The right hand plays three different repetitive textures over the bass, the first
consisting of a 4 bar phrase, repeated with a different ending, then the first bar is played up the octave leading
to a new figure involving cross-rhythms. In the third section, each bar begins with repeated chords in 5ths,
first leading upwards then descending, before the opening music is reprised, a sudden chord change finishing
the piece.

Fig 2 “PINK MONEY” from “Ritmico Etudes” for Solo Piano

(b) Longer bass ostinato

The longer bass ostinato creates a set of harmonic implications. This forms the basis of an old style of music
dating back to the Renaissance and the Baroque periods, where it was called “Ground Bass”, “Passacaglia” or
“Chaconne”. Contrapuntal layers of sound are added over the bass to create different textures and melodies.
Probably the best-known example of this technique is the “Canon” by Pachelbel.
In “Mixolydian”, contrapuntal layers are added above the 8 bar ground bass creating changing
densities and textures. The first layer is played by the Violas and Second Violins, the second layer is added to
by two new Violin parts, gradually rising in pitch, then later adding faster note values to create a flowing
melodic shape. After a minor climax is reached, the texture becomes less complex, starting again in the low
register, then allowing the music to rebuild to the main climax near the end of the movement.

Fig 3 “MIXOLYDIAN” from “A la Mode” for String Orchestra

(c) Melodic Ostinato

As the name suggests, the Melodic Ostinato is a repeated pattern used as the melody. In order to be musically
interesting, it needs to be sufficiently long, and other aspects of the music such as the harmony and texture
need to change. In “Dorian”, the melodic ostinato is 8 bars long and is repeated five times, with changing
textures and harmonies, canonic treatment, inversion, and an important countermelody consisting of a
descending scale.

Fig 4 “DORIAN” from “A la Mode” for String Orchestra

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(d) Developing Ostinato.
Here the ostinato undergoes various changes while maintaining its recognisable shape. The identity of the
original ostinato consists of its characteristic contour and rhythm, and these can be altered and extended by the
use of sequences, inversions, retrograde, and retrograde inversions, as well as augmentation and diminution of
intervals and note values.
The use of a developing ostinato is clearly seen in the first phrase of “Lydian”. Here the seminal
ostinato is announced in the first bar, then is treated sequentially to create the first phrase. Later the ostinato is
inverted and the music becomes a dialogue between both versions of the ostinato. After the climax section the
Cellos take the ostinato into the bass, with the accompanying harmonies being given to the upper strings.

Fig 5 “LYDIAN” from “A la Mode” for String Orchestra

2. Micro and Macro Form

In composition, form works on two main levels, both equally important to the musical outcome of the work:
Micro Form and Macro Form. Micro Form is how the melody is built and developed, bar by bar. In the
example above, the Developing Ostinato forms the basis of the Micro Form, which determines the shape of
the melody as it unfolds within a phrase or section.
Macro Form refers to the major sections and consists of the sequence of phrases and their relationship
to each other. Proportion and placement of major events, such as cadence points and climaxes, are determined
by the Macro Form. The traditional forms of Binary, Ternary, Rondo, Sonata and Song forms come under this
heading, as well as the Ground Bass form discussed above. Reusing and recycling the material is equally
important in the functioning of both types of form.
An example of how Macro Form works is found in “Long Legs”. Stylistically based on the Irish Slip
Jig, the piece consists of one main theme, which is repeated 6 times, with an Introduction and Coda, and
Interludes after the theme has been repeated twice. Two main figures, which act as sub-themes later on, are
stated first: a leaping octave figure which is treated in canon, the entries becoming closer together with each
repeat; and a pizzicato bass which adds one note at each repeat.
The main theme is always exactly the same, interest being created and maintained through the use of
changing textures, different pitch levels and a number of sub- themes, which gradually evolve throughout the
movement. In common with the other two movements from “Uncommon Denominator”, the music avoids
modulation and chromaticism, remaining in the one mode for its duration. Single moods are maintained
throughout each movement, in this case the swirling energy of the dance.

Fig 6 “PADDY LONG-LEGS” from “Uncommon Denominator” for String Orchestra

3. Number Process
Process is an important Minimalist technique, which is utilised by significant composers such as Steve Reich,
John Adams, Arvo Part and sometimes Michael Nyman. There are a variety of processes involving numbers
as a way of structuring music.

(a) Additive and Subtractive Techniques

The simplest processes to use are additive and subtractive techniques where increasing or decreasing numbers
of bars make up phrases or sections. These techniques work well in combination with all types of ostinato.
In “Contains Additives”, additive processes are applied to 2 contrasting bass ostinati, one fixed and one
developing. Each phrase adds one more of each ostinato, usually up to the number 4, the process being then
repeated. Interest is enhanced by varying the accompaniment and by slight alterations to the ostinati as the
music progresses, as well as textural and rhythmic modifications.

Fig 7 “CONTAINS ADDITIVES” from “Ritmico Etudes” for Solo Piano

Another piece which utilises both Additive and Ostinato techniques is “In Transit”, where the bass ostinato
consists of 2 different patterns which operate within an additive framework. Each phrase starts with the first
pattern repeated 4 times, then the second pattern is added to with each repeat. Another longer ostinato
operates as the melody, which gradually unfolds as a two then three - part canon, before being harmonised in
a more homophonic texture.

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Fig 8 “IN TRANSIT” from “Uncommon Denominator” for String Orchestra

(b) Phasing
Phasing is a technique derived from the advances in technology in the second half of the twentieth century,
and has been the basis of many Minimalist compositions for many decades, in particular those by Steve Reich.
The technique involves playing a melodic fragment as a repeated loop, the term coming from an actual loop of
tape, and playing the identical fragment on another loop, or additional loops, of a slightly different length. The
melodies or motifs, which started together, gradually go out of phase in a close canon, before going back
together in phase again.
As in all Minimalist techniques, attractiveness of the original musical material is vital, otherwise the
repetitions involved with phasing could become boring or irritating. The texture is essentially contrapuntal, so
care needs to be taken in setting up the figures to be used. The technique of Phasing is included here for
completeness, but it is not a technique which is commonly used by the presenter in his writing for Music
Education.

4. Harmony Sets
In this technique, a specific, and limited set of chords is chosen as the basis for the composition. The simplest
way of using the Harmony Set is to create a chord progression, or a small number of chord progressions,
repeat them, and write melodies and textures above them. This way of working is not unlike the Ground Bass
discussed above, but with the possibility a more flexible bass-line and changes of texture. The other
techniques described above fit well with this harmonic technique.
The first example: “Pastor Raoul”, is based on a Harmony Set consisting of four phrases, the first
three having very similar chords, the forth phrase being more extended with variable phrase lengths. This
system of harmony is the basis of the three main sections. Throughout the movement, interest is maintained
by the textures become richer and the range expanding up to the climax, in a series of subtle variations written
above the original harmonies

Fig 9 “PASTOR RAOUL” from “Uncommon Denominator” for String Orchestra

Another example of the Harmony Set is found in the second half of “In Transit”. Here the melody is
built over a 4 bar chord pattern repeated 4 times, with an additive bar, which lengthens each phrase by one
extra bar. In this example, the shape of this melody is created by a one bar contraction of the opening melody,
and it evolves by using the inversion notes of the Harmony Set in order to create different melodic contours.

Fig 10 “IN TRANSIT” from “Uncommon Denominator” for String Orchestra

A different way of using the Harmony Set is to write a series of chords all of which have the same note in
them, either in the bass, the inner part or the top note. In “G Force”, all the chords have G as their top note.
The chords are first presented as a four bar pattern, gaining an extra bar with each repeat of the harmony set in
an additive process. Later the process is reversed so that a chord is subtracted with each repeat. Later the
Harmony Set is played in a retrograde manner, before a complete repeat of the entire process, leading to the
climax and ending on the final chord. Above the Harmony Set, the melodic fragments are built from a terse
developing ostinato with a jazzy feel.

Fig 11 “G FORCE” from “Duetica III” for Piano Duet

Conclusion
Ecological Composition involves utilising a small number of elements and combining them, within a
repetitive framework, to produce an extended composition, which has musical interest and structural integrity.
In many cases, the compositional process may begin with the decision to use a specific technique or
combination of techniques, details of which are worked out before the music itself is begun. Setting
parameters in this manner, before writing any actual music, helps focus the material, and gives definite ideas
as to what the music is all about. Once the parameters have been established, they provide useful reference
points throughout the composition process and help the music stay on track.

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 The technique of mapping events or setting parameters is not unique to Minimalist music, but applies
to all types of music. In the program notes to “New York Counterpoint” by Steve Reich, K. Robert Schwarz
states:

Reich shares Stravinsky’s belief that real compositional freedom comes only from having to work
within severely restrictive, self-imposed musical boundaries.

The benefits of Ecological Composition for students and teachers are that the Minimalist techniques outlined
above are easy to use, involve clear formal structures, generate simple melodies and don’t require advanced
knowledge of chords and progressions to be effective. The result, hopefully, is music which is pleasing to play
and to listen to, and which embodies good compositional principles and values. It is hoped that the examples
given will give composers a model or a starting point for their own creativity, and may provide inspiration and
a way forward in their work.

References
Musical Examples
Denniss, G. W. (2009. Preludes for Solo Piano. Brisbane: D:composition.
Denniss, G. W. (2008). Ritmico Etudes for Solo Piano. Brisbane: D:composition.
Denniss, G. W. (2005). A la Mode for String Orchestra. Brisbane: D:composition.
Denniss, G. W. (2009). Uncommon Denominator – Three Movements in Compound Time for String
Orchestra. Brisbane: D:composition.
Denniss, G. W. (2007). Duetica III for Piano Duet. Brisbane: D:composition.

CD Program Notes
Schwarz, R. K. (2000). Bang on a Can, Pieces by Steve Reich. New York: Nonesuch Records.

Recording
Denniss, G. W. (2009). Uncommon Denominator – Three Movements in Compound Time. Brisbane:
D:composition. Performed by the Junior Strings of the Queensland Youth Orchestra, conducted by Chen
Yang. Recorded at Ghostgum Studios, May 2011. Recording Engineer: David Quinn.

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Self-concept and music: Making waves in education
Jennifer Rosevear, The University of Adelaide

Abstract
This paper explores various aspects pertaining to self-concept, with a particular emphasis on self-efficacy and
self-regulation and the impact that self-beliefs may have upon learning and achievement. Such beliefs can
determine how much effort is applied and whether effort is maintained. It is well recognised that strategies for
self-regulation can be developed and can assist with sustaining effort, particularly in the face of difficulties.
Self efficacy beliefs and self-regulatory processes are strong factors that can be significant in how individuals
choose tasks, persist with them, and achieve outcomes. Enjoyment is also a feature of the learning process
which may be perceived as having a positive effect on achievement outcomes. As an area of the curriculum,
Music provides many opportunities for students to be self-determined which may have the potential to transfer
to other areas of learning. Teachers can assist students to develop self-regulatory strategies, and they can also
plan learning, which seeks to optimize enjoyment in the learning process.

Introduction
Teachers in schools, across the spectrum of subjects and year levels, are concerned with trying to enable each
individual student to make progress in learning and to get closer towards developing and realising potential.
The teacher is a facilitator in the learning process, and it is widely recognised that there are many wide-
ranging and diverse factors that impact upon individual students’ progress and pathways. This paper will be
focusing on the major impact that components of student self-concept can have upon learning in general and
the resulting implications for teachers. A further consideration is the extra contribution that music education
may have to learning in other areas of the curriculum due to the enhanced self-concept potential and the
transfer effects from music learning to other areas.

Self-concept considerations
The area of self-concept study and research is particularly complex, and the discussion here will begin with
defining the notion of self-concept. According to Lawrence (1988), self-concept is an umbrella term which
embraces both how we view ourselves (self-image), and how we view our ideal self (see Figure 1), with
perceived differences between the actual self and the ideal self being the aspect of self-esteem.

Figure 1: Self-concept as an umbrella term (Lawrence, 1988, p. 2).

Understanding the concept of the self has been central to artistic and academic endeavours in society
since at least the Middle Ages. According to Beane and Lipka (1984), the idea of seriously trying to know and
understand oneself can be traced back many centuries in the history of art, music, literature, and other areas of
the humanities. During the twentieth century, study of the self was the subject of increasing academic
scrutiny, with William James’ (1890) works being widely acknowledged as the springboard from which
scientific interest in this area derived (Blaskovich & Tomaka, 1991; Elliott & Dweck, 2005; Wylie, 1974).
The importance of the development of one’s self-concept is widely recognized across the social
sciences and education. Bruner (1966) suggests that “perhaps the single most universal thing about human
experience is the phenomenon of Self, and...education is crucial to its formation…[and] should be conducted
with that fact in mind” (p. 35). The role of the self-concept is an essential factor in the consideration of

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educational progress (i.e., academic achievement). The Self-Concept Enhancement and Learning Facilitation
[SELF] Research Centre at the University of Western Sydney aims to “promote the role of self as a key
facilitator in the attainment of other valued outcomes such as: cultural identity; learning and achievement;
healthier lifestyles; teaching effectiveness; physical, psychological, educational, social, emotional and
occupational development and well-being” (SELF Research Centre, 2001, p. 8).
The idea of self-concepts (plural) has evolved, where there are multiple ways in which we see
ourselves depending on the sphere of activity or social context in which we are located (Dweck, 2000).
According to Hargreaves, Miell and MacDonald (2002), “self identity is the overall view we have of ourselves
in which these different self-concepts are integrated, although the ways in which individuals accomplish this
remain a central and unresolved theoretical question” (p. 8). The overall perception of oneself is central to all
aspects of development and learning.

Self-efficacy and self-regulation

The constructs of self-efficacy and self-regulation have emerged over the last two decades as aspects of self-
perception which are readily observable and receptive, and are likely to be predictors of achievement. In
simple terms, self-efficacy refers to one’s belief in one’s ability to carry out a task successfully, while self-
regulation refers to the processes or strategies which one uses to ensure success at the task, as illustrated in
Figure 2. Self efficacy beliefs have a strong impact on aspects of human behaviour, including learning.
According to Bandura (1997), “efficacy beliefs affect thought processes, the level and persistency of
motivation, and affective states, all of which are important contributors to the types of performances that are
realized” (p. 39). A comparison of the likely outcomes based on efficacy beliefs as outlined by Bandura
(1997) is shown in Table 1. This comparison highlights the potential impact of efficacy beliefs on outcomes,
with compelling implications for education. self-efficacy self-regulation beliefs strategies

Figure 2: Diagram of self-efficacy and self-regulation parameters.

Zimmerman (2000) further supports the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in learning and suggests
that self-efficacy beliefs play a causal role in students’ achievement and are predictive of students’ effort and
persistence. Bandura (1997) asserts that “perceived self efficacy contributes to performance accomplishments
over and above the effects of skill development” (p. 102), thus highlighting the importance of self-efficacy
beliefs within the learning process. In reviewing research into self-efficacy, Zimmerman (2000) concludes
that

when studied as a mediating variable in training studies, self-efficacy has proven to be responsive to
improvements in students’ methods of learning (especially those involving greater self-regulation)
and predictive of achievement outcomes. This empirical evidence of its role as a potent mediator of
students’ learning and motivation confirms the historic wisdom of educators that students’ self-beliefs
about academic capabilities do play an essential role in their motivation to achieve. (p. 89)

Given the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in predicting achievement, the question of whether such
beliefs are receptive to development is an important one. There is a range of factors which can affect how
much self-efficacy expectations may change, including preconceived ideas about one’s ability, task difficulty,
amount of effort required, assistance available, the environment, previous experiences, and the way these
experiences are cognitively arranged and reconstructed in memory (Bandura, 1997).

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Table 1: Comparison of likely outcomes based on efficacy beliefs (adapted from Bandura,
1997, p. 39).

Self-regulation refers to the selected processes or strategies which one uses to achieve a particular
task. Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) identify a rich variety of self-regulatory processes: goal setting, task
strategies, imagery, time management, self-monitoring, self evaluation, environmental structuring, and help
seeking. These self-regulatory processes are not a fixed characteristic of individuals (McPherson &
Zimmerman, 2002), but can be learned and acquired. Baum, Owen and Oreck (1997) lament that

self-regulation skills to improve achievement are rarely taught in classrooms. Teachers often
mistakenly view student failures or learning difficulties as evidence of limited academic ability and
thus lower their achievement expectations for those students. In truth, many difficulties are spawned
by students' failures to self-regulate. As a result, low achievers may become inattentive and display a
variety of behavior problems, compelling the teacher to focus on behavior management and classroom
control. But keeping students calm and passive does not teach self regulation; on the contrary, such
practices can cause students to become less actively engaged in their learning, especially as
expectations for their success are lowered. Under these circumstances students will remain novices at
self-regulation, when the goal of the school should be to help them acquire and master these skills. (p.
32)

Thus, self-efficacy (beliefs) and self-regulation (processes) are strong factors that can impact upon how
individuals choose tasks, persist, and achieve outcomes. Self-efficacy beliefs and self-regulation processes are
both responsive to development. Zimmerman and Kitsantas (2005) note that “students who use self-regulatory
processes frequently enjoy greater success and are more motivated” (p. 512). Specific self-regulation
techniques, which can be effective in improving outcomes, can be learned and implemented by individuals.

Attributions for success and self-determination

Whilst there are many factors that affect motivation in the learning process, selfconcept is particularly
important. Weiner’s (1986) model of attribution theory involves assigning causes for success and failure,
based on environmental factors as well as personal factors, with the causes being identified as ability, effort,
task difficulty and luck. How students assign causes for success and failure therefore affects motivation. It is
generally agreed that if students attribute success to effort, rather than innate ability, then they are more likely
to persist with tasks. As students mature, they tend to place more emphasis on ability attributions and less

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emphasis on effort attributions (Austin & Vispoel, 1998). Dweck’s (2000) entity and incremental theory of
intelligence is also of relevance here. Students who have an incremental view tend to see that their
“intelligence is not a fixed trait that they simply possess, but something that they can cultivate through
learning… [and that] can be increased through one’s efforts” (Dweck, 2000, p. 3). The aspect of enjoyment is
another factor that has been linked with student perceptions of reasons for success or achievement (Rosevear,
2007; Rosevear, 2008). According to Elliott (1995, p.115),

enjoyment results not from satisfying basic biological and social needs but from moving forward in
psychological growth and complexity. … Any form of intentional action to which there is a
corresponding form of know-how provides the basis for ordering consciousness and experiencing
enjoyment. Enjoyment is not something that just happens; enjoyment is something that people make
happen as a result of their efforts to meet the demands of something that they themselves deem a
challenge. (Elliott, 1995, p. 115)

Whilst enjoyment may indeed be an outcome of, rather than a reason for achievement, it nevertheless
highlights that the aspect of enjoyment can be perceived to go hand in hand with achievement. Deci and Ryan
(1985) have put forward a self-determination theory which proposes that individuals seek to satisfy their
needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness. “When the environment affords the satisfaction of these
needs, individuals are generally more intrinsically motivated and experience greater satisfaction and general
well-being” (Maehr, Pintrich & Linnenbrink, 2002, p. 361). When applied to the learning process, self-
determination theory provides another explanation for influencing levels of student engagement.

Music and learning

In Hallam’s (2010) comprehensive review of research into the impact of music on the intellectual, social and
personal development of students, she suggests that “active engagement with making music can have an
impact on intellectual development” (p. 276) including perceptual, language, literacy and numeracy skills.
Music, as an area of the curriculum, has particular potential to enable students to express themselves and to
provide opportunities for students to be self-determined. “If active engagement with music increases positive
perceptions of self, this may transfer to other areas of study and increase motivation to persist in the light of
initial failure” (Hallam, 2010, p. 277). Music learning can enhance self-concept development, readily provide
avenues for enjoyment and self-growth, and encourage constructive self-regulatory habits. It is no wonder that
higher academic achievement tends to be a characteristic of music (and arts) students (Demorest & Morrison,
2000; Rosevear, 2007).

Implications for learning and teaching

In considering the importance of self-concept development and the inherent beliefs and strategies that
underpin motivation to learn, it would appear that there is scope for teachers in all fields to ensure that
students are aware of self-regulatory strategies and are able to recognise and implement these strategies to
assist in their learning. As Zimmerman (2000) suggests, self-regulatory strategies are receptive to
development which can then impact upon effort, achievement and self-belief. In their planning, if teachers can
aim to create learning environments where the levels of challenge and ability are suitably matched, then the
opportunities for students to experience enjoyment and to develop positive self-concept are maximized. Other
factors which can contribute to increasing lesson enjoyment include having achievable goals, ensuring that
students can relate to the lesson content and can see some relevance, and that students have some say or
ownership of their learning. By increasing enjoyment levels, students may be likely to invest more effort and
hence achieve more.

References
Austin, J. R. & Vispoel, W. P. (1998). How American adolescents interpret success and failure in classroom
music: relationships among attributional beliefs, self-concept and achievement. Psychology of Music,
26(1), 26-45.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Baum, S., Owen, S., & Oreck, B. (1997). Transferring individual self-regulation processes from arts to
academics. Arts Education Policy Review, 98(4), p. 32. Academic OneF ile. Web. 12 Dec. 2010.
Beane, J. A. & Lipka, R. P. (1984). Self-concept, self-esteem and the curriculum. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Blascovich, J. & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S.
Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 115-160). San
Diego: Academic Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press.
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior . New York
: Plenum.
Demorest, S. M. & Morrison, S. J. (2000). Does music make you smarter? Music Educators Journal, 87(2),
33-39, 58.
Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality and development. Philadelphia, PA:
Psychology Press.
Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: a new philosophy of music education. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Elliott, A. J. & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of competence and motivation. New York: Guilford
Press.
Hallam, S. (2010). The power of music: its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of
children and young people. International Journal of Music Education, 28(3), 269-289.
Hargreaves, D. J., Miell, D. & MacDonald, R. A. R. (2002). What are musical identities and why are they
important? In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities (pp. 1-20).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
James, William. (1890). The principles of psychology. [Vol. 1] New York: Henry Holt.
Lawrence, D. (1988). Enhancing self-esteem in the classroom. London: Paul Chapman.
Maehr, M. L., Pintrich, P. R., & Linnenbrink, E. A. (2002). Motivation and achievement. In R. Colwell & C.
P. Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 348-372).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McPherson, G. E. & Zimmerman, B. (2002). Self-regulation of musical learning: a social cognitive
perspective. In R. Colwell and C. P. Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music
teaching and learning (pp. 327-347). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rosevear, J. (2007). Academic achievement and music: what's the connection? Proceedings of the Australian
Society for Music Education (ASME) XVI National Conference, Perth.
Rosevear, J. (2008). Engaging adolescents in high school music. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of
Adelaide. Self-Concept Enhancement and Learning Facilitation [SELF] Research Centre. (2001).
Director’s annual report. (Director: Professor Herbert W. Marsh). Sydney: SELF Research Centre, University
of Western Sydney.Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York:
Springer- Verlag.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: an essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology,
25, 82-91.
Zimmerman, B. J. & Kitsantas. (Eds.). (2005). The hidden dimension of personal competence: self-regulated
learning and practice. In A. J. Elliott & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation,
(pp. 509-526). New York: Guilford Press.

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Uncovering the meanings of ePortfolios: Action research, students, and music teacher preparation
Jennifer Rowley, The University of Sydney

Abstract
This paper discusses aspects of a project to introduce ePortfolios into the Music Education undergraduate
degree program at Sydney Conservatorium of Music. It explains the intentions and progress of this project,
interprets this progress through an action research lens, and analyses implications of the project for music
teacher training and uses of technology for music and music education. A focus of the paper is the
discrepancy between staff intentions for the project and students' ongoing reactions to it. To explicate this, the
paper discusses various stages of the ongoing student centred research that supports the project.

Introduction
Since mid-2009 the Music Education Unit at Sydney Conservatorium of Music (University of Sydney) has
been introducing student ePortfolios into the four year undergraduate Bachelor of Music (Music Education)
degree program2. The idea of a portfolio through which student work can be demonstrated is not new; this
project adapts the practice of portfolio construction to an electronic site, and during this reveals varying ideas
about and applications of ePortfolios. The project has six main purposes: (1) to provide students with a
marketable digital product for use in job applications, (2) to acknowledge and utilise students' practices as
'digital natives', that is a generation of young people 'immersed in technology … with sophisticated technical
skills and learning preferences' (Bennett, Matson & Karvin, 2008, p. 775), and to integrate these skills and
3
preferences into their studies, (3) to demonstrate in a 'capstone-style' artifact how each student has addressed
the University's expected generic skills/graduate attributes as a result of their tertiary studies, (4) to show how
students have been prepared to teach according to the Graduate Professional Standards for beginning teachers
(NSW Institute of Teachers), (5) to integrate a digital collection of verifiable teaching abilities throughout the
four year degree program, and (6) to provide a site of learning and teaching of pedagogic benefit to students
and Music Education staff. While staff designed these objectives and their 'value-added' nature was
recognised, as will become evident below, perhaps this range of expectations was one reason for ambiguity
about the project's nature and outcomes among students.
While the project is primarily concerned with establishing ePortfolios as both an outcome of and a
process in the music teacher preparation program, it also has a profile as a research project in various ways. It
is providing inquiry-based findings about ePortfolios in a general sense, applicable to the faculty as a whole;
as it moves into new territory in Music Education, it offers specific paraxial outcomes for this discipline.
Because it requires questioning of students about their uses of and reactions to ePortfolios, it establishes links
between staff and students in a research-based location. It demonstrates a research ethos and research
processes to students, encouraging them to think of Music Education as a research-intensive field. This
identifies the project as a form of research enhanced learning and teaching.

The project's history and processes

The history of this project has been documented as a series of research publications. Rowley and Dunbar-Hall
(2009) explained how the introduction of ePortfolios was challenging for staff as it required embedding them
into different subject areas across the degree program. Another challenge was handling the high levels of
creativity and independence that was expected of individual students. A third challenge was in the need to
design and use ePortfolios so that they could show students both as reflective learners and professional
practitioners. In a second paper, Rowley and Dunbar-Hall (2010) discussed issues of blended learning that
arose from the project. In addition, the pedagogical benefits for engaging students in a technologically rich
environment, the conceptual basis of music education ePortfolios as a comprehensive representation of wide
ranging music skills, and some predicting of how they could be introduced to students were noted.
Dunbar-Hall et al. (2010) outlined the intentions of the project, noting especially its multiple
purposes, problems that had been encountered to date, and how the project was progressing. Emerging issues,

1 The contribution of Madeleine Bell and John Taylor to this project is gratefully acknowledged.
2 This project is funded by a University of Sydney Teaching Improvement and
Equipment Scheme grant

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such as realisation that to design and produce an ePortfolio encouraged students to adopt and manipulate
multiple identities (student, teacher, peer collaborator, composer, performer, conductor, community musician,
etc) was seen as a benefit of the project as this inducted students into the diversity of roles expected of music
teachers.
A significant aspect of research supporting the project has been its inclusion of the voices of students.
Student groups have been interviewed on their attitudes to and opinions of ePortfolios, and surveys of
individual students' reactions to the technological aspects of the project have been chartered. Each of these
actions has been used to shape the direction of the project. Due to this collaborative nature, the project is
defined as action research. Action research is seen as having two major characteristics. First, it relies on
conversion of practice into action. Usually this is represented as a series of overlapping stages in which
findings of earlier stages are seen as influencing the directions, objectives and processes of subsequent ones.
In this way it is open-ended and self-reflexive. Second, it relies on and draws from relationships between
researchers and researched not only to understand an issue, but also to produce ways of addressing it. Denzin
and Lincoln (2000, p. 32) list the following as common attributes of action research, all of which can be seen
to have been part of this project: collaborative dialogue, participatory decision making, inclusive democratic
deliberation, and the maximal participation and representation of all relevant parties … research subjects
become co-participants and stakeholders in the process of inquiry.
To date, students have been involved in three research activities.

(1) Student group interview #1 (October 2009) In this initial interview, students were asked what they
thought a music education ePortfolio could be, what it could contain, and what it could accomplish.
Responses produced a range of answers:
• documentation of a music career
• evidence of teaching, e.g. a film clip
• a resume
• (to show) beliefs in teaching and learning
• an (electronic) link to something
• student responses to teaching for organising administrative issues associated with teaching
• showing what had been done in assessments (e.g., a PowerPoint presentation)
• different types of evidence to show diversity
• interests outside education, so that pupils would see that 'teachers have a
• life outside of what you put them in a box as'
• to demonstrate IT proficiency.

Two things emerged as key factors: that an ePortfolio would show students as 'performer, learner, teacher-
we're all those different things', and that it was 'not just your CV'. When asked about the mechanics of making
an ePortfolio, students indicated that they would need technological advice on web-based design, filming and
editing material, and construction and production of the final artefact.

(2) One-to-one technology training (from July 2010) In response to students' needs for technological
support, one-to-one training was initiated. This was after students had had access to a UK commercial
ePortfolio package (and the University designated platform) for three months. A survey of what they had
loaded into their ePortfolios shows that many had created basic information 'assets' (the platform's name for
electronic files) such as Contact Details, Qualifications, Hobbies/Skills, and Employment History ‐ that is,
simple text‐based documents that were easy to create and to add to the platform. Few students had added
PowerPoint presentations, Image Files, Music or Film Files. Analysis of student interactions with the platform
show that more females than males had completed tasks in their ePortfolios. That few students were uploading
music/film materials indicated the need for the one-to-one training to focus more on this part of ePortfolio
construction.

(3) Student interview #2 (October 2010) This interview involved students who had been working on
ePortfolios for the 2010 academic year ‐ therefore questions could focus on the original interview questions
and introduce reflection on how the project had been progressing, what aspects of it students felt could be

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changed, and the projections for its future. Developments in the project at this point had included one-to-one
training by a technology expert, so it was important to assess the benefits (or otherwise) of this.

Students noted the following issues:

• that it allowed them to show a range of activities relevant to music education as a career: 'I've got an
opening page about me … a page about the exchange I did in the States ... a CV ... stuff I did in China
for the Olympics and then Bali … bands I've conducted and competitions we've been in … things I've
volunteered at … a page on Practicum … (and) there are sound files on there …. then a page on three
units of work … and a teaching philosophy page and a blog from Prac … I had good fun'
• the platform was criticised as 'quite limiting in what you're able to do … your ability to manipulate
the layout of the presentation is really limited'; difficult for uploading of film material; and limited
capacity of the platform for using music/filmed material
• that each ePortfolio's contents would depend on what job was being applied for, therefore it was
difficult to produce a final product
• that it was a longitudinal undertaking and needed to be upgraded throughout the degree program
• that it could act as a repository for work done towards their degree
• that it functions like a filing system from which specific files could be offered to a potential employer
• that it could be a process rather than an end product
• that the link between ePortfolios and the Graduate Professional Standards (NSW Institute of
Teachers) was unclear ‐ both in terms of content and as a concept ‐ and the use of the ePortfolio’s
purpose was unclear to them
• that it could 'validate' music related work outside study for the degree
• that a good “personal” website was just as acceptable, and perhaps preferable
• that the ePortfolio would have a use after graduation and could be accessed, updated and
disseminated.

Apart from the usefulness of students' positive comments, other issues began to emerge at this point.
That an ePortfolio would be a site of personal learning was not clear to the students, but that it could act as an
archive of achievement from which they could select items to share with an employer was in the original
design of the project. That technologically astute students had already thought of going 'beyond the platform'
by designing an equivalent website with links to other sites (such as Youtube) indicated that the idea of an
ePortfolio was acceptable, but the specific platform that had been mandated by the University, perhaps, was
not.

Implications of student involvement

The student interviews measured the current understanding of the ePortfolio and results showed the difference
between staff intentions and students’ engagement with the designed activities. Student reactions to the
project revealed meanings for ePortfolios beyond staff expectations. For one student, it was only a stage
through which he had passed: he had already moved on to web design as his preferred mode of self-
description. For some students its possibility as the location for storing much more information than was
expected ('digital filing cabinet'), and then allowing access to only specific parts of this, was not what staff
had envisioned. For another student a place to showcase numerous international activities, a blog about her
studies, etc, was a valuable use of the ePortfolio – for THAT student. Individuals were reporting such
different uses that the process rather than product was emerging as key in the ePortfolios use. The original
profile/s (e.g., to demonstrate ability to teach according to accreditation expectations of the NSW Institute of
Teachers) was not clear. The student interviews have provided future direction for the next phase of the
ePortfolio project and, as staff designing the eportfolio tasks, we need to make explicit to students how their
feedback has shaped the future of ePortfolios for music education students. The next phase, therefore, will
focus on refining the tasks and embedding ePortfolios into more units of study in the degree program. The
range of 'assets' students discussed in the interviews demonstrated that music educators have more things to
show than students in teacher preparation in most other subject areas:
• all their years of performance experience
• international tours

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 • broadcasts
• recordings
• examinations on instrument and/or voice
• private teaching
• community work,

therefore the suitability of an ePortfolio as the place to be able to archive and reveal these things.
Any project in Music Education is multi‐ disciplined as students are expected to simultaneously
handle musicological information, educational theories and practices, and music education thinking. As our
explanation of this project indicates, an ePortfolio attempts to respond to numerous agendas ‐ musical,
educational, professional, official, personal. Perhaps this breadth of approach, which seems naturaland
acceptable to staff, is a reason for some student ambiguity about the project. As an ePortfolio focuses on
demonstrating separate abilities through digital artefacts, it has helped clarify for staff and students that music
educators need to be multi-skilled ‐ that the four-year degree program is a mosaic of information, skills,
experiences and proficiencies which an ePortfolio can help unravel at the same time it collates and presents
them ‐ thus to make learning outcomes clearer to students.

References
Bennett, S., Maton, K. & Kervin, L. (2008). The 'digital natives' debate: a critical review of the evidence.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(5), 775-786.
Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. (Eds) (2000). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Dunbar-Hall, P., Rowley, J., Webb, M. & Bell, M. (2010). ePortfolios for music educators: parameters,
problems and possibilities. Proceedings of the 29th Conference of the International Society for Music
Education, Beijing, pp. 61-64.
Rowley, J. & Dunbar-Hall, P. (2009). Integrating e-portfolios: putting the pedagogy in its place. Same places,
different spaces. Proceedings ASCILITE (Australian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary
Education) Conference, Auckland 2009, pp. 898-901.
Rowley, J. & Dunbar-Hall, P. (2010). Integrating ePortfolios for music teachers: a creative and pedagogic
undertaking. Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education
International Conference, 2010, pp. 213-215.

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Location, culture and technology: The uniform, random, inequitable music education system in
Queensland schools, 1930 to 1940
Malcolm Cole, St Augustine’s College, North Queensland; James Cook University

Abstract
The impact of the local environment on the cultural practices of particular and diverse communities with
regard to musical experience and learning is being increasingly recognised in music education studies. As
well, new technologies create new ways of interacting with and experiencing music. How do music educators
ride this broad wave that incorporates the local, the global, the cultural, the technological and the personal?
These issues that surround music teachers of the 21st century are not new as the teachers and students in Far
North Queensland in the 1930s faced a remarkably similar set of circumstances. Cairns and the Aboriginal
mission at Yarrabah in 1930 were remote, small, very different townships in Far North Queensland with
culturally diverse populations. They are presented as examples of the state of music teaching, where teachers
struggled to implement music education syllabus content in both government and non-government schools for
a variety of reasons. There was no recognition of diverse cultural practices in schools and music teacher
training was not cohesive or adequately resourced and supported. While technology helped in some ways, it
presented new problems as well. The paper will show that effective music education was, by and large, a hit
and miss affair throughout the State despite the good intentions embedded in the new syllabus of 1930. It
draws parallels with music educators of today and concludes by asking how much has really changed in music
education in Queensland since 1930.

Introduction: Statewide context

Music education methodologies produced by the Queensland Department of Public Instruction (DPI) after
Federation were based primarily on British procedures and attitudes. Success in teaching music was
acknowledged by the DPI to be reliant upon the enthusiasm of teachers, rather than their knowledge. Music
was not regarded as worthy of serious study and specialist music teachers were not appointed until 1944.
Higher level music study was viewed as a difficult, remote and secretive skill that only a certain type of
student could engage in. It would more than likely be in the form of private instruction with the outcomes
validated through external examinations and competitions, themselves also modelled on English structures.
Despite the formal constructs of the music syllabus issued in 1930, most successful music education practices
in schools appear to have occurred randomly.
Analysis of this syllabus can lead to forming reasonable conclusions about the music teaching
methods that were expected to be employed by teachers. For example in the 1930s, general classroom teachers
were expected to be able to sing well in front of a class, to have an understanding of classical four-part
harmony as presented in AMEB theory examinations and were to teach correct breathing and posture to
produce clear, musical singing. Students were expected to be attentive to radio broadcasts, which would have
been of varying audio quality, and to engage in musical processes using a largely English folk and European
art song repertoire. In Cairns schools, with a population from diverse cultures such as Aboriginal, Torres
Strait Islander, Chinese, British, Italian and other European and Pacific cultural groups, the many and varied
musical backgrounds of students did not receive any airing at school. At the nearby Aboriginal missionary
settlement of Yarrabah, with a population drawn from multiple tribal groups from all around Queensland,
along with Torres Strait Islander groups, the singing of Anglican church hymns comprised most formal music
education experiences. No evidence of diversity or equity in teaching is found here.

The 1930 Syllabus

All public education in the State was overseen by the Department of Public Instruction which published
annual reports in the Queensland Parliamentary Papers. In the 1930s, the music curriculum was determined by
“The Syllabus or Course of Instruction in Primary and Intermediate Schools: 1930” and was issued by the
Department in that year. This syllabus focussed more on the learning experiences of students than the
previous one had. Chapter 8 of the new syllabus titled “Music” outlined a course:

Which is designed to train children to perform and to appreciate, to sing and to listen, includes the
teaching and singing of good songs, breathing exercises, tone-production, sight-singing, ear-training,
and the hearing of good vocal and instrumental music. For this last purpose, the gramophone is of

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 great value, for through it music of the highest quality and in the greatest variety may be brought to
the pupils. (DPI, 1930)

Here is an early promotion of the new technology of recorded music to be used as an aid to classroom
teaching.

Music Education in Schools

Despite the inclusion of music in the new syllabus, music in schools was not an academic subject as it is now.
Co-curricular programs began to develop outside of classroom hours that were reliant “upon the attainments
and interest of a few real enthusiast musicians among the teachers” (Queensland Parliamentary Papers [QPP]
1935) as there was a desire to improve musical standards among students:

Teachers, assisted by committees, have organised school Eisteddfods … to raise the standard of music
culture.… Several of our schools have an orchestra, one (Townsville West) has a brass band, while
the excellence of the performances of our school choirs has become a feature of musical competitions
and will enhance the already high reputation that the State enjoys for its choral music. (QPP, 1930)

The development of separate school Eisteddfods can be seen as a pragmatic move on the one hand,
where the known and valued community Eisteddfod model was adopted into the education curriculum as a
legitimate functioning music event. On the other hand, this could be seen as an “easy way out”, where
involvement in a formal music competition was viewed as fulfilling a duty to provide music education for all
without creating any new or locally based “authentic” music education experiences that could cater for a range
of cultural musics. Similar comments could be made about brass bands, as youth bands had been formed in
both the Cairns and Yarrabah communities and adult bands also included older children. In short, the
Department was using students’ and teachers’ privately acquired expertise, Eisteddfods and bands to fill out
an inadequate music program that focussed on one style of music, viz. British and European folk and art
music. This inadequacy was caused in part by a teacher training system in Brisbane that was unconnected to
the realities of music teaching throughout the State.
In 1931, only one year after the introduction of the new Music syllabus, the Director General noted “It
is not expected that Arts work and music will be a success in our schools unless teachers themselves become
proficient in these subjects” (QPP, 1931). This is an acknowledgement that while desirable standards of music
education had been prescribed, the ability of teachers to enable their students to reach these standards was
doubted. At no point was the question asked how relevant and accessible it was to the musical life of the
diverse cultures found in classrooms all over Queensland. However, the need for reform had been recognised.
The Teachers College at Kelvin Grove in Brisbane changed the focus of their music instruction in 1930 from a
theoretical approach to a more practical one which introduced some live music experiences to a music lesson.
However, trainees still had to grapple with unfamiliar signs and symbols, the rules of harmony and the
musical literature of an alien culture. Consequently, the few teachers emerging from the Teachers’ College
who were confident in their teaching of music were usually those who had previously undertaken the music
examination systems of music education, such as TCL or AMEB, with private music teachers (Stowasser,
1983).
Five years after the introduction of the new musically active syllabus, it was noted that the standard of
choral music in the State had risen but:

generally, the quality of the music – its very existence, indeed – depended upon the attainments and
interest of a few real enthusiast musicians among the teachers. Ability to “take” music is still far from
universal, but we are making an effort, through the Training College, to send into the schools a greater
number of qualified teachers of singing. (QPP, 1935)

Teaching Music in Far North Queensland

A clear illustration of the reliance on external expertise to provide music experiences for students is found in
the Far North Queensland Education report of 1931 where the District Inspector, Mr. Chadwick, reported that
a “Brass band formed in connection with schools in Cairns. The band contains about forty players and the
boys have been selected from the Parramatta, Cairns Boys and Edge Hill State Schools” (QPP, 1931). The
band’s conductor, Jack Denovan, was a motivated and knowledgeable brass bandsman, recently arrived in

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Cairns, who had lobbied local schools to support his efforts to form, organise, teach and run the band. The
Cairns Combined Schools Boys Band was to continue operating for over 25 more years.
In North Queensland, the District Inspector noted what many had already realised:

The full range of the Syllabus in Music and Art is rarely attempted … still some very good work is
being done. Both these sections are properly the work of specialists, and where outstanding ability is
present in the teacher, the results, due to his influence, are remarkable. In other cases, the results are
poor. (QPP, 1935)

This is the first mention of the need for “specialists” and an acknowledgement that skilled music teachers are
required to teach music to achieve outcomes consistent with syllabus demands. However, not all enthusiasts
and specialists achieved positive musical outcomes. At Edge Hill State School in North Cairns, a past pupil
recollects:

Mr. Henderson would organise the concerts and in his desire to produce a well-organised concert
would often yell and scream at the participants. This would reduce me to jelly and make me feel ill as
I was absolutely terrified of him, and would consequently make many mistakes during rehearsal. On
the day of the concert I had worked myself up so much that I became ill and unable to attend either
school or the concert. (Maugeri, 1992)

Clearly changes in pedagogical methodology were also in order.

Tertiary Music Education Training

In fact, music pedagogy was virtually neglected in teacher training. The training of teachers in music previous
to 1930 included no practical applications for trainee teachers to develop their musical skills to teach in the
classroom. The school inspector’s report of 1926 verified the unintended outcome of this syllabus: “The
teaching of singing among teachers of smaller schools is not popular … even those teachers fresh from the
Training College evade teaching it” (QPP, 1926). This was the climate of music education as found in
Queensland at the time of the new syllabus.
Stowasser (1983) points out that the quality of music teacher training in this period continued at a
mediocre level for many years:

While the quality of teacher training gradually improved for general secondary school teachers in
Queensland from 1930 onwards, there was little improvement or change in the training of music
teachers until the late 1950s when music appreciation classes began to appear in the secondary
schools.

There were changes on the way, such as international developments in music teacher training that
included the formation of action, and student- and music-based music teaching programs and principles (as
differing from mathematical, theoretical, written studies) such as those developed by Carl Orff, Zoltan Kodaly
and others. However these methods were developed in Europe and were rooted in the cultures they emerged
from, and were not inclusive of the local or diverse cultural practises of Queensland.

New Technologies
The new technologies of recordings, film and radio (wireless) were gradually introduced into Queensland
classrooms during the 1930s. In 1935 it was noted that “In some of the small schools, teachers who are unable
to sing themselves utilise the gramophone for the purpose” (QPP, 1935). The reliance on teacher modelling as
the primary aural approach was partially relieved by the new technology; students could now learn songs from
recordings rather than live singing, or no singing at all. Also, the wireless was an essential tool in bringing the
Music Appreciation component of the 1930 Syllabus to students:

We can, too, I think, thank the radio that our young folk can be heard whistling or humming classical
tunes that, without the wireless, they may not have had the opportunity of hearing. (QPP, 1935)

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 The “wireless apparatus” was of increasing interest to the Education Department as a means for
distributing educational material, particularly music, over the vast distances of the State. However, difficulties
with providing all schools with the new equipment, transmission, reception, quality of wireless sets and
timetabling had to be overcome. In 1937 lessons produced by the Australian Broadcasting Commission began
to be broadcasted for schools that included music lessons with accompanying booklets and were to continue
for another three decades.
The introduction and spread of radio and film into the community had a complex effect on music
making in Queensland both in and outside of schools. On the one hand, “The introduction of radio and sound
tracked films in the 1920s had a more widespread impact on the musical life of Queensland than local music
societies” (Stowasser, 1983). On the other hand, the act of listening to and exposure to professional music
making through recordings and broadcasts caused people to passively listen to music and to not actively make
music together:

The coming of radio broadcasts and gramophone records in the 1930s brought music into the lives of
many more Queenslanders, but this had the effect of discouraging the convivial “songs around the
piano” which had been a popular pastime in the early days, and instead, music came to be regarded
more as an entertainment for passive listeners than a discipline worthy of serious study in a secondary
school. (Stowasser, 1983)

In Yarrabah in 1933, the gramophone was as popular an entertainment as “concerts and simple
musical plays for indoor entertainment at night” (QPP, 1933). This trend continued to where in 1948 in
Cairns, an evening of listening to recorded music was advertised in the Cairns Post. It was intended to play the
complete recordings of Handel’s Messiah (38 sides) at the School of Arts. Listening to the gramophone or
wireless and attending movies became increasingly popular during people’s leisure time and exposed more of
the population to broader musical experiences. Paradoxically, although more music was being listened to,
both in and out of the classroom, the cultural origins of the music were narrower, primarily that of popular
American and European art music. This was particularly the case at Yarrabah. Teachers at schools were being
left behind with an irrelevant syllabus and administrators who struggled to resource classrooms with the
necessary modern equipment.

Cultural Complexities
Before the 1920s, Cairns was already culturally complex, with its Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, Pacific
Islander, South-east Asian and Chinese minorities as well as the Anglo-Celtic majority. The interwar period
was notable for increases in Italian and other Southern European immigration. With these increases in non-
British immigration, in 1936 a growing development was noted from Tully to Mossman of a “language
difficulty” that affected many children of “foreign extraction”. In 19 schools in the Far Northern area, more
than 50% of the children enrolled were born outside Australia (QPP, 1936). These figures indicated the ever-
growing cultural diversity of the North Queensland population. As would be seen in the 1950s, the musical
cultures that immigrants brought to the classroom were often overlooked or ignored due to language
difficulties and an inflexibility in mixing cultural practices in schools, even though musical activities may well
have been a useful tool in engaging students who did not speak English. This problem persisted. In 1950 the
“Music Makers” broadcasts included a series on folk music of Australia, with students to sing “The
Corroboree Song” after the broadcast. The series included Maori music, and music from Asia and Africa.
Apart from the Aborigines, few of these groups were represented in Far Northern schools.

Conclusion
While the study of music was officially supported as being desirable and of a high value in the holistic
education overview, the reality was that teacher training, knowledge and delivery was sketchy, random,
uniform (in content), inequitable and essentially in the ‘one size fits all’ model. Teachers had difficulty
delivering the curriculum unless they had the advantage of private training, and there was no way or desire for
teachers to respond to students’ varied cultural origins and the local environment and conditions. For example
the hot, wet summer months of Cairns and Yarrabah bore no relation to singing songs about sleighbells and
snow in the Christmas period or Spring songs in May and also bore no relation to the contemporary music of
film and the wireless. Teachers who did make sound waves did so through their own resourcefulness,
ingenuity and musicianship.

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 Today, teachers strive to meet students “where they are at”, meaning that students now hear and study
music they relate to outside school. Students in Cairns and Yarrabah and elsewhere explore their own and
others’ cultural heritages through inventive cross genre and intercultural music pedagogy (Schippers, 2010).
The internet has overcome many barriers to the conditions experienced when living in remote locations and
serves an active role in allowing cultural practices to be more available to view, but it cannot completely
remove the inherent reality of location. A report published in The Australian newspaper on 30/3/11 reported
that children in rural and remote locations in Australia did not achieve comparable education outcomes to
children who lived in capital cities (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2011). In Queensland, the majority
of expenditure of funds of the Professional Development budget allocated for Queensland teachers is spent in
the South East corner of the state (Professional Development for Australian Teachers, 2011). This, along with
the reduction of teacher training time allotted to music in tertiary institutions and the continual introduction of
new music media that is readily available to students outside the school, leads one to ask, have the conditions
changed much to enable effective, diverse, unified and equitable music education practices in Queensland
since 1930? Maybe not.

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Walters.

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Music Improvisation: Ownership and Expression
Mark Dipnall, The University of Melbourne

Abstract
Music improvisation is a core central to the existence of humanity. This is no accident. It is the result of birth
and the desire of an individual to be heard and to express sound. Sound is not contrived or taught. Sound is
innate and central to a person’s existence. Yet what has occurred in music education is that people have been
taught how and when to make music sound and to read other’s notation. In a sense, personal ownership of
music has become disempowered. This paper discusses an assessment of improvised music activities with
senior high school music students. A case study of informal and formal pedagogy was created, examining
ways of learning and teaching improvisation. A project schedule of learning was constructed over a ten-week
period with accompanying interviews, questionnaire and filmed lesson participation. The study’s performance
ensemble consisted of rhythm and lead instruments where all participants had the opportunity to engage with
specific techniques of instruction that assisted improvised expression. Simultaneously, all participants had the
liberty of managing the lesson-content with original extemporized melody and composition. A major outcome
was that the participants experienced increased confidence with a subject that had received very little or no
attention at all during their primary and secondary education. How odd is it that students are placed in
ensembles requiring improvisation yet have had no preliminary or on-going training? This paper advocates
improvisation as the central concern of all music education.

Introduction
When a very young child is observed making sound what is viewed is uninhibited conduct accompanied with
boisterous and zealous enthusiasm. Young children become excited and smile at the sounds they are making.
Sometimes they cry out of frustration or pain but they are still creating sound. Sometimes their eyes and face
animate with intensity and the pace of their arm movements accelerates whilst they unconsciously become
assertive with the creation of their own sounds. Sounds become emotive and are a whole of body experience.
Notated music is not required. In fact what is being produced is improvisation.
Human beings’ intrinsic desire to improvise music is unique to all cultures. For instance, this is
evident in the music of Aboriginal Australians, the Indonesian Gamelan Music, Klezmer Music, the Japanese
Kabuki Theatre, American Afro Jazz, Indigenous African Drum Music and the Indian Raga. It is thus evident
that world cultures instinctively embrace improvised music. Improvisation is a creative and instinctive
practice that empowers the performer with a sense of ownership and authenticity. The recognition of this is
important as we are talking about a human condition that is intuitive and part of the creative psyche, part of
the human soul and a source of inspired expression.

Defining Improvisation
There are a number of definitions and shades of meaning to the word “improvisation.” In its pure and non-
qualified understanding (1) “improvisation takes place when a musician's aural and technical facilities
combine to create a spontaneous form of musical expression” (Hinz, 1995, p. 32). The Harvard Dictionary's
definition of improvisation as (2) “the art of performing music as an immediate reproduction of simultaneous
mental processes, that is, without the aid of manuscript, sketches, or memory,” is challenged by Tirro (1974,
p. 287) with his insistence that (3) ‘memory’ is an integral part of the schemata and syntax involved in
improvisatory expression. Additionally, Sarath (1996, p. 3) says (4) “improvisation is the spontaneous
creation and performance of musical materials in a real-time format.” Expanding this point, Moore (1992, pp.
66, 67) defines improvisation as (5):

A performance-and event-based musical act deriving its structure and characteristic style from a
combination of longstanding cultural models and individual interpretations of them. The models are
so familiar to the performer(s) - and frequently other participants - that they have been internalized
and are understood on both conscious and intuitive levels. Thus, no notated guidelines, rehearsals, or
specific idea of the music to be played are necessary prior to a given performance.
The instrumentalists may freely express themselves in any fashion within stipulated and communally
coherent aesthetic parameters.

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Similarly, Kennedy (1987, p. 37) defines improvisation as (6) unencumbered and more clearly delineated
when there is an absence of notation in its execution. Thus, when performing the highly improvisatory model
of jazz it is to the instrumentalist’s benefit to memorize melodies, harmonic changes and forms so as to realize
“the possibilities of elaboration” (Kennedy, p. 38)
Clearly, the musical context, for all of these definitions, has to function within a creative spirit of
performance that is (7) “imaginative – purposeful – original and valuable” (Sinclair, Jeanneret, Swainston,
Watkins, 2009, p. 200). Abramson (1980, p. 67) refers to the music and movement of improvisation as (8):

Improvisation’s function is to develop rapidity of decision and interpretation, effortless concentration,

the immediate conception of plans and to set up direct communication between the soul that feels, the
brain that imagines and coordinates the fingers, arms, hands and breath that interpret thanks to the
education of the nervous system which unites all the particular senses: hearing, seeing, feeling,
touching and thinking in time, energy and space.

From these references above, improvisation now emerges as (1) an elaborative and liberal statement
(2) usually performed without the assistance of notation and administered from (3) a creative, spontaneous
attitude of mind so as to create a brief or extended original composition governed by the syntax and schemata
of its parameters. The syntax and schemata reflect the language and stylistic conventions (such as the use of
embellishment and ornament in Renaissance and Baroque music) relevant to the setting and culture of the
improvised expression. The parameters of this expression will now be discussed.

Historical Context
Further comprehension of the importance of improvisation is gained by examining some of its historical
context. Improvisation is evident within many diverse compositions including preludes, canzonas, fugues,
sonatas, symphonies, divertimenti, concerti and opera of Euro-Centric Art Music. The long hours of
composition in these contexts consist of many considered revisions, inspiration, conjecture, thematic
alternatives and experimentation. All of these activities are elements of improvisation. The final result of this
improvisation is composed music that is notated as a working model for the expression of that composition.
As such, improvisational techniques were clearly evident in early Italian Florentine Western Art
Music. In 1320, ‘civic heralds’ were employed to sing on the occasions of official ceremony, visiting
dignitaries, court entertainment or social and political commentary, framed at times within a civic conscience
and sung with an improvised approach using poetry as the text. This courtly and heraldic role was replicated
within the general community by bards (cantimpanca) who sung weekly from their platforms (piazzas) within
the locale of the city. The whole approach to this method of improvised singing was called Cantare
all’improviso (McGee, 2003, pp. 31-34).
Later, in 1529, Martin Agricola’s Musica instrumentalis deudsche (Bechtel, 1980, p. 110) described
improvisation as consisting of either ‘embellishments’ or ‘ornaments.’
Embellishments were elaborated drawn out passages of melodic sub divisions contained over the
main beats of the original melody. Whereas, ornaments were simply the devices of trill, mordent,
appoggiatura (leaning note) and turn (gruppetto). Furthermore, by 1535, Sylvestro Ganassi (Bechtel, p. 110)
had written the first printed treatise Opera Intitulata Fontegera on embellishment. Specific techniques for
these early forms of improvisation were known as passagio and diminution which were written as partimenti
improvised exercises (Schulenberg, 2008, p. 477). Ganassi formulated these exercises as basic examples of
melodic and rhythmic improvisation and it became the convention for performers to appropriately add these
techniques as they saw fit. Approximately twenty years later Diego Ortiz consolidated further discussion on
embellishment with his authoritative 1553 Spanish treatise Trotado de Glosas published in Rome
(Schulenberg, p. 478). As such, the theory and practice of Late Renaissance improvisation was well
entrenched as a segue to the following Baroque period of 1600-1750.

Cadenzas
As a result it was now generally accepted that musicians were expected to be able to improvise in the Baroque
era. Frescobaldi (Whitmore, 1991, p. 9) was already referring to embellishments as early as 1637 by giving
advice on the speed of rendition and interpretation of the ‘rallentando cadenza.’ Similarly, the late-baroque
flutist and composer Quantz, (Reilly, 1985, pp. 182, 186) provided a very detailed and elaborate essay about
the art of flute playing combined with the aesthete of performance and embellishment. Four of the eighteen

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chapters (written in 1752) were devoted to the ornamentation of melody with shakes (trills), appoggiaturas
(accented, passing, half-shake, mordent, turns), grace notes, extempore variation on simple intervals and rules
for cadenzas which were freely extended passages of ornamentation at the dominant point of a cadence.

Quantz said:

Cadenzas must sound as if they have been improvised spontaneously-because of the necessity of
speedy invention, cadenzas require more fluency of imagination than erudition. (Reilly, 1985, pp.
182, 186)

C.P.E. Bach affirmed the continuing practice of improvisation:

A good future can be assuredly predicted for anyone that can improvise. (Lawrence, 1978, p. 74)

Excessive and poorly mannered improvisation, however, irritated Joachim Quantz:

Some persons believe that they will appear learned if they crowd an Adagio with many graces, and
twist them around in such fashion that all too often hardly one note among ten harmonizes with the
bass, and little of the principal air can be perceived....Finally, they are ignorant that there is more art
in saying much with little, than little with much. (Bechtel, 1980, p. 110)

Where there is excess there is the polarity of restraint. The imminently transcending period of classicism
satisfied this dualism.
Clearly, by the end of the Renaissance and Baroque eras the art of improvisation was well established,
yet it quickly became more restrained and “minimal” (Zack, 2000, p. 233) throughout the following classical
period, with its stylistic ethos of rounded phrases, melodically smooth contours and detailed exploration of the
sonata. The exception to this “minimal” tendency was, however, for composers such as Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven, Schubert (and later) Chopin, Brahms and Liszt (Moore, 1992, p. 62) to improvise at social and
court occasions where they would freely elaborate on a theme, sometimes in witty fugal and contrapuntal
techniques, for the amusement of others.

Paganini (1782-1840) clearly stated the practice as:

My duties require me to play in two concerts each week and I always improvise with piano
accompaniment. I write the accompaniment first and I work out my theme in the course of the
improvisation. (Bailey, 1980, p. 30)

Nevertheless, in the works proper to this period, there was a tendency for composers to dictate their intentions
with an abundant and specifically detailed notation utilizing tempi, clear dynamics and to some extent phrase
indications. The consequence was that the role of musicians tended to became more strict and rigorous with a
concern for a faithfully accurate realization of the composer’s notation.
Notwithstanding this, the performance of classical period cadenzas (mostly unaccompanied passages,
without notation, displaying technical, thematic elaboration and/or musical skill) instilled a continuing
opportunity for improvisatory breathing space and gave rein for performers to freely elaborate upon principal
melodic themes. Motif references of principal themes were extended melodically, rhythmically, and
harmonically within the conventions and parameters of classical style. The evolution of these cadenzas came
from the previously referred partimenti passages of passagio and diminution, which transcended in to the final
elaboration of the Baroque cadence. There were, however, rules and dictates required for the formulation of
cadenzas but the intention was that the result sounded as improvisation.
Turk’s School of Clavier Playing (Klavierschule, 1789) (Honea, 2007, p. 28), with some guidance
from Quantz, advised ten rules for cadenzas in classical style yet frequently referred to the results as to sound
improvised. The cadenzas (short or extended) were played without accompaniment and without reference to
notation. They were in fact a form of improvisation and freedom. This freedom of cadenza interpretation and
improvisation also coincided with the conventions from the Baroque and Classical composers, such as Bach,
Stamitz and Mozart who expected performers to add their own interpretations of nuance and phrase patterns to

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their originally unmarked compositions. The continuity of this element of improvisation reached a further
apex within the Romantic Fantasia art form of Chopin although it becomes clear, even with an elaborative
music title such as ‘Fantasia’ and a rich heritage of improvisation, that eventually the strict rules of adhering
to notation became the dominant vernacular as Fantasias now became specifically notated in every element.

Romantic to Modern
The performance of improvisation throughout the following Romantic, Impressionist, Serial, Neo Classical
and Modern periods was evidenced by the continued rendition of cadenzas. These cadenzas, such as in the
compositions of Franz Liszt, Edvard Grieg, Peter Tchaikovsky, Max Bruch, Richard Strauss and Carl Nielsen
eventually evolved to be specifically notated so as to maintain the composer’s voice and authority.
Consequently insistence on perfectly realizing every component of notated text becomes much more the norm
for the performer. The role of the musician was now typified as a vehicle of expression, or as a conduit for the
composer’s dictated, prescribed and copiously detailed text. Moore (1992, p. 63) testifies to this when he says
starkly “the mandates of compositionally specified interpretation now supersede those of the instrumentalist.”
As a result, the practice of improvisation had seriously disappeared in the formal apparatus of musical
expression for Western musicians. It wasn’t until the advent of New Orleans jazz, around 1895, that
improvisation noticeably reasserted itself with a style of music deeply rooted in oral and aural traditions.
Significantly, this emerged only thirty years later after the thirteenth amendment to the American Constitution
abolished slavery. In turn, jazz music, comprising syncopated themes, syncopated rhythms, improvised
melody, tonal variation and exotic harmony, was steadily integrated in to Western art music with composers
such as Stravinsky, Gershwin and Copland, yet, there was regrettably little integration of the teaching of
improvisation within school institutions and conservatoriums of music. The result was a general disdain for
improvisation from music educators and conservative society at large who viewed improvised expression as
‘music of the devil.’

What is the problem?

In terms of instrumental music education, the current method of learning has tended to highlight the reading of
music. Beginner students at primary and secondary level learn tone production combined with basic notated
rhythmic values. This proceeds towards the recognition of notated elementary finger patterns and positions.
The student then continues to advance towards higher levels of notated repertoire and graduates in to
performance ensembles, which continue to interpret notation without any call for improvisatory ability. By the
time an improvising ensemble like a big band or stage band is introduced to the curriculum some difficulties
are experienced. Often the students involved have little understanding of what it is to improvise. They tend to
lack practical, theoretical and aural experience of this. Their aural curiosity and imagination has tended to be
neglected by an over emphasis upon interpreting and realizing the requirements of notation. Many music
teachers as such have been similarly influenced and feel at a loss as how to advise on improvisation having
had a lack of experience in their backgrounds and pre-service education.

The question is how has the problem been addressed?

In 2005 the Australian National Review of School Music Education recommended the following:

The Australian Government

R.6.1 Initiate and lead a music curriculum development project focusing on
• Providing a cohesive approach to music across Australian schools.
• Targeting specific priority needs identified by this Review:
music technology, indigenous music, gifted and talented
students, creativity, composition, improvisation and
inclusive repertoire.

State and Territory school systems and sectors, in partnership with professional associations, industry and
professional and community music organizations

R.6.14 Provide curriculum materials supporting creativity, composition

and improvisation in music. (Seares et al., 2005, p. xix)

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Within the context of the Victorian Government, this has been addressed through the 2005 implementation of
VELS (Victorian Essential Learning Standards) and administered by the Victorian Curriculum Assessment
Authority.
The National Review (2005) states this model “gives no special attention to music” (p.167). As such,
improvisation is referred to in very broad terms and tends to infer a substantial use of imagination but often
based around a holistic view of artistic development. The design of the curriculum is spread across six levels
from prep to year 10 and embraces four components based upon:
• Creating and Making
• Exploring and Responding

When a deeper view of this VELS curriculum is examined, however, at levels five and six it is
apparent that, when guided by a suitably experienced and resourced teacher, it is very capable of eliciting a
successful program of improvised study. This is because the design encourages informed originality, in
combination with a skills based acquisition, as an essential premise of expression. The following comment
concerning improvisation at level six is notable, as the word “abstract” has not been identified in other
comparative curricula. Level six VELS students are required to:

• Develop a personal style as they perform, improvise and compose instrumental and/or vocal works with
imaginative and aurally perceptive approaches in the use of music skills, techniques and processes.

• Demonstrate aural and technical competence in their choices of aspects of the elements and
performance of their own works so that the intended meaning is realised and conveyed to a range of
audiences.
• Compose and improvise works exploring abstract ideas and complex issues, using innovative
approaches to explore ideas in musical ways and solve musical problems
(http://vels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/arts/approaches.html)

What did I do to address the teaching of improvisation?

In 2010 I decided to integrate the study of improvisation in to my instrumental lessons. I set up a case study of
five students in years ten and eleven that volunteered to participate in a lunchtime course of study in
improvisation over the length of a complete school term. I devised a course of study with a project schedule
concerning specific techniques of improvisation that could be applied to the decoration of ‘standard’ melodies
with the addition of spontaneous opportunity for student ‘original’ composition. Included throughout was a
background questionnaire plus the filming of three stages of progress interviews combined with the weekly
film of the students’ improvised class performances. My role throughout was that of a guiding participant
teacher/researcher/observer who explained and demonstrated specific techniques of improvisation whilst
continually being open to the students’ input, commentary and reactions to this course of study.
The design of this study concentrated on comprehending how to add improvisatory decoration to
melody with the devices of mordent, gruppetto, silence, syncopation, rhythmic variation, dynamic variation
and phrasing integrity. Other specific devices studied were the use of target notes, common melodic factors
over alternating harmony, calling and responding, mirroring, trading in fours, creating a riff, extended solos
and the identification of musical cliché in recorded examples.

Observations
In the first weeks from the background questions and interview it eventuated that the participants had received
little if any systematic education with improvisation. It was apparent that all students possessed some multi
instrumental skills with many members of their immediate and extended families also possessing instrumental
and vocal experience. Most students had experimented with improvisation in one form or another but again
little systematic guidance had been experienced.
In the early stages of the project it became apparent that the group had also established its own
dynamics of importance being the establishment of fun, enjoyment, rapport and trust. The participants were
able to describe role model characteristics, they liked studying specific improvisatory techniques and they had
a desire to create original melody.

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 Once rapport and trust were established by the middle stages of the project, it emerged that the group
had subliminally established recognition of leadership and mutual support within its improvised expression.
Confidence in ability had markedly improved. As such the improvised expression became more adventurous
and there was clear evidence that the integration of specific techniques assisted this confidence.
The final stages of the project established a clear desire for the students to integrate the study of
improvisation in to their formal instrumental music lessons. They appreciated the design of the study and the
guidance of a participant observer. The students also clearly benefited from public performance with a further
rise in confidence. Students also had enthusiastically experienced the ability to compose original melody with
a strong ability to recall the specific techniques of improvisation. There was uniform enthusiasm for the group
to continue and all students intended to further their involvement in music activity when they had finished
their schooling.

Advocacy
What I have learnt as a teacher is that the study and encouragement of improvisation needs to be renewed and
centered within all music expression. It needs to be a concomitant aspect of spiritual, physical and cognitive
growth in all people and at all stages of life. It needs to be incorporated in to every lesson, preferably in
groups, in a way that stimulates ownership of music, even when addressing an interpretative context. This
point cannot be emphasised highly enough. Otherwise, individuals will not flourish and will give up. Their
personal voice will be neglected and there will be little enthusiasm for school music programs that do not
encourage this. The alternative choice of commitment, spontaneity, enthusiasm, ownership, increased
retention, personal development and creative empowerment of music is by far the preferred option.
The study also demonstrated the practicality, suitability and adaptability of the project schedule,
conducted over a ten-week period. It is advocated therefore that the school year of four terms could be
similarly designed studying, respectively, improvised melody, harmony, rhythm and original composition
whilst overviewed within a musically global context and conducted within an environment concerned with the
holistic development of the human being. This four-term structure could be applied creatively within the mid
primary, late primary, secondary and tertiary levels of schooling, embracing the appropriate stages of
cognitive growth, so as to give a more centered picture of improvisation as the dominant rhetoric. Thus this
type of curriculum-based study combining formal and informal participation would be of assistance to other
teachers. Within a present-day context it would be salutary to consider this.

References
Bailey, D. (1985). Musical Improvisation: Its nature and practice in music. Englewood-Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Bechtel, B. (1980). Improvisation in Early Music. Music Educators Journal, 66(5), 109-112.
Hinz, B. (1995). Helping Students Master Improvisation. Music Educators Journal, 82(2), 32-36.
Honea, S. (2007). Creativity and Cadenzas in The Studio. American Music Teacher, 57(3), 27-30.
Kennedy, R. F. (1987). Jazz Style and Improvisation Codes. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 19, 37-43.
Lawrence, I. (1978). Composers and the nature of music education. London: Scolar Press.
McGee, T. (2003). Improvisation in the Arts of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Michigan, Kalamazoo:
Medieval Institute Publications.
Moore, R. (1992). The Decline of Improvisation in Western Art Music: An Interpretation of Change.
International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music, 23(1), 61-84.
Reilly, E. (1985). On playing the Flute/Johan Joachim Quantz, translated and Introduction Edward. R. Reilly,
New York: Schirmer.
Sarath, E. (1996). A New Look at Improvisation. Journal of Music Theory, 40(1), 1-38.
Schulenberg, D. (2008). The Performance of Italian Basso Continuo: Style in Keyboard Accompaniment in
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries by Gulia Nuti (Review). Music and Letters, 89(3).
Seares, M. et al. (2005). National Review of School Music Education: Augmenting the Diminished. Australian
Government, Department of Education Science and Training, Western Australia: Murdoch
University.
Sinclair, C., Jeanneret, N., Swainston, A. & Watkins, M. (2009). Education in the Arts, teaching and learning
in the contemporary curriculum. Sinclair, C., Jeanneret, N., O’Toole, J., (Eds). South Melbourne, Vic:
Oxford University Press.

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Tirro, F. (1974). Constructive Elements in Jazz Improvisation. Journal of the American Musicological
Society, 27(2), 285-305.
Whitmore, P. (1991). Unpremeditated Art: The cadenza in the Classical Keyboard Concerto. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Zack, M. (2000). Jazz Improvisation and Organizing: Once More from the Top. Organization Science, 2(2),
227-234.

134
Out of the Speakers: Analysis tools for recorded music
Matthew Hill

Abstract
Whilst techniques for the analysis of musical scores are well established, there are also many existing
analytical methods focusing on recorded music in the fields of electroacoustic, electronic dance music, jazz
and popular music that provide useful analytical tools. This paper discusses the development of a music
analysis method that is intended to address many of the processes and outputs of new and emerging music
technologies that are utilised in music making in these genres. The analytical method was developed as part of
a doctoral study linking music analysis and music creation and has been applied in undergraduate higher
education and VET settings. In the analytical method, a text based parametric template is used to address a
range of musical elements such as sound objects, effects processing, spatialisation and interaction, alongside
more conventional elements such as rhythm, harmony, melody, texture and form. There method requires the
extension of more traditional aural skills to these other elements. The text based presentation of analysis can
be augmented with the use of visual representation tools such as spectrograms and graphic form charts that
replicate the interface used for music creation in many digital audio workstations. The links between analysis
and creation can also be reinforced through the recreation of an analysed work with standard sampling and
editing software. The paper discusses how the analytical method has been applied in post-secondary education
settings and how it could also be applicable to secondary education settings.

Introduction
Hill (2007) reviewed a range of existing music analysis methods and identified that many existing music
analysis methods are inadequate for addressing the processes and sonic outputs involved in musical genres
such as rock, jazz, electronic dance music or electroacoustic music. In these genres, the recording, as opposed
to a score, represents the ‘primary text’ (Moore, 1993). As such more traditional score based analytical
methods (for example those discussed in Bent, 1987 or Cook, 1987), whilst providing useful tools, cannot
adequately address the complexities of musical elements such as timbre, texture, groove and spatialisation
which are often prominent features in these genres. Numerous analytical methods have been developed to
address the deficiencies of score based analysis and these include: in the fields of electronic and
electroacoustic music (Couprie, 2004; Giomi & Ligabue, 2001; Hirst, 2005; Smalley, 1997); in rock (Brown,
1997; Hubbs, 2000; Middleton, 2000; Moore, 1993; Tagg, 2000); in jazz (Goodheart, 2001; Potter, 1990;
Rinzler, 1988); and in electronic dance music (Hawkins, 2003). The approaches to analysis and
representational techniques used in these methods provide the basis for the analytical tools proposed in this
paper.

Analysis Template
The analysis template developed in Hill (2007), (see Table 1) aims to address the processes and sonic outputs
of the above genres whilst also remaining applicable to other musical styles. This method begins with the
transcription of recorded works in traditional or graphic notation, the generation and analysis of sonograms,
creation of form diagrams etc. The distillation of such information into a concise summary template,
applicable to all works, enables the identification and comparison of compositional methods between
individual works and genres. Solomon’s (2002) Music Parametric Analysis, provides a useful template for
encompassing a range of various musical parameters in a concise text based form. However, given its
emphasis on tonal works Solomon’s template requires expansion in order to address the primacy of other
elements in the genres discussed here. The template was utilised in Hill (2007) to analyse 36 works in various
genres (including electronic, rock, improvised and electronic dance music) and has been subsequently revised
in response to reflections on these analyses. This revised analysis template is presented in Table 1. The
statements and questions in italics are intended to focus the discussion in each parameter and provide
references to key authors where appropriate.

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Table 1: Analysis Template

Shaping Factors:
Parameter
M Theoretical Philosophical, music theoretical.
u Practical Technical Tools for realisation e.g., equipment, studios (constraints/potential).
s Play Bottom up -type approaches, e.g., jamming, software/synthesiser
i exploration.
c Practice Instrumental/vocal/studio etc.
a Listening Influences, musical or other.
l
O Environmental Macro Time, place, culture etc.
t Micro Room, ambience, etc.
h Budget/ Resources Source of funds, amount.
e Intended Audience Explicitly stated? Implications due to marketing?
r Timeframe Time for realisation.

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Inputs:
Parameter Experiential Literature
Sources E.g., electronic, concrète, instrumental, vocal.
Objects Individual elements – e.g. durations/amplitude envelopes,
S frequency ranges/pitches, wave types, description of samples,
o text fragments, composite objects (e.g., additive synthesis).
u (Roads, 2001, following Schaeffer) Timbral quality(ies).
n Static/evolving. Sound combinations/blending (Solomon,
d 2002). Vocal timbre – throat/head/chest and gender
construction (Shepherd, 1991, p. 163).
Object processing Types, e.g., delay, chorus, reverb, compression, gate, filtering,
distortion, speed variation, LF modulation.
R Pulse Present? Constant/variations? Tempo – constant/varied,
h sudden or gradual changes? (Solomon, 2002).
y Metre Ametric, polymetric, multimetric? Regular meter? Constant or
t changing? (Solomon, 2002)
h Patterning Description of patterns, changes, note values, accents, effects on
m other parameters (e.g. pitch) (Solomon, 2002).
Selection Tonal, atonal, microtonal, polytonal, modal, chromatic,
aleotoric? (Adapted from Solomon -“Tonality”, 2002)
Vertical structures Chord structures, voicings, intervals (Solomon – “Harmony”,
P 2002).
i Vertical patterning Chord sequence/repetition/ variation/ rate of change/ root
t movement/ pedal point/drone. (Solomon -“Harmonic Motion”,
c 2002)
h Horizontal structures Melody/Phrase/motive/riff – structure/contour/range/length.
and patterning Description of patterns. Repetition/variation? (Adapted from
Solomon -“Thematic/motivic structure”, “Thematic/motivic
development” and “Pitch range”, 2002).
Dynamics Constant/Changing? Independent of texture? (Solomon, 2002)
Texture Monophonic, homophonic, polyphonic, contrapuntal,
heterophonic? Homorhythmic? Thin/thick? Changing?
Polarization (melody/accompaniment, solo/tutti, antiphony.
etc.) (Solomon, 2002).
Spatial elements Nature of perceived acoustic space. (Wishart, 1996, p. 140)
Stereo -left/right, near/far, static/dynamic, local/diffuse
(Wishart, 1996, ch. 10). Reference to “Sound box” (Moore, 1993,
p. 106) Multispeaker – placement, static/dynamic, trajectories,
local/diffuse (Wishart, 1996, ch. 10).
Structure Form type(s). Small and large scale relationships. Derivation of
structure – principle? (Solomon, 2002).
Interaction Description. Rules? Standard types of interaction? (Rinzler,
1988)
Score Existing? Type?
Presentational Format Recording (format?)/ Live performance (venue?)
M Gestural Reference Reference to physical gesture? (Middleton, 2000, p. 108)
e Signification Perceived meaning/connotation. Implicit/explicit,
a Intrinsic/contextual recognition (Wishart, 1996, p. 150). Sound
n image as metaphor? (Wishart, 1996, p. 165)
i Signification/coding (Middleton, 1990, ch. 6).
n Syntax/semantics/ontological levels (Ferrara 1984, p. 359).
g

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The first section of the template addresses the shaping factors in the creation of a musical work. According to
numerous authors (e.g., Brown, 1997; Ferrara, 1984; Hubbs, 2000; Tagg, 2000), the consideration of a broad
range of extramusical parameters is necessary for any comprehensive analysis and the current research
incorporates this principle. The second section of the template addresses the inputs of a particular work and
includes a range of traditional parameters (e.g., pulse, metre, dynamics, pitch selection, texture, etc.) in
addition to parameters more suited to electronic and electroacoustic works such as, sound objects, sound
object processing and spatial elements. The analyst/student’s own observations are given in the experiential
column whilst discussion of the literature on the works, including comments by the creators of the works
themselves, is given in the literature column.
The analytical process requires the development of aural skills in relation to the various parameters.
Traditional aural skills in relation to elements such as pitch, melody, harmony, and rhythm need to be
supplemented by aural awareness of the potential complexities of sound objects, sound object processing and
spatialisation. In addition, elaboration in relation to meaning, connotation and the reference to physical
gesture further complicate the task. In this paper I will focus on the parameters of sound object processing,
spatial elements, structure and texture and illustrate how the text based descriptions of such parameters can be
augmented by graphic depictions and recreations of aspects of the work being analysed.

Analysis Parameter: Sound object processing

Much recorded music makes use of a range of effects processing devices such as delay, chorus, reverb,
compression, gating, filtering/equalisation, distortion, frequency and amplitude modulation. The sonic output
of these devices depends on the levels of various parameters that are fairly standardised across software and
hardware versions of the devices. In order to make an adequate description of a particular effect the analyst
must be familiar with the standard parameters of that effect. For example, a typical delay effect will include
parameters such as delay time (length of time, usually measured in milliseconds between iterations of the
delayed signal), feedback (number of iterations of the delayed signal), and wet/dry mix (level of original
signal compared to delayed signal). In music with a regular pulse present, a delay time can often be given a
th
specific rhythmic value such as an 1/8 note triplet delay. In music where a regular pulse is not present it can
be difficult to aurally identify a delay time in milliseconds, however by attempting to recreate the sound with
a delay the value can ascertained.

A sonogram can also be used to graphically illustrate standard delay parameters. A sonogram shows the
density of audio frequencies (vertical axis) measured over time (horizontal axis). For example, Figure 1 is a
23 second section of the work “Bye Bye Butterfly” by Pauline Oliveros (1965) made using the software
application, Max/MSP.

Figure 1: Pauline Oliveros “Bye Bye Butterfly” sonogram detail

In Figure 1 the yellow centred band represents a sound of approximately 2KHz that moves in glissandi
fashion above the range of the sonogram at 1’10” and then moves through three frequency areas before
returning to 2KHz. Two delays are visible; the first by looking at the repeated near vertical glissandi lines as
the main frequency is adjusted (approximate time of 500ms) and the second by looking at the repetition of the

138
area at 1’16” that is visible in a shadowing manner again at approximately 1’19” (giving an approximate delay
time of 3000ms). The number of iterations (feedback) of both delays is clearly visible (4 and 1 respectively)
and the relative intensity of the iterated signal graphically depicts the wet/dry mix level (approximately 50%).
This is just one example of the level of detail possible in the discussion of sound processing. The
various effects processing devices listed above, particularly the use of compression, equalisation and reverb
could be discussed at length but this is beyond the scope of this paper. However, suffice to reiterate that the
development of aural awareness of these effects requires the analyst/student to spend much time exploring and
listening to the devices being used. Similarly the use of the sonogram to illustrate delay length (as in Figure 1)
is just one of many possible applications of a sonogram. By changing the range of the values of x and y axes,
the focus of analysis can shift from examining, for example, the textural variations across a whole track (given
a wide x and y range) or the resonant frequencies in one particular sound (given a narrow x and y range).

Analysis Parameter: Spatial Elements

Wishart (1996) presents a very thorough and systematic approach to the use of spatialisation from a
compositional perspective. Within a stereo image, sounds can be placed left to right and near to far, they
may be static or move in some sort of trajectory, and they can be localised or diffused. Multi-speaker
systems afford more complex placements and trajectories. Wishart uses a series of hand drawn figures to
illustrate the various spatial permutations and these provide a useful template for developing a graphic
depiction of spatial elements. Moore uses the term “sound box” (1993, p. 106) to refer to a virtual three-
dimensional space with axes for stereo placement of sounds (horizontal, left to right), perceived distance
from sound source (horizontal, front to back) and frequency range (vertical). Together, these models
provide a useful basis for developing descriptive depictions of the spatial elements in recorded music.
Figures 2 and 3 show an example of the visual depiction of Moore’s sound box for the work
“Montreal” by the band Autechre (1994). This sound box was made in the virtual world, Second Life (an
online 3D immersive environment), and shows the basic placement of sounds within a stereo field (x axis),
approximate frequency range (y axis) and perceived depth (z axis).

Figure 2: Sound box representation for “Montreal” by Autechre (1993), front view

139
Figure 3: Sound box representation for “Montreal” by Autechre (1993), side view

Figures 2 and 3 represent only a particular moment in the work although in this example there is no dynamic
movement of sounds. A sonogram of a section of the work has been used as a backdrop providing a reference
in terms of the relative strength of various frequencies across the 0-3Khz range. (The sonogram image could
also be used to identify particular sounds). This realisation of a sound box could be extended in a number of
ways. For example, the objects representing the various sounds could be animated to move as necessary or
perhaps be sonified. The Second Life environment also enables the viewer, via an avatar, to move in and
around the box enabling a closer inspection of the spatial, frequency and depth elements.

Analysis Parameters: Structure/Texture

Graphic form diagrams offer a concise means to display structural, textural/arrangement elements of recorded
music. Figure 4 presents a form diagram for “Blue Monday” by the band New Order (1983) and was created
within Microsoft Excel. The left hand column lists the instrumentation or sounds and the horizontal coloured
bands represent when that sound is heard. In many electronic or electronic dance music tracks it is not suitable
to just list instrumentation, an itemisation of the individual sounds is necessary. In the example given it is
useful to give a measure of both the ‘time elapsed’ and ‘bars’. The former enables the analyst/student to move
quickly to the section of the track they are reviewing, the latter highlights the use of occasional two and four
bar sections which break up the mostly even eight bar cycles. Further additions could be made such as
identifying dynamics (these could be identified graphically by varying the width/texture/shade of the various
coloured bands, or with traditional notation) or marking sections (for example, ABC etc., or
verse/chorus/bridge).
The graphic form diagram is a similar representation to that used in most digital audio workstations
(DAWs) such as Pro Tools, Cubase, Reason, Logic and Garageband. The similarities are of particular
relevance to the analyst/student who has worked extensively in such environments. The timeline
representation aligns with their mental model of music making, reinforcing the link between music analysis
and music creation. One possible extension of the graphic form diagram would be to construct a multi-
layered, multimedia object that could present the sounds of individual parts, notation of parts, panning
information, effects processing information and sonogram images. This could be most readily achieved by
recreating the work within a given DAW, using a suitable sample library or instruments to create the sounds.
Whilst not within the scope of this paper, such a recreation would be a particularly thorough way of exploring
the timbral aspects of individual sounds. In attempting to recreate, for example, an exact kick drum sound or
synthesiser pad sound, the complexities of timbre emerge.

140
Figure 4: Graphic Form Chart for “Blue Monday” by New Order (1983)

141
Application in Educational Settings
In addition to the analyses conducted by the author as part of Hill (2007), the analysis template has been
utilised, in a modified form, in an undergraduate university (Bachelor of Music course) and also in a VET
context (Certificate IV and Diploma of Music courses). In the university context students were undertaking a
first year arranging course that examined different contemporary popular music styles. In a tutorial setting,
students were asked to listen to particular tracks and identify aspects of the various parameters in the template.
In a ‘jigsaw’ activity, students were asked to work in small groups addressing only selected parameters, with
all parameters being divided amongst the students present. Each group of students were then asked to report
back to the group. The activity was successful in focussing the students listening on the various parameters for
the particular session and highlighted the need for students to be prompted with suitable vocabulary for many
of the parameters. In the VET context, students were presenting and appraising performances as part of a
concert practice subject. Keywords, including the names of the various parameters listed in the analysis
template, were given to the students as prompts to direct their written and verbal comments. These prompts
were very effective at directing the students away from the previously very generalised comments.
The above examples represent two in class applications of the analysis template. I envisage more
elaborate and detailed activities could be undertaken either in terms of analysis assignments where students
were required to complete the analysis template, transcribe sections using traditional notation, create form
diagrams, sound box models and perhaps recreate sections of the work being analysed. The level of detail
required could of course vary relevant to the student level. In a broader sense the various parameters of the
analysis template could form the structure of a whole course or unit of study focussed on analysis. The
development of graphic representations such as those included in this paper offer much potential integration
of the use of computers within a creative arts setting.

Conclusion
This paper has presented an outline of an analysis template developed in order to address the particular
requirements of recorded music. The analysis template offers a non-hierarchical presentation of various
parameters that are intended to focus the analyst/student’s attention towards all aspects of the recorded work.
The need for the development of aural skills in relation to parameters such as sound effects processing or
spatial elements has been highlighted and supplementary graphic representations of these parameters and also
structure and texture included. The application of the analysis template in post-secondary eduction settings,
whilst not extensive to date, has highlighted the potential for further application.

Acknowledgment
I thank Lisa Jacka for constructing the ‘sound box’ within Second Life (Figures 2 and 3).

References
Bent, I. (1987). Analysis. London: MacMillan Press.
Brown, M. (1997). “Little Wing”: A study in musical cognition. In J. Covach, & G.M. Boone (Eds.),
Understanding rock: Essays in musical analysis (pp. 155-170). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cook, N. (1987). A guide to musical analysis. London: J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd.
Couprie, P. (2004). Graphical representation: an analytical and publication tool for electroacoustic music.
Organised Sound, 9(1), 109-113.
Ferrara, L. (1984). Phenomenology as a tool for musical analysis. Musical Quarterly, LXX(3), 355-373.
Giomi, F., & Ligabue, M. (1998). Modalities of signification in contemporary music: A proposal for an
analytical system. Contemporary Music Review, 17(2), 47-58.
Goodheart, M. (2001, Summer). The “Giant Steps” fragment. Perspectives of New Music, 39(2), 63-95.
Hawkins, S. (2003). Feel the beat come down: house music as rhetoric. In A. Moore (Ed.), Analyzing popular
music (pp. 80 – 102). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hill, M. F. (2007). Hit Scrape Click Drag: Analysis and application of compositional methods at the
intersection of conserved and emergent technologies. PhD Thesis, James Cook University.
Hirst, D. (2005). Developing an interactive study score for the analysis of electro-acoustic music. Generate
and Test: Proceedings of the Australasian Computer Music Conference 2005 (pp. 85-88). Brisbane,
Queensland University of Technology.
Hubbs, N. (2000). The imagination of pop-rock criticism. In W. Everett (Ed.), Expression in pop-rock music
(pp. 3-30). New York: Garland.

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Middleton, R. (2000). Popular music analysis and musicology: Bridging the gap. In R. Middleton (Ed.),
Reading pop: Approaches to textual analysis in popular music (pp. 104-121). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Moore, A. F. (1993). Rock: The primary text. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Oliveros, P. (1993, Autumn). Cues. The Musical Quarterly, 77(3), 373-383.
Potter, G. (1990). Analyzing improvised jazz. College Music Symposium 30(1), 64-74.
Rinzler, P. (1988). Preliminary thoughts on analyzing musical interaction among jazz performers. Annual
Review of Jazz Studies, 4, 153-60.
Roads, C. (2001). Microsound. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Shepherd, J. (1991). Music and male hegemony. In R. Leppert, & S. McClary (Eds.), Music and society: the
politics of composition, performance and reception. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smalley, D. (1997). Spectromorphology: explaining sound-shapes. Organised Sound, 2(2), 107-26.
Solomon, L. (2002). Music parametric analysis. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from
http://solomonsmusic.net/paramet.htm
Tagg, P. (2000). Analysing popular music: Theory, method, and practice. In R. Middleton (Ed.), Reading pop:
Approaches to textual analysis in popular music (pp. 71-103). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, T. (1993, Autumn). The gendered construction of the musical self: The music of Pauline Oliveros. The
Musical Quarterly, 77(3), 385-396.
Wishart, T. (1996). On sonic art. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.

Discography
Booth, S., & Brown, R. (1994). Montreal (Recorded by Autechre). On Amber [CD]. Sheffield: Warp Records.
Hook, P., Gilbert, G., Morris, S., & Sumner, B. (1983). Blue Monday [Recorded by New Order]. On Machine
Soul: An odyssey into electronic dance music [CD]. Rhino/WEA. (2000)
Oliveros, P. (1965). Bye bye butterfly. On OHM: The early gurus of electronic music 1948 – 1980 [CD]. New
York: Ellipsis Arts. (2000)

143
Music improvisation: Young children’s multimodal text reconstructions using semiotics in cross-
cultural classroom settings
Michelle M. Tomlinson, Griffith University

Abstract
Cultural and ethical practices and cognitive abilities of children in the first years of school may be transferred,
assimilated and transformed through their discourses or resources for representing existing knowledge.
Children enact agency and voice during interactions and responses in classroom music by replicating play in
engaging activities. Cross-cultural discourses in music learning can be negotiated mutually between teacher
and children through imaginative, joyful interaction in music, particularly in reconstruction of texts through
creative improvisation. Transformations are motivated by the interests represented in a child’s discourse, and
made through substitutions of specific concrete actions by abstractions such as sounds, or by selecting
elements and foregrounding them, reordering them or excluding some. Young children may also be able to
demonstrate abstract modalities by recognising general underlying patterns in their music-making, and
communicate cognitive processes and structures in their text-making as they communicate underlying truths
and discoveries. This paper examines relevant literature leading to a framework for exploring the validity of
these ideas, expressing the view that children are active transmitters of music culture and that situated cultural
practices enacted in the music classroom provide rich sources for communicating meaning, transforming
dispositions and developing higher thinking.

Introduction
As the new millennium moves into its second decade it is becoming evident that Australia’s education system
needs to re-examine the semiotic tools by which young children learn to shape their literacy texts, in particular
those of music. Cultural nuances are being foregrounded as crucial to informing educational practice.
Examination of the cultural dimensions of affordances in children’s music play brings two aspects to the fore:
equity (through children’s expressions of dispositions as they form their identity) and innovation. Flückiger
(2006) argues that young children represent diverse belief systems of what and how they learn, and that the
early years of their education are particularly important years in which to invest a deeper understanding of
these socio-cultural influences on the way children represent meaning in their texts, their ways of representing
learning. Inequity is no longer tolerable in the new millennium, nor is only one system of knowing deemed
valid. In music education, recognition of multimodal music texts in children’s music play is crucial when
investing in their creative potential to enhance music invention. Learning is increasingly recognised as
occurring firstly in out-of-school experiences.
These experiences influence how children learn in more formal school settings by the appropriation of
specific social discourses and practices (Bourdieu, 1990; Unsworth, 1993). Pluralistic approaches to learning
provide not only equity but also opportunities for innovation. Aesthetic ideals and values conferred on music
creativity by institutions and government bodies are largely historically derived (Bourdieu, 1993). This
includes what might be counted as music and how it is learned. Such rhetoric ignores the real efforts of
children’s meaning-making practices in music play. They observe ordinary aspects of their world in diverse
cultural settings and artistically represent them (Mavers, 2011).

Communication Strategies of Young Children in Classroom Music

Much music research with young children has explored different cognitive and social influences on their
music making. Understanding the role of critical thinking and cognitive processing was found to be important
when considering children’s communications in music invention (e.g., Elliot & Baker, 2008). How verbal and
musical meaning making is constructed or negotiated in collaborative paired music play with friends has been
investigated, and found to be qualitatively different from that of non-friends (MacDonald & Miell, 2000).
Burland and Davidson (2001) found the quality of interaction between friends improved, but not their music
making, Investigation of asymmetrical distributions of power between adult and child in music lessons led
researchers to discover that this was often the cause of students ending the lessons (Rostvall & West, 2003, p.
23). Holgersen (2002) found that 1-5 year old children use consecutive strategies of reception, imitation,
identification and elaboration.
Children enact agency or self-determination when reconstructing sounds to redesign music texts in
music play during out-of-school experiences, in order to create meaning first for themselves, then for others as

144
they communicate this meaning (Wingstedt, 2008). One way in which children enact agency in classroom
music is by composing music texts while replicating play in engaging tasks (Klopper & Dachs, 1998).
Another way is to use the idea of storytelling (Singer, 2008). Previous research by Bamberger (1980),
Gromko and Poorman (1998) and others has transferred adult expectations and standards onto children,
researching compositions that were completed and defined pieces of music using conventional notation.
Barrett (1999) and Tomlinson (1990) sought to correct this imbalance by investigating to what extent children
invent their own symbolic forms of representing sounds, rhythms and melodies in group activities. Young’s
(2009) case studies found that the individual child’s hybrid music making, however, consists of a blending of
new experiences and culturally acquired, familiar song forms. She acknowledged the many contexts of music
and genre in early childhood classrooms, the diversity and complexity of sources from which children draw
inspiration. In supporting musical activity with young children, she observed children engaging in
independent play with sounds using voice and instruments, and noted the fact that it was more than
exploratory. She highlighted the patchy nature of our understanding of young children’s musical capabilities,
observing a free-flowing structure maintained throughout children’s musical creations during independent
play on a xylophone, and transformations of previous musical ideas in response to events in the environment.
Co-operative music play between peers or between teacher and child were also observed, using resources
(instruments and voice) to exchange ideas such as simple rhythmic or melodic phrases or repetitions, and to
transform music by redesigning familiar cultural texts or forms of expressions in order to make new
meanings, new texts using the mode of music.
Children relate to musical experiences with the depth of meaning these experiences bring to their
lives, and the ways these experiences can inform their lives (Shusterman, 2002). There is a growing
justification for further investigation into the nature of children’s musical thought and action (Barrett, 2009).
These new approaches to music learning through the eyes of children sometimes reveal inconsistencies with
traditional accounts of children’s development, engagement and experience detailed by DeLiège and Sloboda
(1996) and Hargreaves (1986). Other accounts of children’s participation in their everyday musical activities
reveal their ability to construct musical compositions and express understandings and ideas in music (e.g.,
Elliot & Baker, 2008). Young (2003) highlights the need for ongoing research that looks at the “intersensory
whole” of music – instruments, voice and movement – to identify “forms of organisation that are identifiable
and competencies they imply, so that appropriate provision and pedagogical strategies can be designed”
(Young, 2003, p. 56). In particular, ‘there is a need for more information from ethnographies of daily life to
extend our understanding’ (Young, 2009, p. 43).
Young children communicate or express themselves through music as a text, by their selection and
use of materials as semiotic tools in music play. Children’s music interactions may be interpreted by
examining firstly what is occurring to make this music happen, or the actions and materials chosen by the
participant(s), and secondly how this is communicated or mediated through discourse. As Olsson (2007) has
observed, music in existing social research has been treated on the whole as an independent variable, but
“music in context or music as discourse considers conceptual frameworks, such as affordances, inclusivity and
meaning, in which music’s mediating role for actions and experiences is elaborated” (Olsson, 2007, p. 998).
The central focus in this discussion is music interaction, improvisation and cross-cultural discourse in
classrooms, and how children express themselves through this mode. This is music play seen through the lens
of social semiotics. Music is seen as a MODE, the meaning of which in this field is now considered
conventional and settled (e.g., Jewitt, 2009; Kress, 2009; Van Leeuwen, 2005). A mode has three big-picture
functions: textual; inter-personal and ideational. Learning is expressed in the TEXT of music as a message
entity; INTER-PERSONAL refers to social relations of those engaged in communication; and IDEATIONAL
represents what is going on – the actions.
SEMIOSIS refers to contextualised text making practices or the way in which texts are the expression
of cultural knowledge, beliefs and practices (Jewitt, 2009). Through music texts, children enhance their text
making dispositions by expressing learning/experiences/stories in differing modes, times and places, and by
purposefully selecting appropriate tools or affordances in that cultural context to express a particular meaning.
Semiotic weighting (Mavers, 2007) means composing, not just selecting, meaning-making resources. It
involves decisions about how these resources will be combined. The usefulness of available designs is
measured in relation to the new event. Children select semiotic tools or resources in a purposeful way to
design texts in order to communicate an experience or an aspect of the world (Mavers, 2009).

145
Music Play as Multimodal Text Making
Children’s inventive and spontaneous music play in a creative problem-solving process of shared and
negotiated responses is refered to as “musical dialogue.” Through this process of music dialogue, children
may communicate their knowledge and experiences, and share their responses. Custodero (2009) suggests that
the dimensions and potentials of socio-cultural diversity in the music classroom invest music with a powerful
means by which children may communicate ideas, feelings and experiences. “Meaning (is) made by
negotiating multiple heritages through music and by providing a source of comfort and cognition – for
knowing the world and for better knowing ourselves” (Custodero, 2009, p. 88). Speaking of musical
knowledge, Swanwick (1994, p. 14) perceives it as “more than just undergoing experience.” “There is an
implicit notion of enduring change: not necessarily a residue of facts but perhaps an unspoken change of
disposition – an adjustment of mind or ‘mind-set’”. This refers to the way children use music resources to
compose music texts. They become more adept through music play that supports their thinking in many socio
cultural settings (Barrett, 2010).
The social semiotic learning theory elucidated by Kress (2010) provides a social semiotic lens to
investigate music play and incorporates aspects or dimensions of the learning experience that are not always
considered by educators, but that are integral to learning. “That sensory, affective and aesthetic dimension is
too often ignored and treated as ancillary. In reality, it is indissolubly part of semiosis” (Kress, 2010, p. 78).
Whereas linguists have treated language as one integrated phenomenon, “attention to the materiality and
logics of modes, to their distinct and specific affordances, suggests that speech and writing need to be treated
as distinct modes, rather than as superficially differing variants of the one mode of ‘language’ ” (Kress, 2010,
p. 105). According to Kress, modal affordances are the meaning potentials, representations or materials that
make meaning of the text, the social aspects of design, and the connection between the two. Affordance is that
which the sign can potentially convey. Affordance refers to the potentials of semiosis as a mode (or as a way
of expressing meaning), and the limitations of that mode (Kress, 2009). This applies to language as a mode: it
conveys meaning but it has limitations, it is a partial representation of a reality and can have more than one
meaning (Kress, 2010). Children’s music play is a text that expresses or conveys an indication of some kind of
realism, using selected materials. It is designed to interpret an aspect of their world or address significant
problems (West, 2009). This is a form of communication requiring semiotic work (Kress, 2010). It is as
important to children as their work of composing written texts for communication.
According to social semiotic theory, shared musical experiences shape children’s semiotic text
making dispositions, particularly the quality of their emergent creativity in music texts in music play, their
expression of learning experiences through the mode of music. Scollon and Scollon (2004) attempted to gain
insight into children’s meaning making using a method that focuses on children’s communication through
peer mediation and collaborative play, and provided detailed multimodal and situated video analysis. In
examining children’s design of music texts through multimodal analysis, for instance, it may be possible to
reveal how young children use semiotic tools to group patterns of music in individual and collective music
play, and in different contexts and social spaces (Taetle & Cutietta, 2002).

Semiotic Tools in Music Play: Cross-Cultural Text Redesign

From the discussion so far, it can be established that literacy texts exist in many forms or genres, and that
music is a text. It contains patterns and symbols, and is a mode of communication. Symbolic and multimodal
forms of text production are also ways children contextualize their thinking in socially and culturally situated
practices: what they learn is revealed in social action (Vygotsky, 1986; Norris & Jones, 2005). Researchers
must understand the groups and the settings in which individuals are socialized, in order to understand their
literacy needs (Bruner, 1986; Gee, 1990; Luke, 1993). Higher mental functions of communication and
judgement, observed in children’s classroom contexts, are known to be automated after repeated performance
and comprise children’s behaviours (Bargh & Ferguson, 2000). These are agentive behaviours developed in
historical, cultural practices and socially situated communities from the first years of the child’s life, known as
habitus (Bourdieu, 1990), and sedimented into identities over time (Pahl, 2009; Roswell & Pahl, 2007).
Behaviours include effective communication skills: ability to synthesise knowledge and to analyse different
ways of communicating meaning through linguistic, musical, digital and embodied texts, in order to make the
most appropriate selections.
The re-evaluation of material aspects of music texts to determine whether they reflect sedimented
social and cultural meanings – layers of meaning that form a solid and enduring influence on cultures and
persons over time – focuses on how children’s choice of semiotic tools relays complex meanings that are

146
communicated or presented in their texts (Osberg & Biesta, 2007; Wortham, 2006). This position looks at the
simple or obvious meaning in texts produced by children in their music play, and then through multimodal
interaction analysis of videos, combined with the ethnographic perspective, addresses the more complex
question of how they are made, whether there is a careful and effortful selection of semiotic tools that can in
part be attributed to cultural influences and identities. Meaning is complex because it occurs on more than one
level.
The re-evaluation of material aspects of music texts to determine whether they reflect sedimented
social and cultural meanings – layers of meaning that form a solid and enduring influence on cultures and
persons over time – focuses on how children’s choice of semiotic tools relays complex meanings that are
communicated or presented in their texts (Osberg & Biesta, 2007; Wortham, 2006). This position looks at the
simple or obvious meaning in texts produced by children in their music play, and then through multimodal
interaction analysis of videos, combined with the ethnographic perspective, addresses the more complex
question of how they are made, whether there is a careful and effortful selection of semiotic tools that can in
part be attributed to cultural influences and identities. Meaning is complex because it occurs on more than one
level.
The interest of this study is not just what, but how children communicate using semiotic resources
(their voice, facial expressions, movement, and artefacts that produce sound), particularly their selection of
affordances or cultural qualities of representations used to edit their world as they engage in music play. The
level of historical and cultural (local) meaning is added to that of materiality (the global meanings) in
multimodal analysis of affordances chosen in texts (Jewitt, 2008; Roswell & Pahl, 2007) as children engage in
music play
The transformative behaviour of making one text into another across modes (e.g., from spoken text to
music, or from drawing to audio visual to written text) is increasingly valued by educators because of the
semiotic effort invested by young children as they interpret, redesign and reproduce form and meaning
(Jewitt, 2009; Mavers, 2011). Choice of materials in children’s text making, and specifically the semiotic
tools they use in music, underpins the broader choices they make from multiple modalities when conveying
and remaking meaning through a multimodal ensemble (Kress, 2007, 2010). Materiality relates to the fine-
grained of specific artefacts and how their content and design relates to the text maker (Roswell & Pahl,
2007). Questions related to choice of materials (tools) in children’s music play include: 1. “What tools were
available at the time?” 2. “How were these tools used and chosen as being particularly appropriate for
conveying meaning; why were certain modes chosen over others in that particular moment or frame of the
activity?”
Kress (2010) asserts that transformations of learning experiences by children occur as they make
meaning or sense of learning experiences. This process has been observed in children’s production of literacy
texts (Pahl & Roswell, 2006) and in their multimodal practices where texts are used in different spaces and
contexts (Street, Pahl & Roswell, 2009). These transformations are motivated by children’s immediate
interests represented in their discourse, by their situated view of the world. They are made through
substitutions of specific concrete actions using semiotic tools: often these are abstractions such as sounds,
verbal, non-verbal processes (bodily movement), and children’s drawings. Mavers (2009, p. 270) has found
that children’s selection of these tools, these objects or materials for redesign and meaning making, are not
random or accidental, but “highly principled”. Children enact agency, they interact and use materials
purposefully as they communicate in diverse contexts. Their text making or “semiotic work is not just
activity; it is principled engagement with and in the shape of meaning ... effortful making” and “principled
social action” (Mavers, 2011, p. 9). Their texts are purposeful.
Recent research suggests children enact agency or self-determination when designing music texts in
music play, in order to create meaning first for themselves, then for others as they communicate this meaning
(Elliot & Baker, 2008; Wingstedt, 2008). Semiotics refers to the signs, the semiotic resources or meaning
potentials, insignificant in isolation, but when designed in a particular way become affordances that represent
and communicate essential meanings within a social context (Jewitt, 2009). According to Bowman (2002),
children also engage ethical principles and cultural understandings when applying knowledge through the
medium of sound and make value judgements as they select sounds to communicate. As children gather
information from their world, they act on it, play with it, transform their knowledge and express it in symbolic
form (Barad, 2009; Latour, 2005). Young (2009) suggests that they do this in a new communicational mode,
for no two consecutive actions by children are ever exactly replicated – they change or shift slightly, and are
influenced by changing environments. Their interactions while recreating texts in music-making activities

147
may reveal cognitive processes and structures of thinking as children communicate underlying truths and
discoveries. For example, Bowman (2002) claims that culturally situated resources assist music improvisation
through the assimilation and transfer of ethical practices and cognitive abilities.
The connection between young children’s culture and their interactions in small group music play is
of interest to researchers, policy makers, curriculum designers and teachers because “intersections of culture
create contexts for children’s development” (Custodero, 2009, p. 88). Custodero (2006) studied playful and
spontaneous singing in early childhood contexts and found children demonstrated exploratory thinking and
reconstructed meanings in diverse musical contexts. She noted that if music is made sufficiently complex and
relevant, where children can have control in an imaginative world and are encouraged to improvise words and
melodies, it provides children opportunities to exercise choice and dispositional ways of thinking as they
communicate. This is because they are increasing their capacity to make semiotic texts, to develop their
semiotic dispositions (Mavers, 2011). Custodero (2006) observed this purposeful exercise of choice being
expressed through multimodal or diverse ways of making meaning of everyday experiences. Sometimes
children chose to incorporate musical play in functional or constructive dramatic play. This was evident as
children from diverse backgrounds engaged in music play. The richness of culture in children’s individual
lived experiences and their multimodal expressions of these in their everyday play must be acknowledged by
further studies (Cahan, 2006).

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A case study of specialist music teachers within communities of practice in two NSW primary schools
Michele Benn

Abstract
Primary schools in New South Wales are responsible for the education of children who are in their first seven
years of formal schooling, usually from the ages of five to twelve years. In NSW, generalist classroom
teachers are given responsibility for teaching the core areas of the curriculum known as the Key Learning
Areas (KLAs). Music forms part of the KLA known as Creative Arts, which also incorporates Visual Arts and
Drama. Researchers in Australia have invested considerable time examining the preparedness of generalist
primary teachers to teach music, particularly with regard to their confidence. However, within the
independent, Catholic and public school systems, there are teachers who work as specialist primary music
teachers. Little is known about the needs or experiences of these practitioners, despite the National Review of
School Music Education (Pascoe et al., 2005) recommending that all schools have access to a specialist music
teacher. Research in this area has generally been undertaken overseas, rather than in an Australian context,
because of the greater number of specialist primary (or elementary) music teachers working in some
jurisdictions, for example, in the USA. This paper focuses on two primary music specialists working in
contrasting school environments and their experiences of communities of practice within these settings. The
data were collected as part of a larger qualitative study that is being undertaken in NSW primary schools that
seeks to observe and analyse the experiences of specialist primary music teachers in order to understand them
and identify ways in which the needs of these practitioners can be met (Roulston, 2006).

Introduction
Primary schools in New South Wales are responsible for the education of children who are in their first seven
years of formal schooling, usually from the ages of five to twelve years. In NSW, generalist classroom
teachers are given responsibility for teaching the core areas of the curriculum known as the Key Learning
Areas (KLAs). Music forms part of the KLA known as Creative Arts, which also incorporates Visual Arts and
Drama. Researchers in Australia have invested considerable time examining the preparedness of generalist
primary teachers to teach music, particularly with regard to their confidence. However, within the
independent, Catholic and public school systems, there are teachers who work as specialist primary music
teachers. Little is known about the needs or experiences of these practitioners, despite the National Review of
School Music Education (Pascoe et al., 2005) recommending that all schools have access to a specialist music
teacher. Research in this area has generally been undertaken overseas, rather than in an Australian context,
because of the greater number of specialist primary (or elementary) music teachers working in some
jurisdictions, for example, in the USA.
This paper focuses on two primary music specialists working in contrasting school environments and
their experiences of communities of practice within these settings. The data were collected as part of a larger
qualitative study that is being undertaken in NSW primary schools that seeks to observe and analyse the
experiences of specialist primary music teachers in order to understand them and identify ways in which the
needs of these practitioners can be met (Roulston, 2006).

Review of Literature
The term, communities of practice was developed by Etienne Wenger and Jean Lave to describe learning
relationships that emerge through social interaction within business organisations (Wenger, McDermott, &
Snyder, 2002). Communities in which learning relationships take place are not confined to businesses and are
frequently found in educational institutions such as schools. They are established through the equal
development of the domain of knowledge, the community of people and the practice (Seaman, 2008), with the
purpose of exchanging knowledge and developing the skills of the members.
In contrast to the type of communities that are defined by networks of people, geography or social
categories, a community of practice is defined by the practice, which can simply be described as the actions of
the members as they pursue a shared enterprise (Seaman, 2008). The practice involves the development of
meaning within and between the members of the community, as they interact and experience life (Wenger,
1998). Relationships are established through mutual engagement in the practice but they are not always
harmonious. Disagreements are a form of participation in a community and Wenger (1998) goes so far as to
state that misery can be an inherent part of a community. This may be experienced by a specialist music

151
teacher through a lack of support from generalist teachers, manifested in such behaviours as interference with
music lessons or not collecting the class on time (Bresler, 1998), and may lead to feeling of isolation in the
workplace, due to being the only music teacher on staff (Krueger, 1999).
Through mutual engagement in the practice a joint enterprise becomes defined, which can be
described simply as what the community is about (Seaman, 2008). As coherence develops between the
members, histories emerge that shape their understanding of the world. This is the learning that takes place
through involvement in the community, and engagement and participation in the practice. Frequently, learning
is not considered to be a goal of the practice; for example, members may not consciously identify their own
learning as they undertake what they perceive to be their role within the organisation. However, learning
inevitably takes place through the interaction between the members of the community of practice. Within
schools, there may be a focus on professional learning through internal and external professional development
courses, rather than the learning that takes place through the interaction with other members of the
community.
Communities of practice do not exist in isolation from the rest of the world or from other practices
(Wenger, 1998). People may belong to more than one community of practice at a time and there may be
interaction between communities through meetings, conversations, or documents. Music specialists may have
opportunities to liaise with other specialists through professional development courses or through
organisations that are designed to provide support materials for schools and teachers. From these interactions,
communities of practice may emerge. This is consistent with Blair’s (2008) experience of mentoring five
novice elementary music teachers in a local school district in the USA. The mentoring program was
established as a means through which the teachers could meet and share their experiences over the course of a
school year. As the program progressed, Blair noted that a community of practice developed as the teachers
began to share with each other beyond the formal structure that had been developed.
Isolation from other music teachers can influence a specialist’s desire to continue within the
profession (Krueger, 2000). It may be difficult for specialist music teachers working in isolation within their
school to develop a mentor relationship with an experienced music teacher. The establishment of a network of
music teachers to enable mentoring relationships could address this issue and enable the development of
communities of practice.

Methodology
In order to better understand the experiences of specialist primary music teachers, research must be carried out
within their natural school contexts. Ethnographic methodology has been chosen for this study, to enable the
development of understanding from the perspective of the participants (Denscombe, 1998; Wiersma, 2000).
This involves the collection of data through observations, interviews and document analysis within the school
setting of the participants (Roulston, 2006).
The research is being undertaken in two stages, using a multicase study design that allows for cross-
case analysis (Stake, 2006). The first stage of the case studies, of which the two cases explored in this paper
are a part, consists of semi-structured interviews with participants who are in some way related to the issue of
specialist music teachers in primary schools. The interview questions are open-ended, to allow the interviewee
to elaborate on points of interest (Denscombe, 1998), and explore the issues in the literature from research
undertaken in areas in which specialist primary music teachers are more prevalent, such as the United States
and United Kingdom. The issues examined include tertiary training, professional practice and communities of
practice. I am currently in the first stage of data collection and have interviewed four participants from music
education organisations and eight teachers from across the three major school systems.
The second stage of case studies will be undertaken with participants who are currently working as
specialist music teachers in NSW primary schools. The purpose of these case studies is to explore the research
questions in depth within the school and broader community context of the participants. Descriptive data from
within the context of the participants will be collected through the use of multiple research techniques, such as
interviewing, document analysis and non-participant observation (Burns, 2000; Denscombe, 1998).
Sampling procedures for both stages of the study are purposive (Burns, 2000), to enable the
development of a broad picture of the practice of specialist primary music teachers. Participants are selected
so that variety in geographic location, school socio-economic status and teaching experience are represented.
The two cases explored in this paper were chosen as they reveal contrasting experiences of communities of
practice.

152
Research setting and participants
These cases were undertaken within two public primary schools in New South Wales. As public schools, the
schools receive funding from State and Federal governments and are governed by the NSW Department of
Education and Training (DET).
Wandi Primary School is situated in a town populated by 3200 people, that is two hours from the
centre of the nearest large city. At the time of the interview, there were approximately 400 students enrolled.
Two-thirds of the school’s population met criteria placing them in the lowest quarter of the Index of
Community Socio-Economic Advantage (ICSEA). Rebecca, the music teacher at Wandi Primary School,
graduated thirty years ago with a Graduate Diploma in Music. As an accomplished instrumentalist, she
occasionally performed with a leading symphony orchestra. Following graduation, she taught in high schools
and worked in several independent schools as an instrumental teacher. She came to Wandi Primary School
four years ago and initially was employed one day per week as part of a specific program designed to provide
music education experiences to schools. The following year, she moved to a 0.8 teaching load as a member of
staff at the school.
The second case study took place at Evergreen Primary School, situated in a suburban area of Sydney.
With enrolments of approximately 650 students, 90% of the school’s population is in the highest quarter of the
ICSEA. Kate came to Evergreen Primary School fifteen years ago in a part-time capacity as a music teacher
and has been a full-time member of staff for the past three years. She originally studied to be a secondary
music teacher and taught interstate in this capacity, before taking a position in a Catholic primary school. She
had not planned to teach primary school but found that she loved it and did not experience the same
frustrations that she had when teaching high school. Eight years ago, she commenced studies in primary
education that equipped her with classroom management and teaching methods that she felt she had been
lacking in her previous teacher preparation.
The data collected during semi-structured interviews with Kate and Rebecca were coded and
subsequently analysed using qualitative methods. One of the issues that emerged from the analysis was the
teachers’ contrasting experience of belonging to communities of practice.

Emerging themes
The practice: Collaboration and cooperation
A defining feature of a community of practice is the mutual engagement of the members in the practice of the
community. This is something that Kate experienced at Evergreen Primary School. Several times during the
interview, she referred to the supportive teaching and executive staff and parent body of Evergreen Primary
School. As music is part of the Release from Face to Face program (RFF), it is not an optional extra and she
believed this contributed to it being part of the practice of the school. Having taught at the school for fifteen
years, Kate is now one of the longer serving members of staff, enabling her to develop shared histories
(Wenger, 1998) with other members of the school community. She has found that teachers tend to remain
working there until they retire and younger staff are brought in as these positions become available.
In contrast, music was not included in the activities in which the teaching staff of Wandi Primary
School were mutually engaged. Based on her experiences and observations, Rebecca reported that the teachers
showed little interest or understanding of what happened during RFF music lessons. During the interview, she
related a story in which a boy, who struggled in some areas of the curriculum, enjoyed a movement activity
that allowed him to express himself in a different way. Rebecca informed the class teacher and offered to
share her ideas about how music could be beneficial to this student. Whilst the teacher appeared interested, the
suggestions were not pursued further. This may be a reflection of the fact that Rebecca is fairly new to the
school community and may be a peripheral member of any communities of practice that are operating within
the school. This may change as she becomes established in her role and is able to develop shared histories
with other community members. In order for this to happen, she may need greater administrative time
allocated to allow her to interact with other staff, as she frequently had rehearsals and playground duties
during the times in which other teachers tend to interact socially and professionally.
One of the ways in which Kate was able to include music in the practice of the community and raise
awareness of the learning experiences taking place during music lessons was through her participation in staff
development days. She ran sessions for staff in which she provided them with Orff-based activities and she
described the experience as being a, ‘happy, fun, bonding time for staff.’ Despite the staff not tending to use
the material in their own lessons, it raised the profile of music in the school and enabled the teachers to see

153
what their students were experiencing during RFF time. This may contribute to the perception that music is
part of the school’s domain (Seaman, 2008).
This contrasts significantly with Rebecca’s experience of staff development, as she was not invited to
the professional development sessions that occurred within the school and was expected to relieve other
teachers whilst they attended. If she wanted to liaise with other teachers, perhaps to discuss possible ways in
which she could incorporate themes being explored in the classroom in her own lessons, she had to attend
Stage meetings in which the majority of information discussed was not relevant to her role. Rebecca felt that
the lack of administration time allocated to her hindered her ability to work cooperatively with other staff.

Professional isolation
When Kate first began teaching at Evergreen, the position was shared with two other music teachers, from
whom she learned a great deal. She currently works with another teacher in the school who has a particular
interest in music and rehearses one of the choirs. Not being the sole member of the community with a
particular interest in music has reduced the potential for professional isolation.
In contrast, Rebecca is the only music teacher at Wandi Primary School and her teaching program is
checked by a teacher who is unwilling to provide feedback, as music is not this teacher’s area of expertise.
Rebecca cited lack of time, due to the crowded curriculum and constraints of administrative time for liaising
with other teachers, as an element hindering the music program. Her perception that the teachers were not
interested in what she did with the students contributed to a sense of professional isolation within the school.
She was involved in several extra-curricular activities that are not counted as part of her teaching load, yet she
had the same number of playground duties as the other teachers. For example, she stated that ‘One day I was
in tears because the strings had to perform but I didn’t have time to tune the violins because I was on
playground duty.’ Rebecca believed that, as no one was aware of what happens in the classroom, the program
was being judged on the basis of performances. This contributed to a feeling of pressure to have the students
perform all the time. Rebecca may be experiencing intellectual isolation as a consequence of being the only
music educator on staff (Krueger, 1999).
In addition to the support she received at school, Kate was able to avoid professional isolation through
access to professional development courses that allowed her to meet other music teachers. She receives a
financial contribution from Evergreen Primary School to attend the biennial conference for music teachers
that is organised by the Orff Schulwerk Association. The school community has benefited from this, as she
has been able to apply many of the teaching strategies to her own program. She was also a regular participant
in the Orff Schulwerk Association’s program of professional development that is designed to provide
sequential courses in the company of other teachers. It appears from Kate’s description of her experiences
with the Orff Association that a community of practice has emerged. As Kate stated, this enabled her to ‘meet
like-minded people, share resources and ideas. It was the best source for collaboration.’ Kate receives
additional support from a committee of parents that takes responsibility for the extensive instrumental
program.
Rebecca has not had the same opportunities to collaborate with music teachers in other settings. Her
experiences in liaising with other teachers in preparation for a regional festival were disappointing, as she was
the only music specialist and she felt that the other teachers were focused on having their repertoire
suggestions included in the program. As Rebecca may have been a peripheral member of this group, longer-
serving teachers on the organising committee may not have realised the expertise she can offer as a music
specialist and how this could contribute to their learning.
Kate appears to benefit from involvement in communities of practice both within and outside her
school, whereas it seems that Rebecca is yet to become established within a community. Kate’s self-identified
need for a sequential program of professional development led to her joining the Orff Association and
consequently become a member of its community of practice. This may be an area that is limiting Rebecca’s
ability to become an integral member of a community of practice outside her school environment. As Rebecca
is confident in her skills as a musician, she may not tend to identify areas of professional development that
could give her access to other music teachers through music education organisations. Additionally, her
perception that the generalist teachers involved in the music festival planning group were only interested in
repertoire may restrict her from immersing herself fully in the practice of that group. It must be noted that the
geographic location of Wandi Primary School potentially restricts opportunities for the networking that occurs
through music education organisations and she may require further support from her school to overcome the
time and financial costs associated with travel to professional development.

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Music emerging as a joint enterprise
At Evergreen Primary School, music has become part of the joint enterprise (Wenger, 1998) of the school
community and this is reflected in the involvement of parents, teachers and executive staff in the music
program. Kate stated that music is highly regarded by the parent body and attributed this to the cultural make
up of the school community. The feeder area of the school has a large Asian population, including people
from Hong Kong, Korea and China and music is considered an important subject within these cultural groups.
Kate perceives that, at times, the parents can be assertive, but they are certainly very involved in the school.
When Kate first came to Evergreen, she was involved in instrumental and choral extra-curricular activities,
but she found that these groups took up too much of her time. Ten years ago, she gave responsibility for the
instrumental program to the parent committee, as she realised that she was over-committed. When explaining
why she remained at the school despite the distance from her home, Kate said, ‘I have a room, resources and
the wonderful parents and staff make it worth the travel’.
In contrast, music has not emerged as part of the joint enterprise at Wandi Primary School, as it is not
part of the practice in which the community is mutually engaged. There is less parental involvement than at
Evergreen Primary School and Rebecca believes that this is due to the socio-economic profile of the local
area. She has found that most parents in the area are unable to afford instrumental lessons for their children
and there is a lack of value attributed to classical music. This is also reflected in the attitude of many of the
staff members, who organise a contemporary popular music concert each year, in which each grade performs.
Rebecca said that, on previous occasions, if she suggested what the staff perceived to be classical music, they
thought she was arrogant. Rebecca’s commitment to a classical repertoire may stem from her background as
an instrumentalist and may be an area in which she needs to compromise, in order to show the teachers that
she is supportive and willing to encourage opportunities in which they can learn from each other as they
interact (Wenger, 1998). If a contemporary popular music concert is appealing to the parent body of Wandi
Public School, actively supporting this may assist Rebecca in raising their awareness of music activities,
which may help lead to music becoming part of the school’s domain (Seaman, 2008).
The involvement of the parent body in the practice of the community and their subsequent expectation
that music will be an integral part of Evergreen Primary School has been a motivating factor for principals to
continue with the music program over time. Since Kate commenced teaching at the school, there have been
four principals and, as a result of parental involvement and expectation, each one has supported the program.
She described one of the previous principals as not having a musical background and coming from a school in
which there was little music. Kate said that he came to see the value of music education through his
experiences at Evergreen. As music had emerged as part of the joint enterprise of the community through the
mutual engagement of teachers, students and parents, the principal was expected to accept music education as
part of the school’s practice.
Whilst the principal at Wandi Primary School initiated the specialist music program and is involved at
an administrative level, lack of support in other areas has meant that music has not yet emerged as part of the
joint enterprise of this community. According to Rebecca, the principal is usually unable to attend events
outside the school in which the students are involved. As she often has to arrange transport for the students,
and other staff members do not attend, this contributes to her perception that music is not valued as highly as
other subject areas, such as sport.

Conclusion
Kate and Rebecca both completed undergraduate studies at the same tertiary institution, although Rebecca
focused on music performance whereas Kate focused on teaching. Through Kate’s experiences working in
secondary schools and her early years in primary school environment, she identified areas in which she
needed further training to improve her teaching. The results of this are twofold. Firstly, she gained the skills
that she felt were necessary to work within a primary school environment and possibly gained further
awareness and understanding of the issues faced by generalist primary teachers. Secondly, her studies in
primary education provided her with similar qualifications to the other teachers working at Evergreen Primary
School. This may have enabled her to bridge the gap between specialist and generalist, through her own
changes in understanding and through the change in the way other teachers perceive her. In contrast,
Rebecca’s background in performance and her experiences as an instrumental music teacher may be
significantly different from the generalist teachers with whom she works. Her role at Wandi Primary School
has changed and the other teachers may not have adjusted their perception of her from a visiting teacher

155
involved in a specific music program to that of a colleague. It is possible that Rebecca has not yet made this
adjustment in her own perception of her role and place within the school and this may contribute to her feeling
that that she is a peripheral member of the community of practice. As a key feature of a community of practice
is the way in which it evolves and changes, it is possible that these difficulties could be overcome as Rebecca
becomes established within the community.

References
Blair, D. V. (2008). Mentoring novice teachers: Developing a community of practice. Research Studies in
Music Education, 30(2), 99-117.
Bresler, L. (1998). The genre of school music and its shaping by meso, micro, and macro contexts. Research
Studies in Music Education, 11, 2-18.
Burns, R. B. (2000). Introduction to research methods (4th ed.). Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education.
Denscombe, M. (1998). The good research guide: For small-scale social research projects. Buckingham,
UK: Open University Press.
Krueger, P. J. (1999). New music teachers speak out on mentoring. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 8(2),
7-13.
Krueger, P. J. (2000). Beginning music teachers: Will they leave the profession? Update: Applications of
Research in Music Education, 19(1), 22-26.
Pascoe, R., Leong, S., MacCallum, J., Mackinlay, E., Marsh, K., Smith, B. et al. (2005). National review of
school music education: Augmenting the dimished. Canberra: Department of Education, Science and
Training.
Roulston, K. (2006). Mapping the possibilities of qualitative research in music education: A primer. Music
Education Research, 8(2), 153-173.
Seaman, M. (2008). Birds of a feather?: Communities of practice and knowledge communities. Curriculum
and Teaching Dialogue, 10, 269-306.
Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. New York: The Guildford Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R. A., & Snyder, W. (2002). Seven principles for cultivating communities of
practice. In E. Wenger (Ed.), Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge
(pp. 49-64). Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Wiersma, W. (2000). Research methods in education: An introduction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

156
Musical Futures: The Victorian Pilot
Neryl Jeanneret, The University of Melbourne

Abstract
Musical Futures is a music learning program established in secondary schools in the United Kingdom in 2003.
It uses informal learning practices to make secondary classroom music more relevant to young people through
engaging them with ways popular musicians learn. Research was conducted to investigate the impact of the
Musical Futures approach on music teachers and students in ten pilot government schools in Victoria,
Australia in 2010 and it replicated aspects of the Hallam, Creech and McQueen (2010) UK research. Data was
collected through a survey of the teachers and two case study schools where the teachers and students were
interviewed. After only two terms of implementation, it was found that the impact of the program on both the
teachers and the students has been quite profound. This paper reports on the findings generated by the survey
to teachers.

Background
Numerous academics, reports and teachers have noted that music in secondary schools seems to be of little
interest or relevance to many students (for example, Ross, 1995; Plummeridge, 1997; Green, 2002; National
Review of School Music Education, 2005; St George, 2010) while there seems to be no problem with
involvement in music outside of school. Musical Futures is a music learning program based in the research of
Lucy Green (2005, 2006, 2008a, 2008b) and others that was established in the United Kingdom in 2003. It
uses informal learning practices to make secondary classroom music more relevant to young people through
engaging them with ways popular musicians learn, recognising that the practices of real world musicians is
quite different from the pedagogy of the traditional music classroom. Research from the Institute of
Education, University of London (Hallam, Creech & McQueen, 2010) has reported favourably on the impact
of the program in UK schools. With the support from the Paul Hamlyn Foundation and the NAMM (National
Association of Music Merchants) Foundation (USA), the Australian Music Association (AMA), in
collaboration with the Soundhouse and the Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development (DEECD), has piloted the program in 10 Victorian government schools in 2010. This paper
reports on the survey data collected about the impact of the Musical Futures approach on the music teachers
and students in these ten schools.

Method
The research aimed to investigate two questions:

1. Has Musical Futures had an impact on teachers’ confidence, pedagogy and professional satisfaction? and
2. What impact has the Musical Futures approach had on students?

The research methodology replicated aspects of the Hallam, Creech and McQueen (2010) research with
teacher questionnaires for each of the ten pilot schools. The questionnaires were adapted slightly for the
Victorian context with items relating to the following areas:

• background information about the teachers;

• how Musical Futures has been implemented;
• the impact on teaching;
• the impact on students;
• the integration of Musical Futures with the VELS and the e5 instructional model;
• difficulties and constraints relating to the use of Musical Futures;
• the level of support from senior management teams;
• the impact on take-up of elective music; and
• the impact on take-up of extra-curricular instrumental and vocal activities.

Findings
Ten teachers from seven of the schools representing a selection of metropolitan and regional schools

157
completed the questionnaires. The majority of the schools had been implementing Musical Futures for two
terms at the time of the data collection and over 1,000 students, (mostly middle school), had been involved in
the program. The investment in the equipment varied from nil to $15,000 depending on what already existed
in the school and Table 1 provides a summary of information about the schools involved.

Table 1: School information

Musical Futures

of

Equipment
Investment
Population

population
Returned

Duration
Location

Involved
Students
involved
Started
Region

Survey
School

School

school
Years

%
Northern A 597 metropolitan Yes 2010 2 7-12 260 43.55 $2,243
Metropolitan terms
B 1713 metropolitan Yes 2010 1 term 8/9 175 10.21 $14,972

C 711 metropolitan Yes 2010 2 8 75 10.55 $5,689

terms
Southern D 910 metropolitan Yes 2010 2 8/9 180 19.78 $15441
Metropolitan terms
Western E 1577 metropolitan Yes 2009 2 7/8 250 15.85 0
Metropolitan terms
F 266 metropolitan No 2010 2 - - - $899
terms
Gippsland G 316 provincial Yes 2010 2 5/6 102 32.28 $12,651
terms
Loddon H 567 provincial No 2010 2 - - - $5,080
Mallee terms
I 597 provincial Yes 2010 2 9/10 45 7.54 $5,633
terms
J 890 provincial No 2010 2 - - - $14,051
terms
Total number of 1087
students

The questionnaire asked teachers how well Musical Futures worked within the state mandated curriculum (the
Victorian Essential Learning Skills [VELS]) and pedagogical directions (the e5 Instructional Model, DDECD,
2009). They were very positive about how easily Musical Futures worked with the VELS, commenting that
creating, making, exploring and responding were facilitated easily by the program. Five teachers made
comments about the connections between Musical Futures and the recently implemented e5 instructional
model noting that student were involved particularly in engaging and exploring. There were few difficulties
encountered by the teachers in implementing the program and they were different in each school. While one
teacher found a reluctance in the instrumental staff to become involved, another teacher found the program
ran smoothly thanks to the support of instrumental staff. There were only minimal adjustments and
adaptations to the program model that appear to be minor tailoring to the individual needs of classes and
students.

Impact on teachers’ confidence, pedagogy and professional satisfaction

The teachers they felt more confident about facilitating student learning in a range of musical genres, teaching
instrumental skills and teaching music in general since implementing the program (Table 2). Nine of the ten
respondents felt they had become more effective teachers and were enjoying teaching more as a result of
Music Futures and there was unanimous agreement that Musical Futures fitted with their own approach to
teaching and learning.

158
Table 2: Impact of implementing Musical Futures on teachers
MY TEACHING
Since implementing Musical Futures:

Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Know
Agree

Agree

Don’t
n
I am a more effective teacher. 60.0% 30.0% 0 10.0% 0 1
(6) (3) (1) 0
I am more confident about teaching music. 60.0% 30.0% 0 10.0% 0 1
(6) (3) (1) 0
I enjoy teaching music more than previously. 70.0% 30.0% 0 0 0 1
(7) (3) 0
I am more confident about facilitating singing. 40.0% 20.0% 30.0% 10.0% 0 1
(4) (2) (3) (1) 0
I am more confident about teaching 44.4% 33.3% 11.1% 11.1% 0 9
instrumental skills. (4) (3) (1) (1)
I have become more aware of the music that 56.6% 44.4% 0 0 0 9
students engage in outside of school. (5) (4)
I am more confident about facilitating student 20.0% 60.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0 1
learning in a range of musical genres. (2) (6) (1) (1) 0
I have adapted Musical Futures to fit with my 40.0% 60.0% 0 0 0 1
personal approach to teaching and learning. (4) (6) 0
I have adapted Musical Futures to meet the 50.0% 50.0% 0 0 0 1
individual needs of my students. (5) (5) 0

There were a number of other statements that generated unanimous agreement from the teachers (Table 3).
They all felt that Musical Futures was useful, had changed and improved their teaching, had changed music
teaching in the school, and helped students demonstrate their musical potential. They also agreed that Musical
Futures helped integrate students’ informal music learning with classroom activities and could be
implemented successfully in other schools. There was very strong agreement that they had observed a positive
response from students and an engagement of previously disinterested students.

Table 3: Musical Futures statements

MUSICAL FUTURES
Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Know
Agree

Agree

Don’t

n
Musical Futures helped me to improve 50.0% 50.0% 0 0 0 1
my music teaching. (5) (5) 0
Musical Futures was very useful. 70.0% 30.0% 0 0 0 1
(7) (3) 0
Music teaching in the school has 50.0% 50.0% 0 0 0 1
changed as a result of Musical (5) (5) 0
Futures.
Musical Futures has been integrated 40.0% 50.0% 10.0% 0 0 1
with previous musical activity in the (4) (5) (1) 0
school.
Musical Futures has changed the way 40.0% 50.0% 0 10.0% 0 1
that I teach music. (4) (5) (1) 0
Musical Futures will have a long-term 70.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0 0 1
impact on my music teaching. (7) (2) (1) 0
The impact of Musical Futures on my 60.0% 30.0% 10.0% 0 0 1

159
music teaching is sustainable in the (6) (3) (1) 0
long term.
Musical Futures would be able to be 70.0% 30.0% 0 0 0 1
implemented successfully in other (7) (3) 0
schools.
I would welcome further support for 50.0% 40.0% 10.0% 0 0 1
implementing Musical Futures. (5) (4) (1) 0
I found Musical Futures difficult to 0 10.0% 0 50.0% 40.0% 1
use in my school. (1) (5) (4) 0
The students in my classes responded 50.0% 40.0% 10.0% 0 0 1
well to Musical Futures. (5) (4) (1) 0
Musical Futures helped to integrate 30.0% 70.0% 0 0 0 1
students’ informal music learning with (3) (7) 0
classroom music activities.
I found the Musical Futures initiative 0 30.0% 20.0% 30.0% 20.0% 1
challenging to use. (3) (2) (3) (2) 0
Musical Futures is innovative. 60.0% 20.0% 10.0% 10.0% 0 1
(6) (2) (1) (1) 0
Musical Futures has helped students to 40.0% 60.0% 0 0 0 1
demonstrate their musical potential. (4) (6) 0
Musical Futures has helped to engage 40.0% 40.0% 20.0% 0 0 1
previously disinterested students. (4) (4) (2) 0
Musical Futures supports student 50.0% 40.0% 10.0% 0 0 1
progression in music. (5) (4) (1) 0

The teachers commented that the approach was more engaging for students and that working and learning
alongside the students was an important aspect and that Musical Futures would have a long-term impact on
their music teaching.

Impact on Students and Program Benefits

Given the Musical Futures program had only been running in all but one of the schools for two terms, the
teacher perceptions of the student outcomes were overwhelmingly positive (Table 4). The teachers indicated
that Musical Futures had a positive impact on students’ attitudes towards music, self-esteem in relation to
music, love of music, group work, on-task behaviour, and general behaviour in class. Students created better
musical performances than previously, had developed a greater range of musical skills, were able to
demonstrate higher levels of attainment than previously, had enhanced listening skills, instrumental skills and
strategies for composition, as well as developing a better understanding of a range of musical genres. Overall,
teachers indicated that the improvement in musical skills of their students had exceeded their expectations and
that students had a better chance of fulfilling their musical potential. It should be noted that one teacher added
the comment that she responded to a number of the items listed with either “Don’t Know” or "Disagree"
“because these criteria were already working quite well and it's difficult at this stage to assess further
development”.

160
Table 4: Teacher perceptions of student outcomes
STUDENT OUTCOMES
Since implementing Musical

Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Futures, my students:

Know
Agree

Agree

Don’t
n
enjoy their music lessons more. 44.4% (4) 44.4% (4) 11.1% (1) 0 0 9
enjoy singing more. 30.0% (3) 40.0% (4) 10.0% (1) 20.0% (2) 0 1
0
have learnt to play at least one 50.0% (5) 50.0% (5) 0 0 0 1
musical instrument. 0
are more confident in their music 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 11.1% (1) 0 0 1
lessons. 0
take part in more extra-curricular 33.3% (3) 44.4% (4) 11.1% (1) 11.1% (1) 0 9
musical activities.
have developed a greater range of 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 11.1% (1) 0 0 1
musical skills. 0
have developed a greater range of 10.0% (1) 70.0% (7) 20.0% (2) 0 0 1
strategies for composing. 0
have developed a better 11.1% (1) 66.7% (5) 11.1% (1) 11.1% (1) 0 9
understanding of a range of musical
genres.
create better musical performances 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 10.0% (1) 0 0 1
0
demonstrate improved listening 30.0% (3) 60.0% (6) 10.0% (1) 0 0 1
skills. 0
have more positive attitudes 60.0% (6) 40.0% (4) 0 0 0 1
towards music. 0
are generally better behaved in 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 0 10.0% (1) 0 1
music lessons. 0
are better able to stay on task. 30.0% (3) 60.0% (6) 0 10.0% (1) 0 1
0
work together more effectively in 30.0% (3) 70.0% (7) 0 0 0 1
music tasks. 0
attend music lessons more 50.0% (5) 20.0% (2) 10.0% (1) 20.0% (2) 0 1
regularly. 0
have improved their musical skills 50.0% (5) 30.0% (3) 20.0% (2) 0 0 1
more than I would have expected. 0
seem to be more motivated in 50.0% (5) 40.0% (4) 0 10.0% (1) 0 1
music lessons. 0
generally have improved levels of 30.0% (3) 50.0% (5) 20.0% (2) 0 0 1
self-esteem in relation to music. 0
demonstrate higher levels of 40.0% (4) 50.0% (5) 10.0% (1) 0 0 1
musical attainment than they did 0
previously
are more likely to fulfil their 60.0% (6) 30.0% (3) 10.0% (1) 0 0 1
musical potential. 0

The same teacher noted above was again cautious about commenting on the benefits of Musical Futures,
feeling it was too early to assess but all the other teachers noted a variety of benefits that included greater
engagement, improved motivation, independent learning skills, greater task focus, better behaviour and
greater enthusiasm (Table 6). Most notable was one teacher’s comment that “the behaviour issues are gone”.

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Table 6: Teacher perceptions of the benefits of Musical Futures
Teacher Comments
1 We hope to see positive improvements in all of these areas but it is too early to assess.
2 Independent learning skills certainly improved and students that generally 'goofed around'
were proactive in groups. Musical students had an opportunity to liaise with students that
struggled and were on occasions able to assist them with arrangements.
4 Students focus more on tasks at hand, engaged in music that they enjoy etc
5 A close to 100% participation level in all of my classes. Students experiencing Musical
Futures forming bands, buying instruments and becoming involved in music outside the
classroom.
6 They all learn their parts. They are enthusiastic about songs they pick and we have very
good attendance and motivation across all year levels. This leads to many performances.
7 School E is located in the Western Suburbs of Victoria. It is a middle-low socio economic
area where previous to this year, had no practical music lessons offered to the Middle
Years students. Musical Futures has been life changing for the students. Some of these
students had never had the opportunity to play any instrument before, let alone playing
contemporary rock instruments like the drums, guitar, bass and keys. Due to this, I have
noted that students are better behaved in class and are focused on the tasks they need to
achieve and are more motivated to learn. Evidence to support this is that on Musical
Futures days, attendance is far stronger than any other day throughout the week.
8 Students are excited and more passion is shown, they are wanting to do more in class and
externally as well.
9 Behaviour issues are gone, only difficulty is keeping students motivated, not just chatting
in groups; allows students to develop skills in areas they have chosen; huge improvement
in attitude towards music - massive increase in elective enrolments.
10 Improved attitude toward music; increase in extra-curricular music activities; improved
teamwork skills; improved awareness of learning styles in students; independent learning
skills and motivation to learn independently.

There were a variety of responses when the teachers were asked about whether there was an increase in
students taking instrumental music and/or electing more classroom music. Some were cautious, saying it was
too early to comment while others noticed a dramatic increase.

Conclusions
In response to the first research question, Has Musical Futures had an impact on teachers’ confidence,
pedagogy and professional satisfaction?, there is considerable evidence to support that Musical Futures and its
implementation has had a powerful impact on the teachers’ confidence, pedagogy and professional
satisfaction. The teachers have referred this program and the associated Professional Learning as having
changed their approach to teaching music in the classroom and they are witnessing a positive change in the
school after only two terms (in most cases). The second research question, What impact has the Musical
Futures approach had on students?, also drew a very positive reaction from the teachers.

References
Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (2009). The e5 Instructional Model.
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/proflearning/e5/default.htm Accessed April 30, 2010
Department of Education, Science and Training (2005). National Review of School Music Education:
Augmenting the diminished. Perth: DEST & Centre for Learning, Change and Development, Murdoch
University
Green, L. (2002). How popular musicians learn: A way ahead for music education. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Green, L. (2005). Musical meaning and social reproduction: A case for retrieving autonomy. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 37(1), 77-92.
Green, L. (2006). Popular music education in and for itself, and for ‘other’ music: Current research in the
classroom. International Journal of Music Education, 24(2), 101-18.

162
Green, L. (2008a). Music, informal learning and the school: A new classroom pedagogy. Aldershot, UK:
Ashgate.
Green, L. (2008b). Group cooperation, inclusion and disaffected pupils: some responses to informal learning
in the music classroom. Music Education Research, 10(2), 177-192.
Hallam, S., Creech, A. & Sandford, C. (2010). Survey of Musical Futures: A report from Institute of
Education, University of London for the Paul Hamlyn Foundation.
http://musicalfutures.org.uk/resource/27229. Accessed May 30, 2010.
Plummeridge, C. (1997). The rights and wrongs of school music: A brief comment on Malcolm Ross's paper.
British Journal of Music Education, 14, 23-27.
Ross, M. (1995). What’s wrong with school music? British Journal of Music Education, 12, 185-201.
St George, J. (2010). The subjectivity of musical learning: Understanding participation in instrumental
music instruction. Unpublished thesis (PhD), University of Newcastle.

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First year generalist primary school teachers: What music are they teaching?
Peter De Vries, Monash University

Abstract
Although there is a wealth of research focusing on preservice generalist primary teachers and their attitudes to
teaching music, there is little research focusing on these teachers when they graduate and begin teaching. The
focus of this paper is the self reported teaching of music by first year generalist primary school teachers. One
hundred and twelve first year generalist primary school teachers from the greater Melbourne area were
surveyed about their current music teaching practices, prior musical experiences, confidence in teaching
music, music education in their teacher training, the kinds of music activities they teach, resources they use,
what circumstances would allow them to teach more music, and whether they have accessed any professional
development focusing on music in their first year teaching. The survey results indicate that 37% of the
teachers teach music to their class on a regular basis, even though only 17% of respondents indicated there
was a specialist music teacher in their school. The survey points to a number of possible reasons why these
teachers are not regularly teaching music including lack of current and prior ongoing musical experiences,
lack of confidence in teaching music, lack of expertise in teaching music, inadequate time devoted to music
education in teacher training courses, and lack of time to actually teach music due to a crowded curriculum.

Introduction
There is little research about the teaching of music in Australian primary schools by generalist classroom
teachers, even though the teaching of music is invariably falling to the generalist classroom teacher. The focus
of this paper is the teaching of music by first year generalist primary school teachers in Melbourne, Victoria.
In Victoria it is up to individual schools if they employ a music specialist or not. As Letts (2007) reports, due
to this decentralisation the Department of Education (now the Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development) in Victoria are unable to provide information about how many primary schools do in fact
employ specialist music teachers. There is consensus amongst music educators and music education
researchers that music must be part of the primary school curriculum, even though ongoing debate continues
as to whether music should be taught by the generalist classroom teacher (Mills, 1989; Seddon & Biasutti,
2008), a music specialist (National Review of School Music Education, 2005), or a music specialist working
with generalist classroom teachers (Askew, 1993). If, as Elliot (1995) argues, that music is integral to
children’s intellectual, cultural, emotional and spiritual development, then surely it must be mandatory in the
primary school curriculum. However, recent research – see Griffin (2009) for an overview of this research –
points to the real need for teachers in the primary school to ensure that school music experiences connect with
the lived musical experiences of children outside of school. The focus on first year generalist primary school
teachers was taken because there is a significant body of research, from Australia and abroad, that focuses on
preservice generalist primary teachers and teaching music (see Berke & Colwell, 2004; Gifford, 1993; Hallam
et al., 2009; Hash, 2009; Hennessy, 2000; Holden & Button, 2006; Jeanneret, 1997; Mills, 1989; Russell-
Bowie, 2009). However, there is minimal research focusing on these teachers once they graduate and begin
teaching.
There has been much focus on the confidence levels of preservice generalist classroom teachers to
teach music, which is generally low (Hallam et al, 2009; Hash, 2009; Hennessy, 2000; Holden & Button,
2006; Jeanneret, 1997; Mills, 1989; Russell-Bowie, 2009), although it is higher for students with prior musical
experience (Jeanneret, 1997), such as playing a musical instrument (Hallam et al., 2009). Research does
indicate that preservice teachers believe there should be more time devoted to music in their teacher education
courses (Hallam et al., 2009; Holden & Button, 2006; Russell-Bowie, 2009). Certainly the lack of time
devoted to music education in preservice teacher education courses does not help in building confidence to
teach music. In a study of almost 1000 preservice primary school teachers in Australia, Namibia, South
Africa, the USA and Ireland, Russell-Bowie (2009) alarmingly found that the Australian students gave
significantly lower responses than students in the other countries to music being a high priority in schools.
The Australian students also had the lowest confidence levels for teaching music. Other challenges revealed in
the study include the lack of resources and time to teach music, subject knowledge, and adequate preparation
time in university teacher education courses.
Research focusing on practising primary school teachers teaching music reveals a variety of data.
Colwell (2008) found that these teachers (alongside secondary school teachers) had increased confidence in

164
teaching music when integrating music with core academic objectives. Saunders and Baker (1991) found that
generalist teachers were more likely to teach music in the lower primary school and still viewed the teaching
of music as something that music specialists should be responsible for. The latter was also a finding in Hash’s
(2009) survey of preservice elementary classroom teachers’ attitudes towards music.
The quality of music teaching in elementary schools in the USA was an issue addressed by Bresler
(1993) nearly two decades ago. She was scathing about the teaching she witnessed, with music used as
background to other activities in the classroom and serving other curricular areas. The latter was also self-
reported by generalist elementary school teachers in a study conducted by Saunders and Baker (1991). Bresler
found that there was very little music instruction occurring, with minimal focus on music’s intrinsic aesthetic
and cognitive value. Nearly two decades later Wiggins and Wiggins (2008) revealed similar findings, with
“misguided visions” of many of the teachers who were the focus of their research about “what it is to be a
musician, to teach music, and to learn music” (p. 14).
Holden and Button (2006) examined the teaching of music by generalist classroom teachers in the
United Kingdom, revealing a lack of music skills and confidence to teach music. The teachers identified a
need for ongoing professional development to teach music effectively, particularly in class support. Hallam et
al (2009) also identified this as a possible way to further effective teaching of music by generalist classroom
teachers, specifically through collaborative work with music specialists. The literature on preservice and in
service generalist primary school teachers suggests there are a myriad of problems and issues in the provision
of quality music education in the primary school when delivered by these non specialists. The aim of the
current study was to find out what beginning generalist primary school teachers were doing (or not doing)
when it comes to teaching music in schools in Melbourne, and what factors impacted on their current practice.

Research design
A survey was administered to 112 teachers in their first year of teaching when attending a professional
development day at which the researcher was also a presenter. The survey asked respondents:

• for background information (what area of the school they are in teaching in, their previous and current
musical experiences in relation to playing musical instruments and singing),
• whether they believed prior musical experiences have impacted on their ability to teach music,
• about their confidence in teaching music,
• whether they view themselves as being musical,
• about music in their teacher education courses (what music content was covered in their course, how
many subjects included music education, how many hours throughout the course was devoted to
music education, whether they felt there was enough time devoted to music, what else they would
have liked to have addressed in music in their education course, and the most useful aspects of the
music education content in their course),
• whether they teach music to their class on a regular basis,
• about the kinds of music activities they teach,
• whether they integrate music into other curriculum areas,
• if there is a specialist music teacher in their school and if there is, how this impacts on whether they
do or do not teach music,
• about the music education resources they use,
• what circumstances would allow them to teach more music to their class, and
• whether they have accessed any professional development focusing on music since they began
teaching.

The survey was administered to the teachers at the end of the professional day. The professional development
day was not focused on music or music education. Rather, the day focused on the first year of teaching in
primary (elementary) school, examining the challenges that graduate teachers face. The results of this survey
are the focus of this paper.

Results
Of the 112 first year generalist teachers, 42 (37%) taught in the lower primary school, 51 (46%) in middle
primary, and 19 (17%) in upper primary. Of the 112 teachers, only 41 (37%) indicated they taught music to

165
their class on a regular basis, 19 (17%) sometimes taught music to their class, and 62 (54%) indicated they did
not teach music to their class. When these statistics are broken down according to what part of the primary
school teachers teach in, it is apparent that there is a much higher proportion of lower primary school teachers
teaching music on a regular basis than middle and upper primary school teachers. That is, 29 of the 42 (69%)
lower primary teachers indicated they taught music to their class, but only 10 of 51 (20%) middle primary
teachers and just 2 of the 19 (11%) upper primary teachers taught music to their class.
The presence of a specialist music teacher in the school does impact on whether generalist teachers
teach music in their classroom on a regular basis. Nineteen (17%) generalist teachers indicated there is a
music specialist in their school, but only two of these teachers indicated they also taught music to their class
on a regular basis. Both teachers were lower primary school teachers.
Current musical engagement also impacts on whether generalist primary school teachers teach music.
Only seven of the respondents indicated they were currently learning a musical instrument or singing in a
choir. All seven indicated they taught music to their class, with two of the seven working in a school where
there was a specialist music teacher.
Twenty-three of the respondents played a musical instrument in high school but were no longer
playing a musical instrument. Of these 23, all but one currently teach music to their class. Therefore recent
engagement in learning a musical instrument may also impact on a generalist primary school teacher’s
willingness and ability to teach music.
When asked if they believed prior musical experience impacted on their ability to teach music, 110 of
the 112 respondents indicated yes. Respondents were asked to define what “being musical” means to them.
Dominant responses included having the ability to play a music instrument (73 responses) being able to sing
(33 responses), and having the ability to read music (31 responses). The only other response given was the
ability to compose/create music (3 responses). Twenty-four respondents (21 %) indicated that they thought of
themselves as being musical, whereas 88 indicated they did not (79%). Twenty-nine respondents indicated
they felt confident about teaching music in their classroom (26%), 79 did not (71%) and four were unsure
(3%). It is therefore unsurprising that only 41 (37%) of the 112 teachers teach music on a regular basis when
so many don’t see themselves as being musical or feel confident to teach music.
All respondents indicated they undertook music education as part of their preservice teacher education
courses at university, whether that was as part of a four year undergraduate degree (83 respondents, 74%) or a
graduate course (29 respondents, 26%). The respondents identified three general areas that addressed music in
their courses: music fundamentals (48 respondents, 43%), learning how to teach music (110 respondents,
98%), and how to integrate music across the curriculum (25 respondents, 22%). When asked how many
subjects in their courses included music education, 73 indicated just one subject (65%), 37 identified two
subjects (33%), and 2 students identified three subjects (2%). When asked to estimate the total number of
hours in their course devoted to music, the majority estimated between 10-19 hours (see table 1).

Table 1
Hours devoted to music education Number of respondents
2-4 3
5-9 28
10-19 52
20-30 27
31-40 2

Interestingly, of the 29 respondents indicating they received 20-30 or 31-40 hours of music education,
28 indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis and 24 indicated they felt confident about
teaching music. Although there are likely to be other factors, this is an initially strong indicator that increased
hours devoted to music education in a teacher education course can result not only in increased confidence to
teach music but more actual teaching of music once students graduate and begin teaching. Of those three
respondents receiving just two to four hours of music education in their courses, none indicated they were
confident about teaching music and none of the three indicated they currently taught music to their class. The
results for those receiving just five to nine hours of music education were little better, with only two of the 28
respondents indicating they felt confident teaching music and just 3 indicating they did teach music to their
class. When asked if they believed the amount of time devoted to music education was sufficient in their

166
course, only 9 indicated yes. Not unsurprisingly, these three respondents received either 31-40 hours of music
education or 20-30 hours. 103 of the 112 (92%) respondents felt that the amount of time devoted to music
education in their teacher education courses was insufficient.
When asked what aspects of music or music education that were not sufficiently addressed or not
addressed at all in their teacher education courses, a number of areas were identified (see table 2):

Table 2
Aspects of music education not sufficiently Number of respondents
addressed
Developing resources 61
Integrating music 48
Music therapy 19
Putting on a school performance 15
Learning to play a musical instrument 4
Learning to read music 2

The development of resources included comments centred around sourcing and learning how to use
books, kits, CDs, and developing lesson plans that could be used when teaching. The strong showing of
integrating music was elaborated on by some respondents, who identified the need to integrate music because
this was a strong focus of current curriculum (the Victorian Essential Learning Standards) and because of lack
of time to “just teach a music lesson.” This emphasis on integration was also reflected in the number of
teachers who were choosing to integrate music in their teaching, rather than teaching standalone music
lessons. That is, of the 41 teachers who indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis, 29
integrated music (71%), 7 only taught standalone music lessons (17%), and 5 did both (12%).
When asked to identify the most useful aspects of their music education course content in their
teacher education courses, the development of a resource folder or learning about and using specific music
education resources dominated (see table 3).

Table 3
Most useful aspects focusing on music to be Number of respondents
drawn from teacher education
Using and developing resources/resource folder 43
Learning how to teach music 18
Listening activities for children 12
How to teach music composition 4

Interestingly there was no specific mention of singing to this question, yet when asked to identify the
music activities that they have taught in their first year of teaching, singing dominated (see table 4).

Table 4
Music activities taught in first year of teaching Number of responses
Singing 52 (87%)
Listening to music 28 (47%)
Responding to music through movement/dance 15 (25%)
Playing musical instruments 12 (20%)
Composing music 5 (8%)

The 41 teachers who indicated they taught music to their class on a regular basis and the 19 who
sometimes teach music to their class identified the use of the following music resources in their first year of
teaching (see table 5):

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Table 5
Music resources used Number of respondents
CDs 55 (92%)
University materials/notes 21 (35%)
Musical instruments 14 (23%)
Books 14 (23%)
Music kits 12 (20%)

Access to resources to teach music was also identified as one of the circumstances that respondents
indicated would facilitate the teaching of music in their classrooms (see table 6):

Table 6
Circumstances that would facilitate teaching of Number of respondents
music
More time 85
Expertise/training 76
Access to resources 15
Space 11

The dominance of having more time to teach music refers to the crowded curriculum identified by
many respondents. These first year teachers clearly want more expertise in teaching music. However, if they
do develop this expertise, finding the time to teach music, having access to appropriate resources, and finding
the physical space to teach music are all further hurdles to teaching music. Finally, none of the 112
respondents had accessed any professional development focusing on music in their first year of teaching.

Conclusion
The results of this survey paint a grim picture of self reported music teaching by first year generalist primary
school teachers in Melbourne, Victoria. Some tentative conclusions can be drawn based on the data. Firstly,
the teaching of music is clearly not occurring in every classroom. It could be argued that this is not necessarily
an issue for concern if a school has a specialist music teacher who provides ongoing regular music education
for all children in the school. However, this is clearly not the case in this study, with just 17% of the teachers
indicating there is a specialist music teacher in their school. Despite this, only 37% of teachers teach music on
a regular basis, with a further 17% sometimes teaching music, leaving 54% not teaching music in their first
year of teaching. The survey points to a number of possible reasons why this is the case, including lack of
current and prior ongoing musical experiences such as learning a musical instrument or singing in a choir,
lack of confidence in teaching music, lack of expertise in teaching music, inadequate time devoted to music
education in teacher training courses, and lack of time to actually teach music due to a crowded curriculum.
The issue of teacher confidence, as indicated earlier in this article, is well documented, as is prior and current
musical experience (see Hallam et al., 2009; Holden & Button, 2006). The need for more time devoted to
music education in teacher training courses has been highlighted previously in the Australian context
(Hocking, 2009; Australian Government, 2005). In Australia the National Review of School Music Education
(2005) highlighted a trend towards merging music education into more generic arts education subjects, thus
reducing the amount of time devoted to music education. This has been confirmed by Hocking (2009), who
surveyed the music content in pre-service primary education courses in Australia. What the literature has not
previously revealed is the lack of time that generalist primary school teachers face to actually teach music in
their classrooms. With 85 of the 112 respondents indicating this is an issue, it is important to reveal why this
is the case and how it might be addressed. Also to be explored further through interviews is the trend that
lower primary school generalist teachers are teaching music more than middle and upper school teachers.
Saunders and Baker (1991) found a similar trend in an American study, although there was no clear
explanation as to why this was the case.
The results of what respondents highlighted was particularly useful in their music education courses
as part of their teacher training along with what was not sufficiently addressed may also help shape the course
content of music education in teacher training courses. The focus on exploring and developing music
education resources, along with greater focus on integrating music across the curriculum, are particularly

168
salient. The domination of singing and the relative low status of playing musical instruments and composition
in terms of music activities taught requires further exploration through interviews, with possible implications
for music education courses as well. Likewise the domination of CDs as a music resource and the relative low
use of music kits requires further exploration. Interestingly, two previous international studies highlighted the
dominance of prepackaged music activity kits as common curricular materials (Holden & Button, 2006;
Wiggins & Wiggins, 2008). Finally, the absence of any teachers undertaking professional development in
music education requires further exploration. Is it that music simply does not have the priority when it comes
to professional development? is the music PD on offer inappropriate for first year generalist teachers? or do
these teachers not know how to access this type of PD? Again, like many of the findings in this study, more
questions are raised, questions that will be explored through in depth interviews with nearly one quarter of the
respondents.

References
Askew, G. (1993). Music education in the primary school. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
Australian Government. (2005). National Review of School Music Education: Augmenting the diminished.
Canberra; Department of Education, Science and Training.
Bresler, L. (1993). Music in a double-bind: Instruction by non-specialists in elementary
schools. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 115, 1-14.
Colwell, C. M. (2008). Integration of music and core academic objective in the k-12 curriculum:
Perceptions of music and classroom teachers. Update: Applications of Research in Music
Education, 26(2), 33-41.
Elliot, D. (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gifford, E. (1993). The musical training of primary teachers: Old problems, new insights and possible
solutions. British Journal of Music Education, 10(1), 33-46.
Griffin, S. M. (2009). Listening to children’s music perspectives: In- and out-of-school thoughts. Research
Studies in Music Education, 31(2), 161-177.
Hallam, S., Burnard, P., Robertson, A., Saleh, C., Davies, V., Rogers, L., & Kokatsaki, D. (2009). Trainee
primary-school teachers’ perceptions of their effectiveness in teaching music. Music Education
Research, 11(2), 221-240.
Hash, P. M. (2009). Preservice classroom teachers’ attitudes toward music in the elementary classroom.
Journal of Music Teacher Education, 20(10), 1-19.
Hennessy, S. (2000). Overcoming the red-feeling: The development of confidence to teach
music in primary school amongst student teachers. British Journal of Music Education, 17(2), 183-
196.
Hocking, R. (2009). National audit of music discipline and music education mandatory content within pre-
service generalist primary teacher education courses. Retrieved from
http://www.mca.org.au/pdf/mca_preservice_finalreport.pdf
Holden, H., & Button, S. (2006). The teaching of music in the primary school by the non-music
specialist. British Journal of Music Education, 23(1), 23-38.
Jeanneret, N. (1997). Model for developing preserves primary teachers’ confidence to teach
music. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 133, 37-44.
Letts, R. (2007). The Australian school system. Music in Australia knowledge base. Retrieved from
http://mcakb.wordpress.com/support-activities/music-in-schools/#intro
Mills, J. (1989). The generalist primary teacher of music: A problem of confidence. British Journal of Music
Education, 6(23), 125-38.
Russell-Bowie, D. (2009). ‘What me? Teach music to my primary class?’ Challenges to teaching music in
primary schools in five countries, Music Education Research, 11(1), 23-36.
Saunders, T. C., & Baker, D. S. (1991). In-service classroom teachers’ perceptions of useful
music skills and understandings. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39, 248-261.
Seddon, F., & Biasutti, M. (2008). Non-music specialist trainee primary school teachers’
confidence in teaching music in the classroom. Music Education Research, 10(3), 403-421.
Wiggins, R. A., & Wiggins, J. (2008). Primary music education in the absence of specialists. International
Journal of Education & the Arts, 9(12). Retrieved from http://www.ijea.org/v9n12/.

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The role of metacognition
Stefanovych Roberts

Abstract
This paper explores metacognitive learning processes appropriate to a musical performance context. The
research of this paper is based on theoretical perspectives of the works of Sadler, Hattie and Timperley. It
explores music performance learning and assessment via a study of tools and models created and constructed
by Sadler, Hattie and Timperley.

The meaning of metacognition?

This paper explores metacognitive learning processes appropriate to a musical performance context, making
specific reference to the theoretical perspectives of Sadler (1989, 1998), Hattie and Timperley (2007), and
Hattie (2009) within an assessment for learning paradigm. Metacognition refers to higher-order thinking that
is about the learner’s knowledge about learning, and involves active control over the cognitive and regulation
processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive activities focus on the on the cognitive knowledge of where,
how, when and why to use particular tactics and strategies in their appropriate contexts and the
implementation of self-regulatory (self-management) skills of planning, monitoring and evaluating of one’s
learning (Forrest-Pressley & Waller, 1984; Hallam, 2001; Hattie, 2009; Hattie, Biggs & Purdie, 1996; Newell,
1990; Schraw & Moshman, 1995).

170
Why Sadler?
Of particular interest is the work of Sadler (1989, 1998) whose writing is primarily focused about the
development of expertise through formative assessment. The appropriateness and relevance of his work to
music performance learning and assessment is evident through his educational theory of student improvement
and self-regulation within a formative assessment framework in complex learning settings where student
outcomes are appraised qualitatively using multiple criteria.

Sadler’s model of improving student learning and self-regulation

Sadler (1989) identifies three conditions necessary for student improvement in academic tasks:

1. The student develops an understanding or concept of quality (good performance) similar to that of the
teacher.
2. The student is able to continuously monitor the quality of what they are producing during the preparation
process.
3. The student has a range of alternative strategies or plans from which to use at any given moment.

In other words, “students have to be able to judge the quality of what they are producing and be able to
regulate what they are doing during the doing of it” (Sadler, 1989).

In essence, in order to develop and improve, the learner has to:

1. possess an understanding or concept of the standard (goal or reference level) being aimed for,
2. be able to compare the actual (or current) level of performance with the standard/goal, (how current
performance relates to the standard/goal) and
3. engage in appropriate action that leads to some closure of the gap (close the gap between current
performance and the standard/goal).

Sadler advocates that these three conditions or essentials for improving student learning must occur
simultaneously rather than as sequential steps and that the transition from external feedback to self-monitoring
can only occur when all three essentials have been met (Sadler, 1989). Within a formative assessment and
assessment for learning framework, true feedback and self-monitoring occur only when there has been some
closure of the gap.

171
 From a metacognitive perspective and Sadler’s model, the process of student self-assessment involves
engagement in the first two conditions for improvement where the student is able to compare their actual level
of performance against the standards whereas self-evaluation requires student engagement in the final
condition to ensure some closure of the gap. It has been argued (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Boud, 1995, 2000;
McDonald & Boud, 2003; Sadler, 1989 & 1998) that self-assessment and evaluation (metacognition) skills
can be developed by providing students with direct authentic evaluative experiences.

Hattie and Timperley’s model of feedback

In their model of feedback, Hattie and Timperley (2007; Hattie, 2009) propose that effective feedback must
address three principle questions posed by both teacher and student:

• Where am I going? (What are the goals?) – feed up

• How am I going? (What progress is being made toward the goal?) – feed back
• Where to next? (What activities need to be undertaken to make better progress?) – feed forward

Hattie and Timperley state that each of these three questions work together and that “an ideal learning
environment or experience occurs when both teachers and students seek answers to each of these questions”
(Hattie & Timperley, 2007, p. 88).

1. Communicating standards to students

One problematic issue in educational assessment, and in particular involving qualitative and multicriterion
judgements, is that on occasion, teachers and assessors may find it difficult to describe exactly what they are
looking or hoping for. In this instance, teachers’ conceptions of quality are predominantly remembered inside
their heads, in unarticulated form, referred to as ‘tacit’ knowledge. Tacit knowledge is the domain of
unspoken, implied and implicit knowledge that includes teachers past experiences of qualitative judgements
and where teachers have exchanged student work with each other or have collaborated in making assessments.
Whilst ‘in-the-head’ standards may elusively exhibit a degree of stability, they are not fixed or unchangeable
but can be adapted to suit different contexts. Teachers can be influenced by the range or diversity of student
quality that exists and therefore, find it difficult to make independent judgements of quality without making
reference to other students’ work. Surveying a sample of student musical performances may be appropriate
and of benefit where the aim is to rank one student’s work against that of other students but not in a formative
or assessment for learning framework.
How then can teachers externalise, make explicitly clear and accessible the standards and the concept
of ‘excellence’ to learners? The answer lies in criterion-based and standards-referenced assessment.
In developing self-assessment and evaluative skills, the student needs to come to an understanding about what
constitutes quality. A standard or reference level is a designated degree of performance or achievement. It is
possible to clearly define standards and to make consistent judgements against those standards (Sadler, 1998)
in a criterion-based or standards-referenced framework.
Two approaches in communicating and specifying standards are through descriptive statements and
exemplars. Both descriptive statements and exemplars provide a practical and efficient solution to
externalising reference levels or standards to the learner and need to be incorporated into the learning process.

Descriptive Statements
Descriptive statements represent one way of clarifying criteria, standards, and to an extent, goals. They are in
the form of a written document that contains statements that describe assessment criteria and the standards
that define the different levels of achievement. Descriptive statements tend to be generic descriptions or
statements about what a typical student can do and set out the characteristic properties of a performance at a
designated level of quality (Sadler, 1989). They may include those performance dimensions that are present or
absent, correct or incorrect, or other features that are present to a greater or lesser degree. Essentially, they are
the marking rubric or guidelines that are explicitly spelt out to the learner.
Musical language that is used in criteria, marking guidelines and descriptive statements need to be
explained to and understood by the learner. It is imperative that descriptive statements need to be presented in
language that is accessible and understood by students. Students are often unaware of what is implied by
particular evaluative criteria. Research (Hounsell, 1997; Norton, 1990) has demonstrated that there are often

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mismatches between teachers’ and students’ conceptions of assessment standards and criteria due to
misunderstandings and unclear or lack of explanation. Therefore, implicit aspects of criteria and standards
need full explanation and clarification.
However, descriptive statements convey only part of the picture or one dimension towards defining
externalised standards. Studies (Rust, Price & O’Donovan, 2003) have shown that it is difficult to make
assessment criteria and standards explicit through only written documentation and/or verbal descriptions.
Criteria for musical performance are complex, multidimensional and difficult to articulate; they often contain
‘tacit’ and unarticulated knowledge in the mind of the teacher/assessor. Because the understanding and
interpretation of criteria and standards is ‘tacit’, the learner also needs to develop an appropriate body of tacit
evaluative knowledge through experience to be able to interpret formal statements. As Yorke (2003) aptly
conveys,

Statements of expected standards, curriculum objectives or learning outcomes are generally

insufficient to convey the richness of meaning that is wrapped up in them. (p. 480)

Hence, there is a need for training strategies that complement written and verbal descriptive statements and
explanations.

Exemplars
Levels of quality, performance or achievement can also be conveyed in part by exemplars or benchmarks.
Exemplars are a set of key examples provided to students that illustrate and practically define descriptive
statements, clarify standards and goals; distinguishing quality from high to low (Sadler, 1989; Orsmond,
Merry & Reiling, 2002). Theoretical research has demonstrated that a number of exemplars are necessary to
convey a particular reference level. The minimum number of exemplars required is dependent on the number
of criteria used; the more criteria, the greater the number of ways in which a performance of a given quality or
level of achievement may be presented.
The advantage of exemplars for both learner and teacher is that they are concrete, objective, practical
examples that make explicit what is required and for which students can draw comparisons with their own
work. Research also shows that students develop a concept of a reference level more readily in some learning
domains, including the performing arts (Sadler, 1989). In a musical performance context, students are able to
observe other students’ performances and lessons together with the teachers’ judgements and evaluations of
those efforts because the work is produced in studio lessons, workshops, masterclasses, trial or mock
examinations, and other open learning environments.

Standards as goals (learning targets) or aspirations – Where am I going?

An important dimension of metacognition is the successful management of personal, independent learning.
This involves the setting of student goals (sometimes referred to as learning targets), management of the time
available to prepare and rehearse a performance and finding appropriate resources to help them do so.
A student needs to develop a concept of a goal, standard or reference level being aimed for as part of
the learning process of bridging the gap between current understandings / performance and a desired goal.
Hattie and Timperley (2007) express this regulatory phase as the first of three key questions posed in their
learning feedback process, “Where am I going?” Learning goals are related to the task and/or student
performance. In order to set desired performance goals, students need to be aware of, understand and have
access to a range of standards to cater for their individual abilities and learning needs. A standard or reference
level becomes a goal when it is desired, aimed for, or aspired to by the learner. Goals may be formulated
either external and/or internally: externally assigned by the teacher, internally developed by the learner or, a
combination of both. Ultimately, the desired learning intention for both student and teacher is for the learner
to be able to internally set, own or adopt their own goals so that there is a desire to reach or accomplish it.
Goals or learning targets provide a pivotal functional role in metacognitive learning processes that
involves the setting of learning targets, producing work that aims to achieve those targets/goals, assessment of
the work to ascertain whether it meets the targets, and finally to the setting of new targets or the revision of
those that were not achieved.

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Considerable research has investigated the effects of goals on performance over recent decades (Bandura,
1982; Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar & Trotschel, 2001; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 1999;
Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1984 & 1990; Locke, Shaw, Saari & Latham, 1981; Mikulincer,
1988; Steinberg, 1996; Sweller, 1990). It is only when a learner assumes ownership of or internalises a goal
that it can play a significant part in the voluntary regulation of performance. Students can only achieve
learning goals if they understand those goals, assume some ownership of them, and can assess progress
(Sadler, 1989; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). Goals are more effective when
students share a commitment to attaining them because they are more likely to seek and receive feedback
(Locke & Latham, 1990).
It has been found that hard goals are more effective and demonstrate the greatest impact on
performance. Hard goals are defined as being: specific and clear rather than general or vague (nonspecific),
appropriately harder and challenging taking into consideration the ability of the individual student rather than
simple or easy, and closer to the upper limit of an individual’s capacity to perform rather than to their current
level of performance. Hard goals are more effective because they primarily function to focus student’s
attention, direct effort, increase persistence at a task, and feedback can be more directed (Locke & Latham,
1984).
Dweck (1989) differentiates two types of achievement goals: ‘learning’ goals and ‘performance
goals’. Learning goals are those concerned about increasing competence or understanding something new
whereas performance goals are those focused on gaining favourable judgements about achievements.
However, Dweck (1989) reported that performance goals encourage competition and are not in the long-term
interests of the learner.
Moreover, setting goals or learning targets form a vitally important and effective strategy for closing
the gap between a student’s current and desired level of achievement. Students should reflect during and after
a task on previously set goals or milestones, and forward plan (feed-forward feedback, Hattie & Timperley,
2007) the next stage of action through setting new or revising existing achievement goals.

2. Making multicriterion judgements – Where am I now?

This important dimension in the improvement process involves two parts where the learner associates or
identifies their actual or current level of performance with a particular standard and also where the learner
compares their current level of performance with a desired standard or goal. This is most often identified and
termed self-assessment in more recent literature and equates with Hattie and Timperley’s effective feed back
question, “How Am I Going?” and “What progress is being made toward the goal?” In essence, this involves
the learner engaging in both identifying standards / criteria that apply to their work and in making judgements
about how their work relates to these standards. In a music performance context, this requires that the learner
be able to make multicriterion judgements about their own work and also able to make these judgements with

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a good degree of objectivity and impartiality. In order for the learner to be able to compare their actual
performance with a standard or a desired goal, and take action to close the ‘gap’, they must already possess
some of the same evaluative skills as their teacher (Sadler, 1989).
At this stage, a teacher, peripatetic tutor, peer, task or self is involved providing information relative
to a task or performance goal, often in relation to some expected standard, to prior performance, and/or to
success or failure on a specific part of the task. As a result, students often seek information about ‘how they
are going’. Feedback information about progress, and/or about how to proceed is an effective part of the
learning process. It is important to realise that these questions and associated feedback need not necessitate
additional assessment or testing.
As the learner develops a concept of quality in performance and the facility for making multicriterion
judgements, this reduces and ideally, eventually eliminates the student’s need and reliance on the teacher for
continual feedback and appraisal. By developing students’ ability to evaluate their work, in turn transfers
some of the learning responsibility from teacher to learner.

3. Strategies for closing the gap – to effect improvement – How can I get there?
This third learning dimension, or condition for student improvement that Sadler presents is about engaging the
learner in appropriate action that leads to some closure of the gap between the current or present and the
desired standard, performance or goal. Hattie and Timperley (2007) identify this feed forward process in their
effective feedback model through the third question, “Where to next?”
Traditionally, students have most often relied on their teachers to inform of or provide them with
ways in how to improve, via external feedback. Based on the assumption that the teacher is able to provide
remedial action and strategies, it is the teacher who ideally possesses the expertise that can be subsequently
developed by the student. There are many possible ways or tactics in which teachers can facilitate and assist
students in reducing the gap between their current performance and desired standard. Tactics have to be learnt
and acquired from different contextual experiences where students are then able to select from a range of
appropriate tactics in order to bring their own performance closer to the desired goal or standard. It is
therefore imperative that students be provided with experiences not only in the preparation and presentation
processes of musical performance, but in the evaluation and remediation to enable the student to develop and
maintain a resource pool, provided the learner recognises the value of the task. However, strategies students
and teachers use to reduce the discrepancy between the current and desired performance may or may not be
effective in enhancing student learning. Hence, it is therefore necessary to both identify and understand those
techniques/tactics that are most effective or beneficial for student improvement.
Effective learners create and utilise internal feedback, cognitive processes and strategies while they
are engaged in tasks. On the other hand, less effective learners employ minimal self-regulation strategies,
depend or have a reliance on external factors (such as the teacher or the task) for feedback, rarely seek or
incorporate feedback in ways that will enhance their future learning or possess metacognitive tactics.
“Where to next?” and “What activities need to be undertaken to make better progress?” questions can
have a significant impact on learning. Feedback directed toward these questions can result in enhanced
challenges, increased self-regulation over the learning process, greater fluency and automaticity, more
strategies and processes to work on the tasks, deeper understanding, and more information about what is and
what is not understood (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, p. 90).
In more complex tasks such as musical performance, because a variety of ways can be devised to alter
the gap between actual and desired reference levels, information about the gap does not necessarily suggest a
remedial action (Sadler, 1989).
Effective tactics or strategies for reducing the gap between a student’s actual performance and the
desired standard include: feedback, action points, goal setting, resubmission, teacher / peer modelling, error-
detection, video-audio feedback, reflective questions, and proformas and will be addressed in the following
workshop.

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Assessment Reform Group.
Baker, L. (1991). Metacogntion, reading and science education. Science Learning: Processes and
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Bandura, A. (1982). Self efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.

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behavioural goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1014-1027.
Barry, N. H. & S. Hallam (2002). Practice. The Science and Psychology of Music Performance: Creative
strategies for teaching and learning. R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press, pp.151-165.
Black, P. & D. Wiliam (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5(1), 7-74.
Black, P. & D. Wiliam (2001). Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment.
London, School of Education, King's College London.
Boud, D. (1995). Enhancing Learning through Self-assessment. London: Routledge Falmer.
Boud, D. (2000). Sustainable Assessment: Rethinking assessment for the learning society. Studies in
Continuing Education, 22(2), 151-167.
Boud, D., R. Cohen, et al. (1999). Peer Learning and Assessment. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher
Education, 24(4), 413-426.
Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious meachisms.
Metacognition, Motivation, and Understanding. F. Weinert and R. Kluwe. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum, pp.
65-116.
Butler, D. L. & P. H. Winne (1995). Feedback and Self-regulated Learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review of
Educational Research, 65(3), 245-281.
Chiu, C. W. T. (1998). Synthesizing Metacognitive Interventions: What Training Characteristics Can Improve
Reading Performance? Paper presented at the symposium, Metacognition: Assessment & Training at
the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. San Diego, California, p. 45.
Daniel, R. (2001). Self-assessment in performance. British Journal of Music Education, 18(3), 215-226.
Dweck, C. (1989). 'Motivation'. Foundations for a Psychology of Education. A. Lesgold & R. e. Glaser.
Hillsdale, OK: Eribaum.
Fraser, B. J., H. J. Walberg et al. (1987). Syntheses of Educational Productivity Research. International
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Glasson, T. (2009). Improving Student Achievement: A Practical Guide to Assessment for Learning. Carlton
South, Victoria, Curriculum Corporation.
Hallam, S. (2001). The development of metacognition in musicians: Implications for education. British
Journal of Music Education, 18(1), 27-39.
Hattie, J. A. C. (1999). Influences of student learning. New Zealand, University of Auckland. (Inaugural
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The development of a guidebook for new graduate piano teachers
Siew Yong Beatrice Cheah, RMIT University

Abstract
My research was concerned with knowledge and skills involved in teaching piano in Malaysia by new
graduates. The research question that guided the study is: What are the knowledge and skills that new piano
teachers need to teach a quality music program successfully in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia? In responding to this
question I uncovered a sequence of problems faced by beginning and established piano teachers. From my
research findings, I am developing a guidebook entitled Searching for answers in piano teaching to assist
practising and prospective private piano teachers. This guide covers a range of issues and problems on piano
teaching. In this paper I will discuss studio teaching, teaching knowledge and skills, basic foundation and
some common piano faults, teaching programs, significance of sight-reading and profits of practice.
My research was concerned with knowledge and skills involved in teaching piano in Malaysia by new
graduates. The research question that guided the study is: What are the knowledge and skills that new piano
teachers need to teach a quality music program successfully in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia? In responding to this
question I uncovered a sequence of problems faced by beginning and established piano teachers. From my
research findings, I am developing a guidebook entitled Searching for answers in piano teaching to assist
practising and prospective private piano teachers. This guide covers a range of issues and problems on piano
teaching. In this paper I will discuss studio teaching, teaching knowledge and skills, basic foundation and
some common piano faults, teaching programs, significance of sight-reading and profits of practice.

Research processes and findings

I undertook a review of the literature on general piano teaching with specific topics on studio teachers,
teaching beginners, knowledge and skills on teaching, teaching programs, difficult areas to teach, areas
students’ dislike, group teaching and music examinations. Following this I used a questionnaire and followed
this with a series of interviews. I circulated sixty questionnaires to piano teachers of at least two years or more
practical experience in Kuala Lumpur. Fifty-nine teachers returned the questionnaires. The responses to the
questionnaire were analysed. Using a snowball sampling technique I identified ten highly experienced piano
teachers to be interviewed. They were all teachers with more than five years of teaching experience. The
interviews followed a semi-structured series of questions, and were recorded, transcribed and analysed.
The results indicate students’ dislike of learning technique, with little or no interest in practicing, and
a tendency to ignore sight-reading homework. The instructors found difficulty teaching interpretation and
musicianship development. All participants agree on a good foundation for beginners. Group teaching was
viewed favourably by a good number of respondents. Views on music examinations were argued convincingly
with a majority supporting them. Many studio teachers are taught by the traditional methods of learning
Western music and they do not feel comfortable nor have the confidence to teach practical keyboard skills.
The categorization of the areas of concern expressed by the teachers along with the review of literature
formed the basic structure of the guidebook that was developed as part of this research.

The guidebook
The scope of the guidebook covers many areas of piano teaching and learning including: studio teaching,
teaching knowledge and skills, and basic foundation for beginners. The common technical faults, music
teaching programs and the development of musicianship, general learning and teaching principles,
significance of sight-reading, power of practice, group teaching, advantages of music examinations and the
benefits of learning music in general are considered. As there are many young teachers starting to teach, the
aim of this guide is to provide ideas to help improve certain areas of concern and ways of looking into an
enjoyable teaching career. In Kuala Lumpur, the teacher population ranges from unqualified to the qualified
teachers. A small number do not have qualifications.

Studio teaching
As teachers we need to have dedicated appeal and awareness in the subject we instruct (Bolton, 1953), besides
fulfillment, contentment, and enjoyment derived from teaching. Instructors who like children will give sincere
support and assistance in every way to encourage learning (Jacobson, 2006). It is usual for new teachers to
teach beginners and special attention must be focused on appropriate ways of introducing good habits and

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relaxation. Parental guidance is advantageous. Young children need to be guided at home when practicing.
Any questions can be clarified during the interview with potential students and parents, before formal lessons
begin.

Teaching knowledge and skills

With a certification on teaching, new graduates of piano would have gained some knowledge on teaching and
performance. Going through a teaching qualification would assist and provide student teachers with self-
confidence and self-assurance before proceeding to teach. A multitude of knowledge and skills would be
necessary for competent and successful teaching. Teachers must be equipped with a formal teacher-training
program before embarking on formal teaching itself. By doing so, the novice teachers would be exposed to
and be in contact with and therefore can realize the unexpected. Gaining practical experience in teaching
would be of more value than the collected information, reading from teaching books (Pearce, nd). To
understand the psychology of teaching helps, but more important is the application of commonsense
(Lovelock, 1936). Keeping up with new knowledge and skills through experience, self-improvement, self-
motivation, learning from others, reading books, magazines, attending professional development seminars,
master classes, performing in ensembles would widen the whole outlook and understanding in teaching music.
It is up to each individual teacher to plan for advancing and enhancing development. Learning is a life long
experience for all.

Basic foundation for beginners and some common piano faults

It is believed that a few of the worse habitual mistakes found in students may be due “unsuspectingly through
careless tuition” of teachers, and some of which are “very difficult to eradicate” (Hambourg, 1922, p. 56).
Undoubtedly it is the duty of teachers to introduce groundwork at the start of piano lessons. Providing the
skilful groundwork would result in the making of fine pianists and musicians of the future (Last, 1966). As
such, it is important to ensure correct learning procedures are carried out at home, especially for beginners,
with the assistance of parents. Many important points must be taken into consideration when instructing
beginners. Sitting posture, height of stool, position where the feet are to be placed, good hand shapes, good
finger postures, and relaxation all need special attention. We must understand young children’s fingers are
weak and have not been trained to do the appropriate movements needed for playing the piano. Therefore, for
technique to be properly taught requires patience, love, and dedication on the part of teachers, remembering
that learning to relax is the basis to good technique and foundation for the beginners.

Teaching programs and musicianship development

Results show that teaching programs are mostly centered closely to a music examination syllabus. A broader
musicianship development program would be ideal with the integration of approaches by “combining music
theory, history, and performance practices, including improvisation” (Mark & Madura, 2010, p. 6) and other
keyboard skills. The problems faced by teachers point to insufficient time to carry out these activities.
Musicianship development is a wide area and covers many aspects of music learning. It is entirely up to the
teachers to plan what is appropriate and provide the knowledge and skills on various areas on theoretical and
practical key- board training. These skills should be approached early, when students begin piano lessons.

The significance of sight-reading

Good sight-reading is one musical asset every musician should strive to develop. With an appropriate standard
of sight-reading children can enjoy making music alone or with friends. Moreover, children would then be
able to read a wider repertoire. Training should start from the very first piano lesson. Musicianship skills will
help in fostering better understanding of sight-reading facilities. Rhythm is the vital element in music making
and “in performance almost anything may be forgiven except lack of rhythm” (Tankard, 1966, p. 24). Rhythm
forms the foundation of good reading. A strong rhythmic sense is necessary for “projecting musical ideas”
(Whiteside, 1999, p. 8).
Eyes must be trained to read notes in groups and not singularly, just as the child learns how to read
phrase by phrase, not by single words. The eyes are trained to look ahead, to prepare for what is coming and
to prevent stumbling and hesitations. The mind collects one phrase in one glance and memorizes it. Then the
sight-reader reproduces notes, in correct rhythm and expressions as close to the printed score as possible. A
well-trained memory helps. Duet playing in lessons is suggested as it is fun, encourages students to apply their

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conscious effects to keep regular time, improving listening skills and avoids the bad habit of correcting faults
in order to keep the music flowing. Good sight-readers gain confidence by regular practice.

Profit practice
Keeping students happy and learning well is the teacher’s responsibility. The core value of practice must be
enforced, otherwise improvement is literally nil or extremely slow. Every student should be taught how to
practice at beginners’ level, which is often ignored by some teachers (Lovelock, 1936). In order for students to
know how to practise correctly, teachers need to explain and demonstrate. Students must be reminded there
are certain paths to follow, knowing that if correct practice is put in, there will be definite and affirmative
results by the next lesson (Langley, 1963).
When starting to learn a new piece, it can be practiced either by taking each hand separately or
together. To some it is better to learn separately until all the notes and rhythm are correct before putting the
two parts together. Others may prefer to work with both hands together slowly, thus improving sight-reading.
It is preferable to combine both. When teaching students to practice, show them, the sensible fingerings to use
and how to discover alternatives through experimenting. Home practice has to be planned and followed
strictly. For young students parents play important roles to check, encourage, monitor, and at times to give
praise. Training students to work on their own, to gain the ability to solve practise problems sensibly is proof
that teachers are teaching successfully.
To practice means to repeat constantly to a state of perfection. This requires extreme attention, focus,
and awareness of what is happening when practicing. By repetition, the physical movements and fingers
automatically know where to go. Our brains can then direct fingers to freely apply appropriate interpretation
to the music (Last, 1966). Knowing that children have very short concentration spans, beginners should be
encouraged to practice a few times a day in short sessions, and gradually increasing the practice time.
Listening to how we practice and whether we get the sounds we want, is equally important (Lovelock, 1937).
Ideally incorporate aural into practice. Students must learn to be critical and apply listening skills to detect
desired sounds, expression, and correct phrasing. It is advisable to practice when the mind and body are
relaxed, and the concentration power is fresh. So, plan an appropriate, a sensible timetable and have aims to
be achieved for each practice.

Conclusion
To conclude I have some personal points to make. Parents in Malaysia are beginning to be aware of the
benefits music education can provide. Children are beginning to take music lessons at an early age. In Kuala
Lumpur, music examinations are an obsession of parents. The close relationship in studio teaching should
bring a two-way system of teaching and learning. There is a need to listen to our students and provide open
conversations and discussions on music teaching programs.
Technical advancement in the 21st century will indicate the necessity to introduce some kind of
technology into our music-teaching programs to enhance sections of music teaching. More emphasis may be
channeled into musicianship skills and provide the fun for learning by the application of the numerous
software produced in the market. Dedicated teachers should take challenges to develop new ideas into their
teaching programs, advance further to gain new knowledge and skills on teaching and learning in the field of
music education.
My hope is that this guidebook will help novice music teachers, experienced teachers, students and
music lovers alike to look into the wider scope of music instruction. As teachers of music we must understand
that only a tiny portion of our music learning population will turn out to be performers or teachers and the rest
will become the listening audience. Therefore, it is important to instill a love for listening and a fulfillment in
learning and performing music. The ability to perform music for our own leisure brings enjoyment “even it is
far from perfect, is rewarded by a sense of satisfaction that mere listening cannot supply” (Deutsche, 1959, p.
xii). I believe this guidebook would surely raise a higher awareness in the listening audience and self-
satisfaction in performing. As for the teaching population the achievements would heighten piano
professionalism in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

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Langley, E. (1963). Principles of teaching as applied to music. London: Lowe & Brydone.
Last, J. (1966). The young pianist. London: Oxford University Press.
Lovelock, W. (1936). Practical hints on the teaching of music for examination candidates and others.
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Pearce, C.W. (ud). The art of the piano teacher. London: Lowe & Brydone.
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Indigenous culture in the mainstream: Approaches and attitudes towards Indigenous popular music
and film in the junior secondary classroom
Thomas Fienberg, University of Sydney

Abstract
In recent years, Indigenous culture has developed a strong media presence. In film, Indigenous director Rachel
Perkins has documented a history of the First Australians (2009) and produced a feature film adaptation of
Jimmy Chi’s musical Bran Nue Dae (2010), while in music Jessica Mauboy has collected multiple ARIA and
Deadly awards for her double platinum album Been Waiting (2008). This paper discusses approaches to
capitalizing on this renewed mainstream interest in the junior secondary classroom of a state comprehensive
high school. Built upon the principles of Lucy Green’s Informal Music Learning, Year 8 students first choose
and record a song by an Indigenous artist. In the following year the now elective students, record and perform
pieces from the art-house Perkins film One Night the Moon. Through interviews conducted over the two-year
period Indigenous and non-Indigenous student attitudes towards the tasks are analysed as the tasks evolve and
incorporate Indigenous community members. This study primarily reminds us that we should not shy away
from the challenges of teaching Australian Indigenous music. Instead it encourages teachers to make use of
more accessible pathways to enter this changing musical world.

Introduction
In recent years Indigenous culture has developed a strong media presence. In film, Indigenous director Rachel
Perkins has documented a history of the First Australians (2009) and produced a feature film adaptation of
Jimmy Chi’s musical Bran Nue Dae (2010). Another critical success was Warwick Thornton’s emergence
with his film Samson and Delilah (2009), which won the prestigious Caméra d’or at the Cannes film festival.
In popular music the rise of Geoffery Gurrumul Yunupingu has continued, while Jessica Mauboy and Dan
Sultan have collected multiple ARIA and Deadly awards for their albums Been Waiting (2008) and Get Out
While You Can (2009) respectively. This paper discusses ways music education might capitalise on this
renewed mainstream interest in Australian Indigenous music and film and documents student attitudes in
relation to a number of classroom strategies and initiatives.
While syllabi and policy documents have encouraged the teaching of Australian Indigenous music,
many teachers often struggle to meaningfully incorporate it into their personal curriculum. Over the past two
decades Peter Dunbar-Hall has provided valuable discussions on the complexities of integrating Indigenous
music in educational contexts. Through surveys and analysis he has associated this under-representation to
factors including the low numbers of Indigenous school music educators, inadequate pre-service training, and
fears of misrepresenting an unfamiliar culture (Dunbar-Hall, 1997, 2002, 2005; Dunbar-Hall & Beston, 2003).
As Mackinlay and Barney (2006-2007) note, there is no simple solution to these challenges. As a “white”
music educator, Mackinlay offers her personal thoughts on how she approaches the delivery of “black” music.
She encourages teachers to look beyond resources by “white” experts and draw upon ‘“relationship” as a
teaching and learning approach to Indigenous Australian musics’ (Mackinlay, 2008, p.4). Here local
Indigenous community members and musicians interact and contribute to the learning of both the teacher and
student.
Significantly – and understandably, given their background and training – many teachers appear to
define Australian Indigenous music quite narrowly. Many are only vaguely aware that Indigenous musical
culture continues to change and develop, and so they overlook innovations, historical and current. When
searching for definitions of Indigenous music it is best to avoid the commonly used divisions of “traditional”
and “contemporary.” As Dunbar-Hall and Gibson (2004) suggest, “music from the past and present often co-
exist occurring simultaneously within the line up or within individual songs” (p.16). Instead a more inclusive
description is needed to draw together the continually changing examples of Indigenous expression through
various musical styles. In the context of this study the prefix “mainstream” is attached to music involving
Indigenous artists that is readily accessible to “white” audiences through the popular mediums of television,
film, radio, and internet websites such as YouTube and iTunes.
The use of mainstream Indigenous music in the classroom is not a new idea. Following the
breakthrough in the 1980s of Coloured Stone, Warumpi Band and No Fixed Address, contemporary
Indigenous music became far more accessible to educators. It was the 1991 release of Yothu Yindi’s “Treaty”
however, that sparked excitement that led to the development of a series of teaching resources. Following the

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publication of analytical articles by Neuenfeldt (1993) and Stubington and Dunbar-Hall (1994), the song
found its way into Ian Dorricott’s popular secondary music textbooks (Dorricott, 2007), Australian Music
Centre teaching kits (Dunbar-Hall, 1991) and most recently the ABC Pure Drop online teaching resource
(Australian Film Commission and Ether Multimedia, 2007). These resources have provided teachers with a
“safe” entry point into Australian Indigenous culture. As the 20th anniversary of Treaty’s release approaches,
there is a need, I believe, to promote more contemporary Indigenous acts that relate more closely to our
current context.

Jessica Mauboy’s pathway to the mainstream

Five years ago, 16-year-old Jessica Mauboy was “discovered” in Alice Springs while auditioning for the
popular reality television show Australian Idol. She ultimately finished second in the competition and released
the relatively commercially successful live album, The Journey (2006). In the years since she has performed
with the Young Divas and collaborated with American hip hop artists Flo Rida, Sean Kingston and Snoop
Dogg. With Been Waiting Mauboy was able to move beyond the Idol “cover–act mentality” and develop a
distinctive musical identity (Scwhartzkoff, 2009).
Coinciding with the release of her highly selling second album, Mauboy was offered the female lead
in Perkins’ film version of the Chi brothers musical, Bran Nue Dae. Her appearance in this film represented a
significant departure from her global pop/R&B solo career as she overtly embraced her Aboriginality and
beginnings in country music. Perhaps the greatest acknowledgement of her entry into the Australian
mainstream was her recent performance at the National Rugby League (NRL) Grand Final. In this Australian
cultural event, Mauboy with fellow Bran Nue Dae actor Dan Sultan co-headlined the pre-match entertainment
in front of 80,000 fans and a television audience of 2.091 million (Vickery, 2010). Following in the footsteps
of Yothu Yindi and many other Indigenous artists such as Christine Anu, Archie Roach, Ruby Hunter and
Tiddas, Mauboy has emerged as a leader of the next generation of successful mainstream Aboriginal artists.

School context and Informal Music Learning

Located in the inner suburbs of Sydney, J. J. Cahill Memorial High School’s demographic is highly
multicultural and of a low socio-economic status. The state comprehensive high school has a small but strong
Indigenous community that is well supported with programs and an Aboriginal Education Officer (AEO) from
South Sydney Youth Services. Each year the school celebrates the National Aboriginal Islander Day
Observance Committee (NAIDOC) week with an assembly. To coincide with this celebration, activities and
projects based on various forms of Indigenous music are programmed into all music courses. This provides an
ideal opportunity to raise awareness among students of Indigenous music making, challenge pre-existing
assumptions and develop greater cultural sensitivity. Within the NAIDOC assembly, musical performances
involving Indigenous and non-Indigenous students provide the key form of cultural expression.
The junior music program at the school is heavily influenced by the work of British educator Lucy Green
(2006). Green’s Informal Music Learning was one of three elements proposed by the Musical Futures project.
This action research project aimed to re-evaluate the state of the British musical curriculum, while providing a
music program that was more closely related to the experiences of real-world music making. Informal
learning is modelled on the learning processes of popular musicians. The approach is based around five key
principles (Green & Walmsley, 2006, p. 3):

1. Learning music that students choose, like and identify with

2. Learning by listening
3. Learning with friends
4. Personal, often haphazard learning without structured guidance
5. Integration of listening, performing, improvisation and composing.

At J. J. Cahill these principles are applied to the study of music from all styles, periods and genres. Since the
commencement of the program it has led to greater interest in the subject and considerably higher numbers in
the elective courses.

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Student perceptions of Indigenous music
Before commencing their first experience of Indigenous music Year 8 students were interviewed over their
understanding of it. Responses varied among non-Indigenous students with ceremonial music and storytelling
featuring prominently:

S: It’s like the culture of Aboriginal people. It’s like what they grew up on and stuff. It’s for their
celebrations and tribes and stuff.
S: It’s like the traditional music of the Aborigines and that. They tell stories and like interprets
animal movements and stuff as well.

For some of the Indigenous students the meaning was far more personal:

S: Its my culture, its from my land it’s pretty much my family.

S: I think Aboriginal music is traditional music, which is passed down from generation to generation
to express ourselves.

When questioned over current Indigenous music Jessica Mauboy’s name was most commonly mentioned.
Some students were quite sceptical over whether her music could be classified as Indigenous:

S: I guess it would be Jessica Mauboy, she’s probably the most famous one that I know … I don’t
think she’s fully Aboriginal but she does more pop music than Aboriginal pop.
S: Jessica Mauboy a bit, but not really … I guess just the fact that she is Aboriginal doesn’t maker
her music Aboriginal like I guess she’s more like, I don’t know.

While Mauboy’s music compares more closely to a Beyoncè album rather than other Indigenous acts, some
students were able to look beyond her globalised product and identify her music as a form of Indigenous
expression:

S; I wouldn’t consider her actual music as Aboriginal, but because she is Aboriginal – like you can
understand that [her music] is coming from an Aboriginal woman
S: She does sort of have some Aboriginal elements but not a lot … I guess how she tells her story.

Bringing the mainstream into the classroom

To coincide with NAIDOC day 2009, Year 8 students were asked to choose and record a cover version of a
song by an Indigenous artist. Unsurprisingly Mauboy was the most popular choice. Her song, “Been
Waiting”, suited the task perfectly. It featured a small number of instruments with repetitive chord cycles and
interplay between two vocalists. For one of the school’s Indigenous students its simplicity was never a
consideration in selection:

S: I wanted to go as deep Australian, which is Indigenous Australian … and Jessica Mauboy is like
the only real well known Aboriginal artist that was out and then I heard that song “Been Waiting” on
I think was a Rove show the night before so I said I really like that song and we did it.

While the engagement levels of all students varied throughout the task, the Indigenous students were among
the most motivated. One girl whose group had chosen Christine Anu’s version of “My Island Home” felt a
deep spiritual connection with the song:

S: Yeah it actually felt good… You know that I could actually sing something that had to do with
this land.

This song itself presents an interesting example of Indigenous music. Recorded in 1986 for the Warrumpi
Band’s album Warrumpi Band Go Bush!, the song is credited to non-Indigenous songwriter and band member
Neil Murray. According to members of the group, the song refers to lead vocalist George Rrurrambu’s origins
in Echo Island (off the northern coast of Arnhem Land) and his move to central Australia (Dunbar-Hall &
Gibson, 2004). The song was made even more mainstream with its release on Christine Anu’s solo album

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Stylin’ Up. The APRA award winning single featured slightly altered lyrics to better reflect Anu’s
experiences.
Another student performing Been Waiting was more cautious to admit that his Aboriginality made the
task any more enjoyable:

S: I wouldn’t say me being Aboriginal [made the task more enjoyable] … ohh well maybe I don’t
know… Probably my interest in Aboriginal [culture] … but that would be influenced because I’m
Aboriginal – that’s why I have the interest in it. But I guess other Aboriginal artists are pretty good
but I just like [“Been Waiting”].

For the majority of non-Indigenous students, the familiarity of Mauboy’s highly produced R&B song made it
much easier to engage in the activity. They identified the music as “their own” as opposed to other less
recognisable Indigenous forms of Indigenous music.

S: It has a good melody and I like the lyrics

S Personally I like the song, it’s not too slow it’s not too fast,
S: It was a song that we knew … like in our group’s (musical style)

By performing and recording the songs over an extended period, students were able to appreciate the song on
a far deeper level.

S: Yeah, I guess it helps you understand, it’s more clear to you, umm because you know you’re
there, it’s first hand, you’re not just listening to it. Your concentration is on what you’re doing not
just like you know, if you’re listening to the song, of course your mind can wander off and not really
care.
S: I think I learnt way more by performing it because I played the piano and got into music and the
girls got the singing part of it. So it was way better than just listening to a song. You get an
understanding of where she’s coming from because you know the lyrics in depth and why she like
wrote it and stuff

As students performed the songs they started to develop a level of ownership over the material. In their group
they were able to interpret the song and record it in their own personal way.

S: Performing it … makes you feel like you’re in that person’s shoes and as if it’s coming from you.
S: I just got to take my own grasp on the song … not just by listening to it … but performing it is a
different experience.

After four weeks of rehearsing, all groups successfully recorded their songs. Two groups were given the
opportunity to perform their versions as part of the NAIDOC assembly. An Indigenous member of one group
found the experience of performing Mauboy’s song very rewarding.

S: I really liked performing it on NAIDOC day … it was a day for Aboriginal people and like she is
Aboriginal and I thought if I had done someone else who was Aboriginal the [non-Indigenous] girls
wouldn’t have got it as good

Moving beyond the mainstream: One Night the Moon

In search of another familiar entry point, film provides a natural successor to popular music. This medium has
the ability to transport its viewers into unfamiliar settings and empathise with the emotions of its characters.
Webb (2010) is quick to draw this correlation with its soundtracks suggesting that “films can handily indicate
ways music works in and as culture, and significantly, Indigenous films communicate insider understandings
of a musical culture” (p.1). This insider viewpoint is invaluable when teaching an unfamiliar culture that
needs to be approached with awareness and sensitivity.
With the recent cinematic release of Bran Nue Dae, the work of Indigenous director Rachel Perkins
has never been more prominent. Nine years earlier Perkins experimented with the musical genre in One Night
the Moon (2001). The film is a retelling of a documentary, Blacktracker (1996), by fellow Aboriginal

185
filmmaker Michael Riley, grandson of Wiradjuri police tracker Alexander Riley. Set in the 1930s the narrative
is based on the true story of a child who went missing in the Australian outback and the racial prejudice of her
father who refuses the help of the Aboriginal tracker. Supporting the powerful cinematography is music by
Paul Kelly, Kev Carmody, Ruby Hunter and Mairead Hannan. The story is told through “opera style
performances that draw the characters in emotional relief against the Australian landscape” (Langton, 2006, p.
63).
In contrast to Mauboy, One Night the Moon and its music were far from the tastes of the now thirty
student strong Year 9 elective music class. The film was introduced following a series of short activities based
upon excerpts from other Indigenous films. The class watched the entire film without interruption and
discussed the films key issues of the land and racism. The reception was far from positive:

S: At first I didn’t like the film. I don’t know why just didn’t appeal to me and the music didn’t
appeal to me
S: I thought it was boring … cause its like outback and it was like Aussie.
S: Yeah I just couldn’t relate to it, I’m being honest.
S: It was a bit annoying, because it just repeats itself … with its annoying tunes.

While the unfamiliar country music presented a barrier for these students, the Indigenous members were far
more focused on the themes and characters in the film.

S: It felt sad … it felt really wrong. I just think people underestimate Indigenous people to what they
really are.

Before commencing the study on indigenous film, the Year 9 program was discussed with the
school’s AEO. Having never heard of One Night the Moon she asked if she could watch the film. After
viewing it she was described how it moved her and suggested that the school’s other Indigenous students
watch it with her.

AEO: After watching the movie there was silence … and then when we sat down and talked about it
… Personally it gave me an insight to how … back then the white man was sort of “my land, I’ll
take everything and do what I want to do with it.”… [While] to an Aboriginal man, back then the
land was everything to him. It was his grocery store, it was his story telling.

When it was revealed that students would have to learn and record one of the country songs featured in the
film the class’ antagonism reached a new peak. Using the informal learning principles students reluctantly
went off in groups to begin the task. In between bass riffs from the White Stripes and Metallica guitar licks
the groups slowly grew into the task:

S: It was pretty boring but it was all right. I guess like as we got more into the music side of things
… we were interpreting what was sort of going on in the film

While the students quickly grasped onto the technical side of learning the pieces, they continually struggled to
incorporate cultural sensitivity into their songs. Perhaps this was due to the group structures of informal music
learning.

S: Of course performing with mates you’re going to muck around a bit and stuff.
S: In front of your mates, of course it’s going to be a bit of a joke you know. You’re not really doing
it for anything serious at the time.

To counter this attitude, the task’s focus was shifted towards performing the works for NAIDOC day. As
opposed to presenting the songs by themselves it was decided to link them together with footage from the
films. This was seen as critically important for one student:

S: I think you wouldn’t actually understand the music if you didn’t watch it [because] you wouldn’t
know what it’s talking about.

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 In an effort to involve the whole class in the production, students not willing to perform were given
the opportunity to contribute through other means. Some worked on designing a PowerPoint containing
screenshots and clips from the film, while others helped write the script connecting the three chosen songs:
“One Night the Moon”, “This Land is Mine/This Land is Me” and “Unfinished Business”.

S: I did start performing One Night the Moon but I chose to introduce the songs instead … [my role
was] to tell a bit about the scene that was going to be shown and then … describe the songs and
where they fit in the movie.

A critical element to the production was the involvement of the school’s AEO. She worked closely with the
students to help develop the script and was present at several rehearsals. Her presence and other local
Indigenous leaders at the NAIDOC assembly helped remind the students of the film’s meaning and its
importance to Indigenous and non-Indigenous people today.

AEO: I just sat there and went wow this is amazing that young people from other cultures can come
in and perform this … because I know you would have shown them the movie before and discussed
how important land was and talked about the racism… So when they sang it, they sang it with
meaning at the same time. I was blown away with just the rehearsal. But then performing on the
actual NAIDOC day was mind blowing, it was magnificent … I think we all live in this world
together and it’s great that we can even sing and adapt to someone else’s culture.

S: … because NAIDOC day is an Aboriginal sort of holiday I tried to treat it with more respect and
more meaning because its something that relates to [the Indigenous people] in general
S: I took this [performance] more seriously especially at the assembly because it was a special sort
of time for Aboriginals… you need to treat it with a lot of respect and approach it in a serious
manner because you could insult some people in a way of not even knowing.
S: It made [the performance] like heaps serious, yeah because we were performing it in front of the
[Aboriginal] elders.

While the Indigenous community members present greeted the production warmly, the change in non-
Indigenous student attitudes towards the music was even more fruitful. Again this was closely linked towards
the extended performance time given to the works. Once the class had forgotten that they were performing
country music they began to understand the music on a far deeper level.

S: When you perform it you actually get a feel of what it’s about and the lyrics.
S: [Performing] really makes you think about it… It’s different from just watching it on screen
because you’re actually singing it and you can feel what they’re feeling when they sing it

Conclusion
In both programs trialled, experiencing music through performance was critical to their relative successes. The
dialogue from students clearly indicates how important this was in motivating them to listen to Indigenous
music and further develop their understanding of it. Similarly the involvement of local Indigenous members at
various stages helped place the projects within the broader context of the Indigenous experience. This
“relationship” must be a priority as it helps the practitioner deliver the content appropriately and with
authenticity.
This study primarily reminds us that we should not shy away from the challenges of teaching
Australian Indigenous music. Instead it encourages teachers to make use of more accessible pathways to enter
this evolving musical world. While listening to Jessica Mauboy may not immediately transport you to her
hometown of Alice Springs, her story and music provides a familiar entry point. Similarly through the
medium of film One Night the Moon offers a fine contemporary example of the Aboriginal tradition of
storytelling through song. If Indigenous voices continue with this kind of mainstream presence there will be
many more opportunities for teachers to engage students in meaningful studies of current Australian
Indigenous music.

187
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Barney, K. (2006-2007). Rethinking, redesigning, and reflecting on teaching and learning Indigenous
Australian music. Music Education Research and Innovation, 13(1), 2-30.
Dorricott, I.J. (2007). Listen to the music (5th ed.). North Ryde, NSW: McGraw Hill Australia.
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National Conference of the Australian Society for Music Education (pp. 81-87). Brisbane, QLD:
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Journal, 91(4), 33-37.
Dunbar-Hall, P. & Beston, P. (2003). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Musics in Australian music
education: Findings of a national survey. In B. Smith (Ed.), Over the Top Proceedings of the XIV
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Dunbar-Hall, P. & Gibson, C. (2004). Deadly sounds, deadly places: Contemporary Aboriginal music in
Australia. Sydney, NSW: University of New South Wales Press.
Green, L. (2006). Popular music education in and for itself, and for “other” music: Current research in the
classroom. International Journal of Music Education, 24(2), 101-118.
Green, L. & Walmsley, A. (2006). Classroom resources for informal music learning at key stage 3.
Hertfordshire: Paul Hamlyn Foundation.
Langton, M. (2006). Out from the shadows: The significance and development of the Aboriginal tracker
figure in Australian film. Indigenous Australia, 65(1), 55-64.
Neuenfeldt, K. (1993). Yothu Yindi and Ganma: the cultural transposition of Aboriginal agenda through
metaphor and music. Journal of Australian Studies, 17(38), 1-11.
Mackinlay, E. (2008). Making space as white music educators for Indigenous Australian holders of song,
dance and performance knowledge: The centrality of relationship as pedagogy. Australian Journal of
Music Education, 1, 2-6.
Scwhartzkoff, L. (2009, November 21). ‘I love Idol. But I had to be more Jessica Mauboy and less that girl
who came second’. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from
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more-jessica-mauboy-and-less-that-girl-who-came-second?
Stubington, J. & Dunbar-Hall, P. (1994). Yothu Yindi's ‘Treaty’: ganma in music. Popular Music, 13, 243-
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Distilling a national jazz sound into a real book for the next generation of jazz musicians
Tim Nikolsky, RMIT University

Abstract
This paper outlines a current doctoral research project which is involved in developing an Australian Jazz
Real Book (AJRB) as an educational and practical resource for practicing and professional musicians. A
mixed methods approach was used in responding to the research question, and incorporates web survey, real
book analysis, key informant interviews, and community-based participatory research. The development of
this resource could provide a useful resource to the next generation of jazz musicians in Australia, who
currently have limited access to notated Australian Jazz music.

Background to study
As part of my doctoral research I am developing an Australian Jazz Real Book (AJRB) as an educational and
practical resource for practicing and professional musicians. Australian musicians have limited accessibility
and opportunity to play original Australian jazz music and widely use American real books in educational and
performance contexts. It could be argued that without an Australian Jazz Real Book, the next generation of
Australian musicians will unlikely develop a sense of an Australian jazz sound, or build upon the pioneering
work of earlier Australian jazz musicians, and are unlikely to have an appreciation of the quality of music that
has been previously composed and performed. In this paper I will present my study methodology, preliminary
findings, and a discussion of the Australian Jazz sound.

Methodology
The research question guiding this study is: How do you develop an Australian Jazz Real Book as an
educational and practical resource for practising and performing musicians? In this study I have chosen to use
a mixed methods approach (Creswell, 2009; Kayrooz, Trevitt, & Bennett, 2005; Nesbary, 2000; O'Leary,
2005; Salkind, 2009) as there are specific areas of this research that require a specialised approach to the
different aspects of the research question. As this research is situated in the Australian jazz community, it is
appropriate to use Community-based participatory research approach (Kayrooz et al., 2005). It is anticipated
that the AJRB will be used by the Australian jazz community, and as such it is important to work closely with
them to create a resource based on their needs and requirements appropriate in educational and practical
contexts. It was important to gauge opinions and receive ideas from a large amount of people in the Australian
jazz community, as this research is situated in a localised community, and the outcome is likely to be used by
the Australian jazz community. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are used to provide a robust
research framework.
Quantitative data was obtained through a web survey. Of the 400 email invitations sent, 50%
responded. Respondents were professional and practicing musicians, educators and students. The web survey
collected data on respondents location, involvement in jazz, real book usage, suggested composition and
composer inclusion, desired proportion of various jazz related styles, size of book, timeframe of compositions
to be collected, different appropriate amounts of compositions by established and developing artists, whether
solo transcriptions, backing CDs or sample instrumental parts should be included, and if respondents thought
Australian jazz had any features that made it unique. Data has also been obtained through an analysis of six
Real Books (Leonard, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Sher, 1991, 1995; Sher & Bauer, 1991) which are commonly
available and widely used. Issues identified were their formatting, music typesetting conventions, proportion
of compositions from each jazz related style, the date of composition, and the occurrence of compositions
contained within multiple real books was examined.
With the web survey data and Real book analysis I was able to produce a draft AJRB. I embarked on
a composition collection process, accepting submissions from composers and attempting to locate particular
compositions that were mentioned in the web survey. I also visited the National Film and Sound Archives
(NFSA) Australian Jazz Archive in Canberra as well as the Victorian Jazz Archive to locate compositions.
Many compositions were received from composers and were processed into a consistent formatting style
using the computer based music notation software Sibelius. A draft AJRB was created using the criteria
developed from the results from the web survey data collection. An analysis of the draft AJRB was conducted.
Each composition was analysed according to difficulty, possible study piece for VCE/ AMEB/ ANZCA/
TAFE/ University assessment, able to be played on gigs or requires rehearsal, established or developing artist,

189
if it has contributed to the development of Australian Jazz Scene, and if it features a particular technique or
musical element.
The draft AJRB will be used for comment and criticism by key informants in a series of individual
interviews. Key informants have been identified to represent a wide cross-section of the Australian Jazz
community. They have been identified as leaders in the fields of education, performance, curriculum
development, and Australian Jazz history. Many of the key informants have also taken Australian jazz abroad
and are able to provide insight on whether Australian jazz is unique and if it possesses any unique
characteristics. These people are regarded as experts in their field and are widely regarded and respected.
These people have ‘insider’ knowledge of the history and development of Australian Jazz. Responses from
key informants will build upon the extended question responses in the web survey to gain a qualitative
understanding of how the draft AJRB is appropriately comprised.

Preliminary Findings
From the findings to date, there has been overwhelming support for the development of an AJRB. There has
been encouragement for the AJRB to be used in educational institutions as the respondents identified a lack of
uniquely Australian Jazz to play and practise.
From the survey I received many responses that provided a guide for the development of a draft
AJRB. A range of styles, techniques, difficulties and eras were identified. Many educators said they would use
the AJRB as a teaching resource if it became available. Musicians requested that an AJRB be formed within
the guidelines of other available real books, so that they could be used the same way. The Sher Real Book
series (Sher, 1991) states on the cover that it is “created by musicians for musicians”. This provides a
prescription for how a real book should be created. The original real books created in Berklee College (and
subsequently bootlegged around the world) in the 1970s were created by music students to financially help
them through college as well as providing an accurate resource of chords and melodies of popular
compositions so that they could be played consistently and accurately amongst the local music community
(Kernfeld, 2006). On a local level, the Kiwi Real Book (Key, 1996) features 140 tunes by 39 composers and
was compiled by musicians for use by musicians. The creators of this real book report that musicians use this
frequently on gigs, have used it as a source of new material for recordings, and also used as a teaching
resource in New Zealand music institutions.
The ubiquity of real books in music educational institutions makes them instantly available to music
students. The absence of Australian jazz composers represented in these (or any) real books is inconsistent
with their compositional and performance abilities. There are no Australian compositions in any of the six
commonly available real books I analysed. In doing a further search of all the real books I could source which
totalled fifty, I could not find one Australian composition represented.
An AJRB has the potential to make an important contribution to the documentation and definition of
an Australian jazz sound. It could be a culturally significant document as well as a useful tool for practicing
musicians and educators in Australia. There is no readily available real book resource of Australian Jazz
compositions to study and practice. An AJRB could present and define the characteristics of the Australian
Jazz sound and present an alternate approach to jazz composition as compared to North American or
European approaches.

Discussion
It is hard to specifically define an Australian Jazz Sound. There is generally a sense of space and a freedom of
interpreting stylistic conventions. Several writers including Bruce Johnson (1987) and John Shand (2009)
have explored the notion of an Australian jazz sound, but it is hard to separate a composer with a unique
sound and one that has a national sound. There are strong compositional voices as well as performers who are
of world standard. During interviews, key informants have identified that Australian jazz has unique features
including lyricism, an openness to explore other styles of music, a rhythmic freedom as distinct to the rigidity
of New York jazz, a sense of humour and a larrikin spirit.
The AJRB differs in composition from the Sher New Real Book and Hal Leonard Real Book series
because Australia has had a different jazz history and development as compared to North America. Australian
Jazz has largely been responsive to overseas trends and has not developed organically out of the Tin Pan Alley
show tune history.
The AJRB will be a useful resource for practising and performing musicians. Educators have
identified that as soon as it is available, the AJRB will fit into their curricula and be a required text for

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students. Many syllabi and curricula require an Australian compositional element, and this resource fills the
need in this area. Practising musicians have identified its use, as they have a new repertoire to play on gigs. It
has been identified that there will be opportunities for greater collaboration within the Australian jazz
community with the availability of the AJRB, as there will be a greater understanding and awareness of
Australian jazz compositions and composers.
With the use of the AJRB in the Australian jazz community and particularly within educational
institutions, there could be a greater awareness of the history and development of the Australian jazz sound,
and possibly provide a strong foundation in which the next generations of aspiring jazz musicians can further
develop the distinct notion of an Australian jazz sound.
I expect that with the use of an AJRB the Australian jazz community will identify additional
compositions that they would like to see in a possible AJRB volume 2, as well as particular features that they
would like to see more or less of. There is scope that this research study can follow on from this, and enable a
researcher to develop an AJRB volume 2. Additional responses could be sought from the Australian Jazz
community as to how they have been using the AJRB and what they would like to see in an AJRB Volume 2.

Is there an Australian Jazz?

Jazz is now a globalised mesh of threads, with many countries concurrently enriching its tapestry with their
unique local perspectives. Trying to pin down what it is that makes Australian Jazz Australian may be as
fruitless as trying to describe the wind: ultimately you can just hear it and feel it. There is no single musician
you can point to and say, ‘That’s what Australian Jazz sounds like’. Even once you have identified several
seminal players of the last 30 years, no pattern emerges in quantifiable sonic terms. Nonetheless, the country
has spawned many extremely original practitioners who have pursued their own nuances and developments in
the music. The result is that, despite a hostile environment on a host of levels (including nature, the lack of
artistic funding, the lack of support for jazz organisations, the predominance of sporting culture), Australia has
become a creative centre of jazz, rivalling the Scandinavian and Western European countries that have
steadily diluted New York’s pre-eminence over the last three decades. Our isolation has played a crucial role.
In the post-war years US records were scarce, and some local playing styles were cobbled together from the
scraps that were heard. Australians and New Zealanders have had to be adaptable people, who make do with
the resources at their disposal; who have a flair for ingenuity in keeping a farm tractor of an old car operating
without a ready supply of spare parts (Shand, 2009). Australian jazz has a ratbag spirit, resulting from our
easygoing nature, having a “fair go”, a lack of respect for authority and convention, and also contains an
irreverent sense of humour.

Similarities between the Scandinavian jazz scene and the Australian jazz scene
Scandinavian countries such as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden share similarities with Australia in terms of
jazz. Scandinavian countries and Australia have relatively infant jazz education programs. Australia is
geographically diverse with large distances between capitals but this could be compared to our capitals being
more like countries. The main difference is the density of population that Europe has that Australia does not.
Key informants have identified that the musical "openness" of Europe could be compared to the geographic
"openness" of Australia. Key informants also identified that there is a certain lyricism present in both
Scandinavian and Australian horn players approaches to soloing and melodic interpretation. This differs in the
New York approach, where there is focus on 8th note bebop jazz style, and displaying a vocabulary of jazz
language.

Is there uniquely Australian Jazz in the AJRB?

By definition, an Australian Jazz Real Book contains Australian compositions. Given that the same 12 notes
are available to jazz musicians around the world, can they be arranged in a way to illustrate a unique
Australian jazz sound? Or is it how they are played? There are numerous composition titles that describe and
are inspired by uniquely Australian geography, flora and fauna (The Magpie, The Wombat, Carlton Streets,
Wildflowers, Bunyip, Murray Cod); highlight the irreverence in which the music was made (The Rent Nazi,
All She Wore Was A Hectic Flush, Scallywag) and uniquely Australian features (Corroboree in Dixie,
Maribyrnong Delta Blues) and even political commentary (A Mining Song).
In terms of harmony and compositional tools represented in the AJRB a wide variety of influences are
apparent, directly resulting from Australia's waves of migrations. Australian jazz musicians define jazz a
‘broad church’, mimicking our multicultural society and an openness to embrace new cultures. Indian ragas,

191
tango, swing, classical, free jazz, jazz rock, fusion, bebop, funk, ska, bossa nova, choro, samba, Carribean,
gypsy, African, heavy metal, and country are all styles included in the AJRB. It has been identified in key
informant interviews that the Australian Jazz sound is actually Australian musicians borrowing musical
elements and approaches from different cultures, often from migrant groups, and fusing them our own
approaches and perspectives, with integrity”

Conclusion
A draft Australian Jazz Real Book has been produced covering a wide variety of styles and difficulties. It was
constructed to be consistent with the findings from the web survey, real book analysis, and was edited with the
advice from key informants to be appropriate for education and practical contexts. It has been identified as a
potentially useful resource in educational institutions by the key informants.
There is an opportunity for this research study to be continued in a variety of different ways. An
analysis could be done of the implementation of the AJRB in an educational context using an action research
methodological approach. These findings could be used to make a series of recommendations for a possible
AJRB volume 2. The methodological approach used in this study could be transposed to a different
geographic location to document another countries jazz sound and provide a resource for practicing and
performing musicians in educational and practical contexts. My hope for the AJRB is that it will be widely
used in education, and in professional contexts. As a resource it should facilitate a greater knowledge and
understanding of the Australian Jazz sound, as well as providing a resource that is fun and inspiring to play.
Hopefully it will encourage greater collaboration between Australian musicians and a development of the
Australian Jazz sound.

References
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Johnson, B. (1987). The Oxford companion to Australian Jazz. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Kayrooz, C., Trevitt, C., & Bennett, J. (2005). Research in organisations and communities: Tales from the
real world / Carole Kayrooz & Chris Trevitt. [electronic resource]. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen &
Unwin.
Kernfeld, B. D. (2006). The story of fake books: Bootlegging songs to musicians. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow
Press.
Key, J. (1996). The Kiwi Real Book, from http://www.ak.planet.gen.nz/jazzmusic/RealBook/Info.html
Leonard, H. (2006a). The Real Book - Volume 1. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard.
Leonard, H. (2006b). The Real Book - Volume 2. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard.
Leonard, H. (2006c). The Real Book - Volume 3. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard.
Nesbary, D. (2000). Survey research and the World Wide Web. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.
O'Leary, Z. (2005). Researching real-world problems: A guide to methods of inquiry. London: Sage.
Salkind, N. J. (2009). Exploring Research (7th ed ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson /Prentice Hall.
Shand, J. (2009). Jazz: The Australian accent. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
Sher, C. (1991). The New real book [music]: Created by musicians for musicians. Volume two (C-Vocal ed.).
Petaluma, CA: Sher Music.
Sher, C. (1995). The New real book. Volume 3 [music] (C- ed.). Petaluma, CA: Sher Music.
Sher, C., & Bauer, B. (1991). The New real book: Jazz classics, choice standards, pop-fusion classics Vol.
two. C and vocal version. Petaluma: Sher Music.

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Rationale, repertoire and resources: The study of music language and pre-compositional craft in
contemporary tertiary settings
Timothy McKenry, Australian Catholic University

Abstract
The study of music language and pre-compositional craft in contemporary tertiary contexts is subject to a
range of challenges including changing levels of prior learning on the part of different cohorts; different
repertoire priorities related to the character and focus of various institutions; the implications of inherited
pedagogical methods that exclude or marginalise some contemporary repertoire; and the funding constraints
that limit the amount of teaching time dedicated to this aspect of music practice. This paper compares the
rationale, resources, repertoire focus and assessment regime used in the teaching of music language and pre-
compositional craft to first-year undergraduates in a selection of Australian tertiary music programs. This
comparison functions to benchmark a snapshot of Australian practice, analyse the diversity of repertoire
embedded in each program and identify the extent to which assessment is overtly linked to professional
practice. The paper concludes that while the resources that inform and support the teaching of music language
and pre-compositional craft are regularly renewed, the rationale, repertoire and assessment regime that
underpins many of these programs are heavily indebted to various inherited modes of pedagogy, many of
which lack a clear link between the competencies that are developed and the likely professional pathways
pursued by graduates.

Music Language Study in Tertiary Contexts: Challenges and Change

The study of music language and pre-compositional craft in contemporary tertiary contexts is subject to a
range of challenges including changing levels of prior learning on the part of different cohorts; different
repertoire priorities related to the character and focus of various institutions; the implications of inherited
pedagogical methods that exclude or marginalise some contemporary repertoire; and the funding constraints
that limit the amount of teaching time dedicated to this aspect of music practice. This paper compares the
rationale, resources, repertoire focus and assessment regime used in the teaching of music language and pre-
compositional craft to first-year undergraduates in a selection of Australian tertiary music programs. This
comparison functions to benchmark a snapshot of Australian practice, analyse the diversity of repertoire
embedded in each program and identify the extent to which assessment is overtly linked to professional
practice.
Recent scholarship into the study of music language, (a term used here to incorporate terms such as
‘music theory’, ‘music techniques’, ‘music rudiments’ and ‘pre-composition’) at the tertiary level in Australia
and overseas reveals that there has been a gradual erosion of prior learning in the areas of notation and music
theory rudiments on the part of successive cohorts of tertiary music students (Hurry, 1997; Livingston &
Ackman, 2003; Capitanio, 2006; Berry 2008). Capitanio’s 2006 study of entry-level music theory knowledge
in Melbourne-based first-year tertiary students revealed that while the majority of tertiary music education
providers required a degree of prior learning, often ‘AMEB Grade Five Theory or equivalent’, 64% of the
tertiary music students who participated in the study had not met this requirement upon commencing their
tertiary music study. My own experience as a lecturer in the first-year Bachelor of Music program at The
University of Melbourne from 1998 to 2008 revealed an increasing prevalence of splinter skills amongst
commencing students. For example, whereas once the knowledge and skills related to the construction of
triads could be treated as assumed knowledge, increasingly over this period these skills needed to be taught
deliberately rather than remedially.
While the discourse surrounding music theory pedagogy at a tertiary level speaks broadly of a
‘discipline in decline’, using the change in levels of prior learning as merely a proof of this decline reveals a
predisposition to preference traditional notions of what a tertiary music education should involve, and does
not seek to account for new or varied competencies that the cohort may have gained over the same period. The
degree to which traditional music theory fails to interact with a significant array of contemporary musics,
combined with the rise of a range of music technologies that render traditional music notation less needful in
the production of much of this repertoire, can be seen as accounting for, at least in part, the ‘decline’ in
traditional competencies surrounding music theory. While cohorts of students may be less able to complete
SATB progressions in a traditionally prescribed manner, they often come equipped with higher levels of aural

193
acuity1; with an improved capacity to analyse and interact with non-Western music; and with the ability to
create and manipulate music using emerging technology.
In addition, the ‘decline’ in prior learning related to music theory can be understood as a broad
disengagement with a pedagogical model that does not speak to recent cohorts of students’ experience of
music. In a previous paper I posited the notion of a mismatch between traditional modes of music theory
pedagogy and contemporary music practice (McKenry, 2009). This study identified how traditional rules
related to harmonic progression were ill-equipped to reveal meaning in much contemporary music. For
example, something as ubiquitous as the motion of chord V to IV2 has and continues to be understood as an
‘incorrect’ chord succession in much of the pedagogical literature used to support the teaching of harmony in
a tertiary context. Requiring students to interact with learning that implies that the harmonic processes of
contemporary repertoire are flawed or inferior to that of the common-practice tonal period is likely to be
another reason for an increasing disengagement with the content of traditional music language study. That
commencing tertiary students often find mandated music language study ‘dull and confusing’ (Berry, 2008) is
no surprise when there is such a disparity between the rationale of a tertiary music language course and the
repertoire interests of at least some of the students undertaking said course.
Alongside the challenges associated with a changing profile of prior learning on the part of
undergraduate tertiary music students is the changing culture of undergraduate teaching. With student to staff
ratios in many Australian universities growing from 13:1 in 1990 to 21:1 in 2008 (Universities Australia,
2008), and the doubling of class sizes (van Onselen, 2011) that, in many cases, has accompanied this,
traditional modes of teaching music language need to be re-evaluated. When I commenced teaching music
language in 1998, I enjoyed class sizes of no more than 12 with funding for weekly assessment and feedback;
in 2011, the institution I currently work for (the Australian Catholic University) mandates minimum class
sizes of 20, (with an ideal size of 30) and while weekly assessment and feedback is not prohibited, assessment
and feedback are deemed to be one hour per student, per unit, per semester. Course revisions have also
effected the provision of music language education. For example, as a result of changes associated with the
implementation of the ‘Melbourne Model’, The University of Melbourne’s Faculty of Music went from
having six semesters of music language study prior to the implementation of this model (University of
Melbourne, 2008) to three semesters after (University of Melbourne, 2011), with contact teaching-time in this
discipline area reduced from 144 hours to 96 hours. A similar change is slated to occur at the Australian
Catholic University’s music program from 2012. These changes inevitably challenge the efficacy of
traditional modes of pedagogy.

Benchmarking Australian Practice: Rationale and Assessment3

This study has arisen out of a benchmarking exercise in advance of a revision of music offerings at the
Australian Catholic University (ACU). The primary focus of the exercise is a comparison of the first-year
music language programs offered by ACU, The University of Melbourne (UoM) and Monash University4.
These three programs were identified as the object for study firstly because, in being located in Melbourne
they draw on the same pool of secondary-school music students and as such would face similar challenges
related to changing levels of prior learning; and secondly, each institution is similar in terms of the broad
structure and focus of their degrees. In considering these programs, the study presents a snapshot rather than a
census of Australian practice and makes no claim to being exhaustive or definitive.
Each of these institutions structures their music degrees on what is traditionally referred to as a
conservatory-based model and, in the first year of study offers subjects in aural training, music language and
music history in tandem with one-on-one tuition in practical study or composition. In addition, each identifies
a wide range of career paths such as those related to music performance, music education, music technology,
and commercial music-making. The competencies that necessarily underpin the wide range of career options
catered for by these degrees are developed in a range of electives offered after the first year. The generic
nature of first-year study therefore functions to provide students with what these institutions perceive to be a
basic skill set for an educated musician. The make-up of this skill set reveals which aspects of the discipline of
music are seen as being of first-order value. The following table shows the rationale that underpins the
teaching of music language at each institution.

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Table 1. First-year music language study: rationale
Institution Rationale
ACU • Locates the study around the music processes of the Renaissance and the Baroque
(with Classical and Romantic technique considered in second-year mandated
subjects, and contemporary techniques embedded in third-year electives)
• Commences a six-unit sequence (with the final two units as electives)
• Incorporates, but does not integrate, aural training
Monash • Locates the study around the Western Classical and Jazz traditions
• Commences a four-unit sequence
• Weights aural perception and realisation equally with theory content with teaching
that integrates these areas
UoM • Locates the study around the ‘period of triadic tonality’
• Commences a three-unit sequence
• Minimal aural content

The implications of the focus of the ACU first-year program on the music of the Renaissance and
Baroque are two-fold: firstly, in aligning the gradual attainment of music language competencies with the
unfolding of the history of Western music, the course of study sets up the erroneous idea that over time music
develops from the simple to the complex; secondly, in mandating the study of the Renaissance and Baroque in
first year, but placing the study of contemporary music in later-year electives the degree structurally
preferences music of the common-practice period over more recently composed repertoire. In identifying the
‘period of triadic tonality’ as its focus of study the UoM program embodies an orthodox Modernist music
history narrative that preferences the common-practice period and discounts the notion of contemporary tonal
music (including contemporary popular music) as having anything distinct to contribute to the understanding
of tonality (McKenry, 2009). As such, recently-composed music is for the most part excluded from UoM’s
first-year program. Monash is the most inclusive of the programs with the Jazz tradition studied alongside the
Classical tradition in a mandated5 sequence of study.
Australian universities are increasingly required to indicate what transferrable generic skills are
contained in their unit offerings and demonstrate how the assessments required by these units relate to
professional practice. While the documentation supporting the ACU and UoM units both list a range of
generic competencies that are developed by the respective subjects (such ‘problem solving’ and ‘information
synthesis’ needed in music analysis and writing exercises in harmony and counterpoint), neither relates the
skills developed by each unit’s various assessments to professional practice. The Monash program, on the
other hand, makes a case for the skills developed by the subject as acting in support of professional outcomes
related to music performance. The idea here is perhaps that in the same way weight training is necessary for
the fitness of elite footballers, species counterpoint makes for better musicians. This analogy, while obviously
facetious, belies the fact that music language underpins a range of skills vital for the music profession, yet not
overtly developed in these programs: the construction/composition of a lead sheet being a prime example.
All three programs require students to complete exercises in harmony and demonstrate their
knowledge of theoretical principles through analysis. All three programs feature examinations or tests, but a
significant portion of the assessment required by the ACU (50%) and UoM (70%) programs preference the
gradual attainment of skills through weekly written assessments. This is a major point of difference between
the programs with Monash dedicating a lower portion of assessment to this mode of learning (20%). Another
difference relates to the incorporation of aural work: Monash integrates the teaching of aural and theory and
equally divides assessments accordingly: ACU devotes 25% of assessment to the development of aural acuity,
while the UoM program separates the teaching of aural and theory (with aural acuity developed in a separate
unit) and features no distinct aural assessment, but does include a low-weighted (10%) listening test which
encourages students to listen more widely, outside of class time, to the music considered in the unit. The
coordination of aural and theory has been a perennial challenge for music educators in Australia: while the
Monash and ACU programs represent the prevailing contemporary approach embodied in many secondary-
school curricula and recently-developed pre-tertiary music language learning programs such as the Australian
Music Examination Board’s ‘Music Craft’, the approach taken by UoM ultimately results in more resources,
in terms of contact teaching hours and hours of student study, being dedicated to this vital competency. So,

195
while the pedagogical ideal may be one where these competencies are taught together, combining the two in
the broader context of an overall reduction in teaching hours would tend to undercut this ideal.

Benchmarking Australian Practice: Resources and Repertoire

While the fluid nature of lecture-based education makes it impossible to determine the full extent of repertoire
covered in these courses, the resources used to facilitate the teaching of these subjects are revealing of both
the stylistic focus and the broad philosophy that underpins each. The ACU and UoM programs recommend
and prescribe (respectively) the third edition of Aldwell and Schacter’s Harmony and Voice Leading (2003);
the Monash program uses the second edition of Robert Gauldin’s Harmonic Practice in Tonal Music (2004).
Both of these texts are used extensively by tertiary institutions in the English-speaking world (Check, 1999)
and are regularly renewed, with a new edition of Gauldin’s text being released seven years after the first, and
successive editions of Aldwell and Schacter’s text released in 1979, 1989, 2003 and 20106. Both texts contain
hundreds of musical examples, with a significant focus on the music of the common-practice period.

Table 2. Comparison of the styles/periods of composers used as exemplars in Aldwell and Schacter (2003)
and Gauldin (2004)7
Text/Period Renaissance Baroque Classical Romantic Twentieth
and before century
Aldwell and Schacter 8% (3) 26% (10) 16% (6) 45% (17) 5% (2)
Gauldin 6% (7) 15% (16) 14% (15) 38% (42) 27% (30)

Gauldin uses musical examples drawn from the music of 110 composers, explores the outer reaches of the
traditional classical canon by including numerous non-European and female composers and also includes folk
and popular music. Aldwell and Schacter use 38 different composers, all of whom are European and male, and
largely eschew recently-composed tonal music of any style. While the stated intention of Aldwell and
Schacter is a study of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century harmonic practice, the use of a text which ignores
the music of the past 110 years and promotes a canon based on exclusion sends a powerful message to
undergraduate students about ideas of cultural value. Ultimately, divisions of repertoire between ‘high’ and
‘low’ art, ‘popular’ and ‘classical’ music and other such labels are value-laden constructs determined and
reinforced by teachers and scholars. These divisions are revealed as anachronistic when one considers that a
Mozart aria and a Beatles song can be argued to have much more in common in terms of music language such
as chord progression, phrase structure and texture, than a Bach fugue.

A New Paradigm for the Study of Music Language

While resources and repertoire may differ, what unites the approach of both these texts and the three
undergraduate music language programs is the use of a Schenkerian harmonic model in structuring the
ordering of concepts and understanding the relationship of harmonic function, linear motion and large-scale
form. Even though Schenker was active as a music theorist in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
the embedding of his theories in undergraduate teaching is a much more recent phenomenon. In the early
1980s leading music educators called for a renewal of the resources that informed, and a transformation of the
rationale that underpinned the teaching of this material to incorporate Schenker’s ideas (Bebbington, 1982;
Rothgeb, 1981). While the Schenkerian approach continues to be unrivalled as the leading theoretical model
to understand the music of common-practice period, it has never been particularly suited to genres such as
opera and vocal music and, in being built on the works of the classical canon, is less able to reveal significant
patterns in more recently-composed tonal music.
The Schenkerian approach has also been criticised (Cook as cited in Beard & Gloag, 2005, p. 14) for
exactly the problem that infuses aspects of the teaching of music language in tertiary settings: that artistic
merit in the works of the classic canon is assumed to a degree that displaces other repertoire. In addition,
much of the end product of music language training, in terms of the models of assessment and the skill set
developed, functions as a primer to equip students to engage in more advanced Schenkerian analysis. This
creates a disjunction between each institution’s stated aim of preparing their students for particular career
paths and the actual competencies developed and assessed by these programs. The reality is that very few
students go on to study Schenkerian analysis in depth and, in learning an approach to pre-compositional tonal
processes that has little practical application outside of academia, are denied the opportunity to develop skills
that would support a greater interaction with a wider range of repertoire.

196
 In questioning the appropriateness of a Schenkerian theoretical model, this paper is not seeking to
denigrate the work of lecturers in any tertiary program, but rather to call on them to re-evaluate the factors that
inform the rationale and repertoire that surround their teaching. Recent scholarship has identified alternative
approaches to understanding the tonal repertory (Capuzzo, 2004); approaches, such as Neo-Riemannian
theory, that examine contemporary popular music and recently-composed tonal music not as an inferior
shadow of common-practice repertoire, but as a vibrant, novel contribution to an ever-evolving tonal tradition.
Most Australian music graduates do not make a living exclusively playing classical music; most do not
become scholars who only concern themselves with the music of Europe’s past. The majority, as indicated by
the University of Melbourne’s music careers webpage, undertake ‘portfolio’ careers that often involve
teaching and inevitably involve significantly interacting with music that falls outside of the classical canon
(Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, n.d.). This reality should permeate the study of music language and
pre-compositional craft, particularly in mandated first-year programs.

References
Aldwell, E., & Schachter, C. (2003). Harmony and Voice Leading. 3rd ed. San Diego: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
Australian Catholic University. (2011). 2011 Handbook. Retrieved from
http://www.acu.edu.au/about_acu/publications/handbooks/handbook_2011/
Beard, D., & Gloag, K. (2005). Musicology: The Key Concepts. London, England: Routledge.
Bebbington, W. (1982). Teaching Theory: The Schenker Approach. Growing With Music Report of the Fouth
National Conference. McKinley, I. (Ed.), Brisbane, QLD: Australian Society for Music Education, pp.
66 - 77. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;dn=551175643811845;res=IELHSS
Berry, W. (2008). Surviving lecture: A Pedagogical Alternative. College Teaching, 56(3), 149-153.
Capitanio, L. (2006). Entry Level Music Theory Knowledge in First Year Tertiary Students. (Masters
dissertation). Monash University, Melbourne, Vic.
Capuzzo, G. (2004). Neo-Riemannian Theory and the Analysis of Pop-Rock Music. Music Theory Spectrum,
26(2), 177-199.
Check, J. (1999). Review of Harmonic Practice in Tonal Music by Robert Gauldin. Notes, 56(2), 382-384.
Gauldin, R. (2004). Harmonic Practice in Tonal Music. 2nd ed., New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Hurry, P. (1997). A-Level Music: a survey of opinions from music lecturers in higher education. British
Journal of Music Education, 14, 29-43.
Livingston, C., & Ackman, J. (2003). Changing trends in preparing students for college level theory. The
American Music Teacher, 53(1), 26-29.
McKenry, T. (2009). Music Theory Pedagogy: Towards an Inclusive Functional Understanding of Recently-
Composed Tonal Music. In Baker, W. (Ed.). Australian Society for Music Education Inc. Proceedings
of the XVII National Conference Launceston, 10 to 14 July 2009 (pp. 123-130). East Devonport, Tas:
Australian Society for Music Education (Tasmanian Chapter).
Melbourne Conservatorium of Music. (n.d.). Careers. Retrieved from
http://conservatorium.unimelb.edu.au/future_students/careers
Monash University. (2011). 2011 Handbook. Retrieved from
http://www.monash.edu.au/pubs/2011handbooks/
Rothgeb, J. (1981). Schenkerian Theory: Its Implications for the Undergraduate Curriculum. Music Theory
Spectrum, 3(Spring), 142-149. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/746140
Universities Australia. (2008). 2006 (sic) Student to Teacher Ratio for Academic Staff with Teaching
Function. Retrieved from http://www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au/resources
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University of Melbourne. (2008). 2008 Handbook. Retrieved from https://psc.unimelb.edu.au/
University of Melbourne. (2011). 2011 Handbook. Retrieved from https://handbook.unimelb.edu.au/
van Onselen, P. (2011, March 30). Appalling class ratios an issue ripe for a revolt. The Australian.
Retrieved from http://www.theaustralian.com.au/
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (2010). Music: Victorian Certificate of Education study
design. Melbourne, Vic: Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority.

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Notes
1
In the Victorian Certificate of Education and other Australian curricula, the focus on elemental aural
analysis, rather than a score-based study of music repertoire can be argued to have provided music students
with a different range of competencies in the area of aural acuity.
2
This succession of chords does not often occur in Western music of the 17th to 19th centuries (the common-
practice period), but routinely occurs in contemporary tonal repertoire from Puccini to the 12-bar blues.
3
The information that underpins this study was drawn from unit outline documents available on the various
institutions’ online handbooks and relates to the following subjects: ACU: Music Language Studies 1 and 2;
UoM: Music Language 1: The Diatonic World; and Monash: Music Theory and Ear Training 1and 2.
4
At the time this study was undertaken, the non-Melbourne Model music offering of the Victorian College of
the Arts were in a state of flux and, as such, were not considered.
5
Mandated for most, but not all of the sequences listed for the Monash Bachelor of Music.
6
Both the ACU and UoM subject documentation refer to the older third edition of this text.
7
This information was collated from both texts’ index of musical examples.

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ABSTRACTS AND WORKSHOPS

Desert harmony: Learning and teaching experiences in Tennant Creek

Brydie-Leigh Bartleet & Gavin Carfoot

Since 2009, Queensland Conservatorium has been offering placements to music students in Tennant Creek,
working alongside Barkly Regional Arts, Winnanjjakari Music Centre, and the local Indigenous and non-
Indigenous community. A range of learning and teaching outcomes have resulted, including the development
of new musical skills, a shared sense of learning between students and members of the community, and an
immersive, transformative cultural experience. In 2010 these placements were situated as Work-Integrated
Learning projects, giving the students credit towards their undergraduate music programs. In order to
encourage the students to reflect deeply on this WIL experience, they were asked to produce digital stories
and reflective journals. The creation of digital stories was important both for the students themselves, the
supervising lecturers, and also as a means through which the depth of learning experiences could be
communicated to their peers, the Conservatorium and Tennant Creek communities. These stories also played
an important role in encouraging a continuing commitment and investment in the project from the
organisations involved. At the same time, critical tensions can arise through this act of representing a remote
community through personal stories. In this paper we focus in on some of these tensions, specifically how best
to manage relationships between remote communities and learning institutions. We also discuss the overall
project, including a screening of some of the students’ digital

The effects of home schooling on musical progress and experience: The role of family in music learning
Madeleine Bell

The practice of home education, also known as home schooling or unschooling, has a rapidly growing
presence in Western society. Over the last three decades or more, the provision of education through
conventional or traditional schooling has been challenged and questioned as never before. Many areas of
education have been critically re-examined, and suggestions for change have been made. Essentially home
education cannot be equated with school learning as it generally involves a very different approach to a
child’s education. The nature of home schooling often promotes informal learning practices and self-directed
learning which cultivates different attitudes and approaches to learning among children of all ages. Evidence
suggests that benefits can be gained from an education that is flexible and easily adapted to suit individual
needs and interests. This paper draws on data from a larger research project examining the influences of home
education and informal learning methods on the musical experiences and musical progress of children in
NSW and New Zealand. The focus will be on the role of family in music learning and will consider the
processes and approaches involved in making and learning music through the investigation of family as a
context for home educational practice. The paper discusses case studies of home schooling families,
exploring their musical practices and involvement. It also considers their beliefs about the value of music
and their engagement with specific music teaching and learning approaches. These aspects will be
discussed in relation to the potential advantages that the freedom and flexibility of home schooling offers
when applied specifically to music learning.

What do students really think of Year 8 Music?

Cade Bonar

Music plays a significant role in the lives of young adolescents. Many of our students engage with music
informally – as producers and consumers – yet their levels of engagement within formal classroom contexts
can be vastly different, often paradoxical. Attempts to address such disengagement often focus on the content
of our curriculum, though often the voices of the key stakeholders – our students – are not considered. What
do students really think of music at school? What do they want from their music education? This paper
examines what students really think of Year 8 Music. A researcher-devised web-based survey was employed
to seek the voices of 53 students and examine the values they placed on their experiences within formal music
education. Findings are synthesised with the literature and recommendations made that support meaningful
engagement in music education for young adolescents. Data gained from this investigation will be used to
inform the development and focus of interview questions to further understand student attitudes towards

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music education in schools. Together, these findings will inform a larger research project.

Create waves of enthusiasm for student practice

Ruth Bonetti

‘How much practice have you done this week?’ teachers ask – yet again. Students resist the cliché that
practice makes perfect. Many students give up easily because they don’t know how to face and surmount
challenges ñ like scales and arpeggios! In this interactive workshop Ruth shares solutions to issues she
herself experienced as a teenager. She gives techniques to help busy, overcommitted students with time-
management and goal setting; to utilise their potential so they can shine in performance. This power point
presentation is applicable for educators dealing with primary, secondary and tertiary students.

Prepare students for confident performance: How to ensure waves of applause

Ruth Bonetti

Deal with nerves to make performing a pleasure! How to turn adrenaline jitters, shakes and dry-mouth into
energy, poise and focus to shine in performance. This session gives practical techniques to: Breathe vitality,
poise and power into your performance; cure ‘brain fog’ of memory lapses, dry mouth and shakes; project
with ease and power; command the room with positive posture; channel adrenalin into energy and shine in the
spotlight.

When students’ parents make waves: Assertive professional communication

Ruth Bonetti

In a litigious, ‘user-pays’ society, teachers can learn to defuse potential issues before they escalate; to handle
intense and aggressive parents with gracious assertion; to set boundaries and manage parent interactions with
assurance. In this interactive workshop, Ruth arms teachers for the fray with win-win role-play, and assertive
words to enlist parental support for music programs and to motivate their students’ progress.

Da Capo: Two units of sequenced repertoire and activities for the differentiated Middle School context
Linda Brady

New students, new school, new teacher – lets take it from the top... Most students change schools at least once
in their studies, the most common time for this being between Years 6 and 8. The extreme range of musical
experience and interest in this cohort, caused by the very wide variety of programs offered in primary schools
and compounded by the popularity of private tuition, creates one of the greatest challenges for music teachers
in the non elective classroom. Shall we all review the fundamentals (again!) or sacrifice rigor for fun (?!) or
do we ignore the inexperienced and focus on the ‘gifted’. How do we create equal opportunity in this diverse
context? Two new teaching units are presented:
A minor pentatonic journey called ‘La-La Land’, and a ‘Music for Dance’ adventure, for later in the year.
Each includes a highly differentiated curriculum providing both fundamental and extension learning
experiences. Some activities promote unity through common practice, while others honour and encourage
virtuosity. Created by a professional singer and musician the units are strongly focused on the authenticity of
the musical experience. This workshop calls for total immersion in all aspects of classroom music: rhythmic
clapping, learning and creating melodies and lyrics, using specific musical notation and language, singing in
solfa, transposing, dancing, playing instruments, and part work. Delightful data-shows will exemplify
classroom applications of the main concepts, using carefully chosen repertoire. Perceptive participants will
observe how this template has great potential for their own teaching.

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Nation building!
Tina Broad

Music: Play for Life is the campaign to get more music-making in schools and communities. A program of the
Music Council of Australia, it’s behind the nation’s biggest school music initiative, Music: Count Us In,
which gets more than half a million students, teachers – and even parents – making music together on the
same day at the same time each year. It runs the Flame Awards for school music programs, a new music
education portal for educators and a just-launched online Toolkit featuring ‘how we did it’ stories from
Australian schools with great music programs. It helps put music education issues in the media and urges
politicians and school management to make pro music decisions. Come behind the scenes and spend 30
minutes with campaign director, Tina Broad, to explore its successes and find out how it can help you. Music:
Play for Life. Encouraging more Australians to make music. www.musicplayforlife.org

Diversity within Native American Music: Something old, something new

Bryan Burton

Diversity within Native American Music: Something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue.
Is there enough diversity within the cultural diversity found in music classroom curricula? Given the large strides
toward teaching with a multicultural perspectives in United States school music programs over the two decades
since the 1990 Music Educators National Conference/Society for Ethnomusicology symposium, one may
question why such a question should be asked today. The truth, however, may be that the broad definitions
established in that symposium may have inadvertently created new limits to music used in the music classroom.
Although most curricula have moved beyond the ‘one song from each of the big four’ (African, Hispanic, Asian,
and Native American) identified by MENC in which educators failed to recognize the cultural mosaic in each
large group, many curricula limit examples to historical selections or older traditional styles and fail to recognize
the further ‘diversity within diversity’ of contemporary genres, popular musics, and syncretic styles. Using
contemporary Native American musics as an example, this session explores the multiplicity of sounds available
to music educators. Materials to be learned will be categorized as follows:
• Something old: music from historic traditions or new songs created in this style
• Something new: music created by contemporary Native musicians whether in historic styles of
contemporary genres
• Something borrowed: melody or lyrics borrowed directly from other cultures
• Something blues: contemporary Native American musics blending traditional melodic and rhythmic
elements with those of blues or jazz.

Neighbouring musics of the Delaware River Valley USA

Bryan Burton & Ann McFarland

Musically, Philadelphia, center of the Delaware River Valley, is best known for its world class symphony
orchestra, ballet and opera companies as well as for the ‘Philadelphia Sound’ permeating American popular
musics for several decades. Seldom acknowledged in school classrooms or taught in music curriculum of the
region is the rich multicultural mosaic of song and dance brought to the region over the past four centuries by
successive waves of explorers, traders, immigrants, and refugees. Because the region’s school music programs
primarily focus upon producing western based performing ensembles, the task of preserving and transmitting
these diverse musics and giving them their rightful place in the music curriculum has fallen to neighbourhood
clubs, and dedicated music educators who have formed partnerships with such groups and encouraged
students to bring diverse music from their cultures into the music classroom. During the workshop,
participants will learn songs and dances shared by students from the neighbourhoods of the Delaware River
Valley.

Reforming a Bachelor of Music program

Gemma Carey & Don Lebler

Reforming a Bachelor of Music Program In 2010 the authors conducted a formal review of the Queensland
Conservatorium’s Bachelor of Music program. The primary intent of the review was to determine to what

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extent the program prepares graduates for professional life in the 21st century. As with previous reviews, the
2010 exercise was informed by comprehensive performance indicator data and substantial feedback from
staff, students and other stakeholders. Information was collected through separate meetings with staff and
students, student evaluations, feedback from, graduate outcomes data, feedback from industry, and
benchmarking with other Australian and International tertiary music institutions. During the course of the
review, it was clear that teachers at the Conservatorium are committed to striving for excellence both in their
own practice and in the achievements of their students. However, the strongest criticism of the existing
program was the perceived limitations in preparing students for a life in music after graduation. In order to
achieve a balance between the existing strengths of the program and to better prepare students for life beyond
graduation, the Committee produced eleven recommendations. Following extensive consultation, consensus
reflecting these recommendations was reached, resulting in a new BMus program design. This paper reports
on the process undertaken and the resulting major change proposal which has been commended by the
committees involved in the approval process.

An investigation into assessment practices in the Year 10 elective music classroom in NSW, Australia
Jennifer Carter

This research project investigates and analyses the implementation of the New South Wales Music Years 7 –
10 Syllabus assessment requirements in three specifically selected schools. At present, no research focusing
on classroom approaches to developing and implementing a school-based assessment program has been
undertaken in Music in Stage 5 (Year 10) in Australian classrooms. Therefore, this research project will add to
the international body of knowledge regarding school-based music assessment. The research project identifies,
analyses and evaluates the classroom assessment strategies, focusing on the process and procedures that
underpin the design and marking of assessment tasks.
Data collection has been undertaken in the natural setting of the selected schools where the researcher can
interact with the teachers and students and observe their behaviour within their natural context (Creswell,
2009). The schools in the research project are diverse in socio-economic and social composition and comprise
a mix of single sex, co-educational, independent and government schools. There are approximately twenty-
five students in each class at each school with the age range of the students being 15 to 16 years of age. The
research has involved an examination and analysis of the variety of tasks given to students to assess their
learning and skills; the range of methods utilised in the marking of assessment and examination tasks
(involving for example, the marking criteria); the different modes in which feedback on
assessment/examination performance is provided to students; and the perspectives of both the teachers and
students on the processes of assessment.

You gotta get up - fun and funky music for early intervention
Leonie Cecich

An interactive and ‘hands on’ music session using fun and funky songs from Leonie’s You Gotta Get Up
series (original music designed to help reinforce therapy concepts set in place by occupational therapists,
speech pathologists, physiotherapists, psychologists, kinesiologists and yoga teachers) This workshop
includes percussion playing, singing, movement, props and laughter! Visual and tactile experiences are
provided through the use of bubbles, streamers, scarves, play dough, instruments, brushes, squeeze balls,
feathers, rainbow rings, tactile rings, scrunchies, balloons, hand puppets and more. This session will leave you
motivated and inspired to continue music education with your children! Visit www.kidsnmusic.com.au for
more information and a ‘look and listen’.

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Out of this world: A new music resource
Carmel Charlton

Musician, performer and composer Carmel Charlton will demonstrate the importance of music to help
motivate students and reinforce their learning. The connection between music and key learning areas will be
illustrated with fun activities and worksheets. Designed for use by all teachers: those with little music
expertise to specialist music teachers.

Remixing sound waves: Exploring the world of borrowed musical ideas

Sylvia Cody

Some composers create totally unique musical ideas, however very often the seed of inspiration begins with a
‘borrowed’ musical idea. Historically composers who use this form of ‘plagiarism’ have:
• Borrowed from themselves and enlarged or modified the original idea as in ‘Theme and Variations’
form.
• Borrowed from another composer, time period, genre or style and the connection is easily
recognisable.
• Borrowed musical ideas that are reinvented in a more abstract way, requiring a really careful look.
The Jazz idiom is completely founded on the concept that significant creative art lies in the improvement of,
or improvisation on a ‘Borrowed’ idea. Not all composers are honest enough to credit of the original source of
the musical idea. It is noteworthy to think that according to Copyright Law, once the same 8 notes are used by
another composer it is classified as copyright infringement. Students in the secondary classroom find it
fascinating and liberating to think that musical ideas are plagiarised/borrowed/reinvented. They truly engage
with deep deconstruction of what is very often complex original work if it helps them understand something
they know and like. This process often results in a careful analyse of the integrity of the music they choose to
have loaded onto their ipod. This workshop is applicable to Middle and Senior School classrooms and is
designed to give a founding structure the concept of remixing soundwaves. Exploring several repertoire
examples that link different musical elements borrowed across centuries and genres. Forms the springboard
for meaningful analysis, creative composition and original performances.

Australian music online

John Davis

2011 is a great time to join the Australian Music Centre with the recent launch of a remarkable new service
for the promotion of original Australian music: Australian Music Centre Online. The service incorporates a
digital loans service, MP3 downloads and much more. Already incorporating over 21,000 works, our dynamic
website dramatically increases access to the AMC's unique collection and allows visitors to explore the
landscape of people, works, events, products and other interesting information about the world of Australian
music like never before. AMC members will get the most out of our new service.

Metaphors of belief and practice: A narrative analysis of compulsory music courses in early secondary
school
Rachael Dwyer

Music education at the secondary school level has been often criticised for being elitist and disconnected from
the musical needs and interests of students. Music is often positioned as a subject for the few rather than the
many, viewed as only being necessary for students who show aptitude for music. Most secondary schools in
Australia have at least one year of compulsory music classes in secondary school, and this will become
mandatory for all schools up to Year 8 with the introduction of the Australian Curriculum. With this in mind,
there is a need to investigate how compulsory music courses might be made meaningful and relevant to
students with diverse musical interests and backgrounds. This paper draws on data from my doctoral study, a
narrative inquiry into music teachers’ values and beliefs. The study investigated how these are enacted in
practice, and how they are shaped by institutions and traditions of music, music education and schooling.
Through the stories lived and told by four secondary school music teachers, this paper will highlight the ways
these teachers approach compulsory music courses for adolescents by describing the underlying philosophies

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that underpin their practice, and the outcomes that they desire for their students. The issues, challenges and
opportunities that arise for these teachers will be discussed in the context of what can be learnt and applied in
other settings.

Rock series and rock music summer school programs: Informal, non formal and formal approaches to
young popular musicians’ learning
Roger Francis

This paper presents an analysis of the Newstead College Rock Music Summer School and Rock Series
programs. Rock Series draws bands from several Northern Tasmanian high schools to a central venue to be
tutored by professional musicians over a period of eight weeks, with bands having their original music
recorded and also performing at each participating school. Summer School is a five day intensive rock holiday
program held annually. Students attend band rehearsals with a specialist contemporary popular musician,
receive solo technique lessons, attend large ensemble classes and also a series of industry and music based
workshops and perform at the conclusion of the week. These two programs are highly successful and resilient
contemporary popular music programs which successfully integrate a formal school structure with that of
community music practice. This paper examines some of the characteristics that drive the success and
longevity of these programs in light of the informal, non formal and formal models of learning. The
presentation will draw conclusions from this investigation to better understand what it is that makes these
programs so successful. These conclusions and current literature shall inform a developmental model for
young contemporary musicians that uses aspects of formal, non-formal and informal approaches to learning.

Successful tertiary aural training at a distance

Phillip Gearing

A six-semester distance mode prototype aural training programme was developed and delivered to tertiary
music students in all states of Australia as well as other countries including New Zealand, Singapore, south-
east Asia and the United Kingdom. Face-to-face teaching components were replaced entirely by CD-ROM
delivery. The evaluation compared results between external and internal groups, in rhythmic perception,
melodic perception, scale/mode recognition and interval recognition. External students achieved higher levels
of improvement for all aural acuities compared with internal students and control group students. Tertiary
music schools experiencing, for example, funding constraints may therefore be able to re-organise aural
tuition practice either to replace or to augment face-to-face classes with external aural training materials. The
paper will be of interest to all music educators, but specifically to educators and managers in tertiary music
schools.

Jazz up junior high

Jenny Going

Jazz is the perfect unit. It has everything! Connections with other subjects, cultural studies, new skills, a great
way to teach scales and chords, massive creativity – you name it – Jazz has it! This workshop is designed to
give classroom teachers an effective unit of work and some teaching ideas that they can use in their
classrooms straight away. Improvisation, while part of most curriculums, is not the easiest thing to teach for
many classically trained teachers. It is great fun and with a few easy ideas, tips and resources can be every
teacher’s best unit for junior high school. Students will have a blast and gain skills, understandings and
appreciation for a new style of music while teachers of all backgrounds can be secure in their teaching.

Theory isn’t scary – note reading in the classroom

Jenny Going

As music teachers we have to do it all – teach students to play, to listen, to create music as well as teach them
to read an entirely new language of dots and lines! For this we are sometimes given no more than one period a
week. This workshop is designed to give teachers confidence and some new practical ideas that they can take
straight to their classrooms that help to slide note reading into their already groovy music programs. Theory
doesn’t have to hurt and the initial approach by the teachers is crucial. Enquiry based learning is a teaching

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method where students ask the questions and want to find out about topics so drive the learning themselves.
While many of us agree that this system is ideal it is often difficult when faced with actual ‘work’ like music
theory.
This workshop will assist teachers to combine playing, notation and composition with inquiry based learning
so that your students feel they want to learn more about reading and writing notes and are excited by the idea
of creating their own written piece of music. This process should end with both you and your students really
enjoying learning about all aspects of music.

‘Mind-body dualism’: The essence of music education

Leisa Greaves

This paper is a supplement to the workshop given by the same author and presents a theoretical underpinning
for the activities experienced by the participants of the workshop. In the age of technology, terror and
environmental destruction, the human spirit in the western world is lost; forgotten. Anything untangible is
deemed as unnecessary; decadent. The Arts has certainly suffered its fair share of ‘hard knocks’ in a political
sense, therefore a decline infiltrating various political sectors, particularly State Education. In the current
global climate where money sources are scarce and each faculty fights for political appraisal, the ‘unnecessary
and decadent’ lose out. These faculties are no longer priority or feasible in society and no longer relevant to
those that matter; our political decision makers. But what can one do to shift this paradigm? Individualism has
seen the fragmentation of society and the breakdown of relationships both public and private. In order to
infuse communities and society, ‘mind-body dualism’ and an emphasis of the four dimensions of human
nature – body, mind, heart, and spirit – are necessary. In order to create a paradigm shift in relation to Music
Education, one must focus on those dimensions that are fundamental and able to withstand changes in
government, political beliefs and values. Music Education has the potential to promote the dimensions of
human nature through ‘mind-body dualism’ or ‘psycho-physiological’ approaches underpinned by a
combination of recognised philosophies, methodologies and the Dimensions of Learning.

‘Mind-body dualism’: The classroom environment

Leisa Greaves

In the age of technology, terror and environmental destruction, the human spirit in the western world is lost;
forgotten. Anything untangible is deemed as unnecessary; decadent. The Arts has certainly suffered its fair
share of ‘hard knocks’ in a political sense, therefore a decline infiltrating various political sectors, particularly
State Education. In the current global climate where money sources are scarce and each faculty fights for
political appraisal, the ‘unnecessary and decadent’ lose out. These faculties are no longer priority or feasible
in society and no longer relevant to those that matter; our political decision makers. But what can one do to
shift this paradigm? Individualism has seen the fragmentation of society and the breakdown of relationships
both public and private. In order to infuse communities and society, ‘mind-body dualism’ and an emphasis of
the four dimensions of human nature ñ body, mind, heart, and spirit ñ are necessary. In order to create a
paradigm shift in relation to Music Education, one must focus on those dimensions that are fundamental and able
to withstand changes in government, political beliefs and values. Music Education has the potential to promote
the dimensions of human nature through ‘mind-body dualism’ or ‘psycho-physiological’ approaches. This
workshop will highlight the benefits of teaching classroom music through composition. The concept of ‘psycho-
physiological’ approaches, underpinned by a combination of recognised philosophies, methodologies and the
Dimensions of Learning, will be explored.

Singing songs of the world

Laura Hassler

Songs connect us to other people, to history, to the earth, to life. Through songs, we tell our stories in a
language that everyone can understand. When we sing each other’s songs, we experience something of the
truth of the other. And we feel the bond of sources deeply shared.
Musicians without Borders has shown that, while war leaves people broken and divided, music has the power
to connect, inspire, bridge differences and build peace. MwB director, Laura Hassler, will teach some of the
songs that have crossed borders and touched hearts in some of the world’s most difficult places.

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Why bother with research? Students’ motivation to undertake a higher degree
Scott Harrison

For many musicians and music educators, finding the time and inclination to undertake further studies can be
stumbling blocks to engaging in a program of research. As a result this can stymie growth, development and
rejuvenation of teaching and performance practices. This paper examines the motivation of students to
undertake research programs in music education. Through the voices of students in research programs, the
paper touches on such themes as students’ tentative beginnings in research, the influence of study on career
trajectory, the increasingly crowded market of highly qualified musicians and the intrinsic value of study. The
paper reports on a qualitative study undertaken with students in research higher degrees at masters and
doctoral level. As part of a larger study, students were asked about their motivation to work in music research.
Students in the sample included composers, teachers, performers and songwriters. Most were enrolled in
traditional thesis-based programs, but a small number were engaged in programs with multi-exegetical
outcomes. The findings are of interest to musicians and music educators at all levels: those reluctant to
undertake further study, those who are pursuing programs of study and tertiary workers involved in advising
research students.

The transition from student to music teacher

Kay Hartwig

What does a primary music pre service teacher need in preparation for their first music teaching position?
What are the challenges and issues faced during their first school experience? This paper investigates the
experiences of eight beginning primary music teachers undertaking their first term in a school as the primary
music teacher. It discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the preparation program presented by the
university and also shares each student’s stories of their transition from student to music teacher. The students
were interviewed at various intervals: before their practicum experience as a pre service teacher; following
graduation; four weeks after commencement of their first teaching position; and at the end of their first term in
the school setting. The study reveals important information for those involved in preparing primary music
teachers and highlights the diversity and differences in music programs being delivered across the primary
school setting. It discusses the transition process from student to music teacher.

Loopmania
Len Henderson

Just as building blocks are used in Preschool to give kids an appreciation of spatial relationships, so the new
loop-based music composing software allows students to use musical building blocks to create compositions,
record and arrange music in a visual paradigm. Today’s pop culture emphasizes a visual sense over all others
so today’s iPod generation relates easily to these kinds of drag and drop music creation tools. In this session
we will explore how to incorporate traditional concepts of form, texture, and thematic development using
programs like Acid Music Studio, Mixcraft and Garage Band to empower students’ creativity and ignite the
spark in creating their own music.

Recording and rehearsal made easy

Len Henderson

Record all your students rehearsal tracks, lessons, and performances to pocket media easily with Superscope
digital recorders and Elevation software. The new range of Superscope portable music practice and digital
recorders is now available in Australia, adding SD card and USB interfaces to Superscope’s renowned ease-
of-use educator tools. In this session we will demonstrate how to set up in seconds and make a high quality
recording of lessons, rehearsals and performances without a computer in sight. Learn how you can easily
capture professional quality recordings for any occasion, make rehearsal tracks, change key and tempo of any
audio CD, reduce lead vocals, and make copies to give to your students for further study and practice. This
session is suitable for all teachers - bring your instrument to this session and take home a quality audio
recording

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Mentoring, reflective practice and differentiated professional development – supporting classroom
music teachers in contemporary and diverse teaching contexts
Maree Hennessy

This paper will examine the efficacy of mentoring in supporting reflective practice of the primary classroom
music specialist teacher. In Australia, the recent National Review of Music Education identified that music
teachers currently in schools need greater assistance via a variety of means including curriculum materials,
professional networks, mentoring and professional development (Australian Government Department of
Education, Science and Training, 2005). How can the professional development of teachers of the arts be
supported to ensure student access to quality arts education and thereby enable quality student achievement in
the arts? How can reflective practice be supported in diverse teaching contexts? What skills does an effective
mentor need in order to foster and encourage music teachers in their work? How important is it for the mentor
to have expertise in the domain specific skill base of musicianship? Specialist teachers such as classroom
music teachers experience a unique set of teaching and working circumstances. Given the specialisation of
their work and commonly experienced professional isolation, there are challenges in meeting the
differentiated professional needs of this group of teachers, particularly within the school-based professional
learning community. Reflective practice underpins quality teacher development and thus must become a habit
of mind and practice for teachers. Skilled mentors can do much to help early teaching practitioners to establish
productive practices for continued professional growth. They can assist and provide guidance in a whole host
of teaching practices, and they can also model and enable reflective practice.

Exploring the Music Creation Series within the music classroom

Antony Hubmayer

Participants will explore the activity resources ‘Music Creation Using Garage Band’. They will be guided
through five structured projects that will develop musical and software specific technical skills using Audio
and MIDI concepts which are then applied to song creation, soundtrack composition, loop creation and
podcasting. A range of teaching strategies and assessment models will be presented.

Preschool jamming at ArtPlay: What engages young children, what do they learn and what conditions
support such learning?
Neryl Jeanneret & Robert Brown

Prominently located in central Melbourne, the community-arts facility ArtPlay brings together a diverse
representation of young people, families, artists and teachers. Open to children aged 3-12 years, the facility
provides a wide range of artist-led programs that serve a broad community within and outside the
municipality. With the establishment of ArtPlay in 2004, the City of Melbourne approached the University of
Melbourne about a research collaboration. This partnership, with support from the Australian Research
Council and the Australia Arts Council led to a four-year research study entitled, Mapping and augmenting
engagement, learning and cultural citizenship for children through ArtPlay workshops with artists. This
theory-generating study, which centres on observations of diverse short term arts programs, has required
researchers to explain concepts such as engagement and learning, and the relationships between these. In
doing so it proposes a broader view of learning outcomes, one that acknowledges the value of encounters with
learning, positive learning behaviours and knowledge and skill acquisition. With reference to one workshop
entitled Preschool Jamming, this paper outlines a case for a broader approach to researching learning, one that
extends beyond the demonstrable acquisition of skills to knowledge.

Factors that influence students’ choice of and pathways to music university study
Garry Jones

The previous learning experiences of first year University Music students include music education in Schools,
and for many, private music tuition. These students’ perspectives of the degree to which prior experiences and
other influences affect choice of and pathways to music University courses may have implications for music

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curricula and teaching generally. As a music educator in schools, this researcher often considers questions
relating to music pedagogy, including:
• What inspires students to love music?
• How can school curriculum be improved to enable students to better understand music concepts and
processes?
• Who influences students regarding preferred style of music?
• When do students realise that they may want to choose a music related vocation?
• What is the effect of peer influence on a student’s perception of music?
• Is participation in a music ensemble influenced by gender?
• Why do students choose to study music at university?
Responses to these and other related questions have been collected from first year music students of the
Australian ‘Group of Eight’ Universities. Using an on-line survey ‘Australian Music Education Survey 2010’,
trends from the initial data analysis may help to provide useful insights to music educators and researchers
alike. Final results are to be published in a PhD thesis with the University of Adelaide.

Music learning, community and active ageing

Dawn Joseph & Jane Southcott

Music learning can play an important role in active ageing. The members of community music groups find
that such ensembles can provide older people with a sense of fulfillment and well-being, and offer the
potential for celebration of cultural identity and diversity. This paper reports on a group of older Australians in
Melbourne, Victoria, who are members of an established ensemble, the Coro Furlan. The members of this
male voice community choir were interviewed in 2009 as part of an ongoing research project, Well-being and
ageing: community, diversity and the arts in Victoria (Australia), begun in 2008, which explores how the arts
foster well-being in ageing communities. The Coro Furlan members consider themselves to be preservers and
promoters of authentic Italian songs in Victoria. The interview transcriptions were analysed using Interpretive
Phenomenological Analysis which seeks to explore participants’ lived worlds. The findings reveal that the
older choir members value the opportunities it provides for friendship, community, and music-making, both in
rehearsal and performance in which they can share their cultural heritage. In a country of migration, like
Australia, culture bearers like this choir and their maintenance of heritage can contribute to community and to
learning. A group like the Coro Furlan can provide educators and communities with opportunities for
intergenerational teaching and learning in which music can be shared across all ages. We argue that it is
important that educational institutions at all levels should consider the inclusion of older, active community
musicians as part of visiting artists programs.

‘!ke e:/xarre/ke’ – Sharing multicultural music practice

Dawn Joseph

South Africa prides itself in a rich and colourful array of the Arts. Arts and Culture in this country plays a
significant role in social regeneration, unity and reconciliation. I revisited South Africa in October 2010 as
part of my ongoing research into African music and multicultural Arts practice. This paper highlights both my
own observation and view held by a South African music educator at Pretoria University regarding
multicultural music education. I argue that although the complex issues of music, culture and identity are
interconnected forming a multicultural society in South Africa, music education is a powerful platform to
transmit and promote togetherness where understanding and respect “!ke e:/xarre/ke” – Unity in Diversity is
shared in multicultural music practice.

Music in the contemporary world: The effects of social connections on musical self-belief and teaching
self-efficacy
Jan Kane

Music is one form of the Arts that has always been an integral component of education and enjoyment in
society. However belief in the ability to teach music is formulated within a social context and the effects of
social influences need to be considered in the development of music teachers. Music is often taught in primary

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schools by generalist classroom teachers. However, research has indicated that many in-service and pre-
service teachers express a lack of belief in their ability to teach music and it is therefore not being taught
consistently or well. This weak level of teaching efficacy can have long lasting effects on learning in the arts
for young children and, in later life, on their social engagement with music in broader societal contexts. This
paper will focus on the discourse that was developed through a series of in-depth interviews within a
longitudinal study of pre-service teachers focused on their teaching self-efficacy in music. It will analyse the
societal influences on the initial formation of music teaching self-efficacy and changes that occurred over time
within a teacher education program. The paper will link to the conference theme of ‘Making Sound Waves in
Research’ through highlighting the social connections which music facilitates and the contemporary
influences that were revealed through focused discourse in this investigation.

Broadening the education of high school music students

Kristina Kelman

Endeavouring to provide a framework for young singer-songwriters and bands to perform, record, publish and
broadcast their music, high school students from year 10 -12 formed Youth Music Industries (YMI) in
2010.These music students from the Queensland Academy for Creative Industries (QACI) have successfully
run with this vision by establishing and operating an under-age venue, where they hold monthly Emerge
nights and an annual three-stage youth music festival, FourWalls. The Queensland Academy for Creative
Industries is part of the Queensland Government’s Smart State strategy to ‘nurture the next generation of
creative entrepreneurs and cultural citizens to push the boundaries of excellence in the arts and build social
cohesion in our global and multicultural society’. Music Educator and researcher, Kristina Kelman responded
to this initiative by challenging her students to consider the diversity, potential and needs of their peers across
Queensland. YMI have formalized partnerships with Qmusic and the Queensland Music Festival, which has
allowed YMI to expand its membership to industry professionals, and benefits from greater exposure and
support. This year YMI will host a youth music conference in conjunction with Qmusic’s premier industry
event, Big Sound.
This ethnographic case study is being conducted by the teacher as participant observer, as a means of
extracting both the teacher and students’ perspectives, with an overall view to highlight the role that schools
need to play in preparing young musicians with the transferrable skills and attributes needed for sustainable
careers in the music industry, and to better inform the music teaching and learning process in schools.

Easy access: Finding one’s way from secondary to tertiary music education and training
Panel discussion chaired by Helen Lancaster, Dawn Bennett & Ben O’Hara

The Music Council of Australia is currently undertaking an audit of opportunities available in post-secondary
music education and training across Australia. In additional to university and vocational options, a growing
number of private providers offer higher and vocational education; there is a wide range of mentoring
opportunities and internships for which no certification is obtainable; some secondary schools allow students
to commence their university studies prior to matriculation, and others provide vocational units which
accumulate towards certification in music business and music technology. Options for access to post-
secondary music education and training has never been so diverse. Recognising these developments, the MCA
research project is mapping the range of post-secondary music education and training in Australia, cross-
referencing its relevance to reports such as the Bradley Review of Higher Education which advocates greater
deregulation and wider access to higher education. This panel discussion brings together some of the
researchers from the project to report on the findings of this comprehensive audit of education and training
options for musicians at post-secondary level, with emphasis on those alternatives available to pre-tertiary
students with a view to examining issues of access, ease of transition into higher education and vocational
programs, and their relevance to eventual employment opportunities.

Validating a survey instrument for creativity and Arts assessment: A Rasch approach
Samuel Leong

This paper discusses the process and outcome of validating the Creativity and Assessment Questionnaire
(CAQ) for arts education by applying Rasch modelling in determining its validity and reliability as well as its

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category structure and Differential Item Functioning (DIF). The CAQ, which consists of two scales – a
creativity scale and an assessment scale – was intended to examine respondents’ conceptions of creativity
with reference to music, visual arts and arts assessment. The CAQ was administered to 285 pre-service
teachers in Hong Kong, with findings showing that the two scales of the CAQ are valid and reliable
unidimensional measures of constructs in relation to teachers’ perception of creativity and arts assessment
practice.

Composer learning: From child’s play to professional development. How do they make ends meet?
Karlin Love

This paper investigates how children and adults learn to create music, from toddlers conducting their parents
to professional composers writing for orchestras. Composition is a complex abd multifaceted practice. Many
composers describe their educational journeys as including extensive self-teaching as well as influential
teachers and collaborators. Their learning is intense and ongoing.
Composition demands substantial skill and knowledge bases. Composer interviews suggest that they fell they
are largely self-taught, possibly because formal education cannot provide these comprehensive bases. This
paper suggests that both formal and informal learning processes are important in developing mature
composers.

Composing with the band: Adventures in form, notation, and performance

Karlin Love & Stephen King

Three stories of collaborative composition for large ensembles. Looking for Edges was written for an
intermediate level community band, to introduce extended performance techniques. Instrumental tutors
workshopped each section and players nominated effects they wanted (and didn’t want) in the piece. The
composer took the extensive list of ingredients to conjure up the piece which the band delivered with intense
commitment. Beyond the Break was written for primary school beginning band. Tutors recommended
technique exercises to incorporate. Again, the players were shown new effects. Their enthusiasms and
suggestions influenced the composer’s choices. It isn’t in concert Bb major. This project set the tone for a
year-long program of creativity in performance. Heterophony 2 for large leather orchestra was created with a
collective of 35 community musicians, from 7th graders to professionals, in classical and pop genres. Some
read notation, some didn’t, some had never played under a conductor, some were conductors. Players were
issued Greenwood leather sculptural instruments and assigned to a section in which they group-devised
motivic material and feature passages. The composer massaged transitions, tutti passages and material to
support the feature sections. The conductor finessed the whole thing. The score was a negotiated Powerpoint
presentation rather than conventional notation. Positives, negatives and peculiarities abound. We learned a lot
from the experiences and will probably do it again. In all three cases, the investment and commitment of the
performers was extraordinary, moving well beyond technical accuracy to playing and truly communicating in
sound.

This sucks: Why students drop out from elective class music in lower secondary school
Geoffrey Lowe

Many elective class music programs suffer high drop-out rates in the early years of secondary school. A
strong link has been established between the sorts of learning activities teachers undertake with their students,
and subsequent drop-out rates. In other words, many students drop out because they don’t like what they are
asked to do in class music. In attempting to address high drop-out rates, music teachers can tend to focus upon
making their lessons more interesting and enjoyable. Other teachers simply label their students as being
unmotivated. This paper reports upon a study undertaken in Western Australia into the values and beliefs of
near 300 Year 8 students enrolled in class music. The study found that there are many factors involved in why
students drop out from class music. These include the importance and usefulness students attach to class
music activities, and whether students feel competent to complete the activities. Accordingly, this paper will
present a series of recommendations aimed at providing music teachers with a blue-print for designing class
music activities which enhance student motivation, and hopefully reduce drop-out rates.

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Alternative ways of thinking about music teaching: Learning from the musical experiences of students
outside school
Geoffrey Lowe

The majority of adolescents love music. Listening to music may be the single most important adolescent
leisure activity. However, this love of music does not always transfer to the school setting. Schools can
struggle to retain students in both classroom and instrumental programs. Part of the reason for this apparent
dichotomy is a reported divide between how students experience music outside school (real music), and how
they experience music in school (school music). If this is the case, can music teachers learn from students’
musical experiences outside school, and can these experiences be transferred into the school setting? This
paper explores the dimensions of student musical engagement outside school, and suggests ways of
incorporating these experiences into the modern music classroom. In doing so, it suggests that maybe the time
is right for a radical rethink on how music education is delivered to adolescents, from teaching strategies
through to the physical environment.

What is entrainment and why is it important in music education?

Ann McFarland

In the Orff Schulwerk approach to music education, rhythm is considered the starting point of all musical
experience, and is taught via movement and language. In this study, this researcher found that both the
accuracy of rhythmic movement as well as the expressive quality of rhythmic movement were enhanced by
the inclusion of overt speech (speaking rhyming poetry aloud) while learning rhythmic movement pieces. This
is most likely due to the phenomena of entrainment – the near synchronization of two or more oscillators (in
this case, body parts).
Results of this study are compatible with prior research suggesting that overt speech improves memory of
physical movement, that entrainment between overt speech and physical movement does indeed exist, and that
overt speech promotes movement accuracy and expression. These results provide important information for
elementary music teachers, as they suggest the use of overt speech, as an integral part of the learning process,
is highly effective in promoting both rhythmic accuracy and movement expression for students, regardless of
level of rhythm aptitude or prior musical experience.

The diversity myth: Perceptions of Australian art music and their effect on the mandated study of
Australian music in senior-secondary settings
Timothy McKenry

The discourse surrounding Australian art music locates ‘diversity’ as one of the key features of compositional
practice in this country. This paper considers the extent to which this ‘diversity paradigm’ influences the
modes of understanding and the resources that are used to support the teaching of mandated Australian music
repertoire in senior-secondary pathways such as those embedded in the Victorian Certificate of Education’s
Music Styles and Composition and Music Performance. Through an analysis of the nexus between recent
academic literature pertaining to issues of Australian musical identity and the behaviour of student cohorts in
relation to the mandated study of Australian art music (as indicated by assessment reports and statistics), this
paper identifies a significant disconnect between the ‘diversity paradigm’ and the teaching that informs much
of the study of mandated Australian music content. The paper concludes that rather than being marked by
diversity, the mandated study of Australian music in senior-secondary settings generally focuses on a small
selection of Australian composers and compositions, and demonstrates an uncritical reliance on a limited
range of secondary sources. The paper goes on to suggest that learning and teaching at the senior-secondary
level could benefit from a research- and discovery-based approach to dealing with mandated Australian art
music content that better reveals the diversity of Australian musical practice.

Making waves: Creating a music revolution in primary schools

Ros McMillan

Music teachers in primary schools frequently complain that the time allotted to their subject is so minimal that
little can be achieved. However, they should remember that student spend up to five hours every day with

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their classroom teachers, many of whom could easily include music in their teaching programs. Indeed,
creating, performing and listening activities are all within the scope of general classroom teachers, even if
they do no necessarily have a background in music or feel confident to incorporate into their teaching.
The workshop for primary music teachers will consist of hand-on ideas, both easy and practical, that they can
demonstrate to their classroom colleagues to assist them in including music in their general classroom lessons.
Working through a thematic approach, participants will be shown how any theme can incorporate musical
activities that include singing, composing, ensemble playing and listening to music.

Riding sound waves: Engaging junior secondary students in stimulating musical activities
Ros McMillan

Junior secondary school students (aged approximately 12-14 years) are considered by many to be the most
difficult group to engage in musical learning. Often the problem is the subject matter with many music
teachers basing their curriculum on that of the later years of specialist music education. Some teachers also
believe that it is essential that a particular body of knowledge be acquired before students are able to
participate in effective music-making. Both these views ignore the fact that only a tiny percentage of students
continue with classroom music after the compulsory years of junior secondary schooling conclude. Rather
than treating this group with dread, junior secondary school students should be regarded as one of the most
exciting to teach as the potential to engage them in rewarding, relevant and stimulating learning is immense.
The workshop will consist of a variety of hands-on activities ranging from ideas of 5-15 minutes to units of
work that may take two or three lessons. It will be presented by one of Australia’s most experienced
classroom music teachers (45+ years) and author of Hal Leonard’s MusicTime! series which have now sold
some 10,000 copies around the world.

Australian curriculum forum

Chaired by Jay McPherson & Andrew Reid

This forum provides an opportunity for reflection and discussion on recent, current and future developments
for Music Educators as we move towards the Australian Curriculum for the Arts. It will address the current
Shape of the Australian Curriculum for the Arts document, various stages of the feedback process and ASME
perspectives. There will also be group discussion on issues facing Music Educators, and sharing professional
perspectives on the impacts, challenges and opportunities of the Australian Curriculum for Music.

Creating and using electronic resources in the Secondary Music classroom

Allan Melville

Workshop Summary Electronic resources enable students and teachers to share ideas and provide effective,
easy access to information. Despite these obvious advantages, however, creating and using easily-accessed
electronic resources remains a problem for many music teachers and they are often unaware of the huge
potential these resources have to offer. The workshop is in four parts with participants preferably having
access to computers (individually or shared) with internet access and Microsoft Office. This is a practical
workshop where participants will gain skills and create resources that they can use in the classroom and share
with colleagues. The workshop aims to give teachers basic skills in creating and using electronic resources in
the music classroom. Parts 1: Collecting and Creating Resources Investigates free resources available through
the internet (scores, audio recording, recording streaming audio and video, MIDI) and creating files (audio,
video, graphics and MIDI). Part 2: Creating Teaching Documents Commonly used software such as Word,
PowerPoint and OneNote can incorporate text, graphics, audio and video. Create documents using the files
investigated in Part 1 for implementation in the classroom. Part 3: Using and Sharing Documents and Files
How to use and share those documents with students and colleagues. Part 4: Electronic Resources in the
Curriculum Some suggested tasks and activities for students that use electronic documents and processes to
implement them effectively in the curriculum.

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Building generalist teacher confidence
Nicole Mengel

Although some school systems maintain music specialists in primary schools, the reality is that a large
number of generalist primary school teachers in Australia have the responsibility for teaching music in their
classrooms. Primary school classroom teachers receive on average only 17 hours music instruction over their
four year undergraduate course. Research completed in Australia and around the world highlights the
problems of lack of confidence, motivation and knowledge faced by generalist teachers in delivering arts
education. These problems often lead to avoidance behaviour, and result in limited teaching and learning of
music within the classroom. The introduction of a national curriculum for ‘the arts’ will place an even larger
burden on generalist classroom teachers who already feel that the curriculum is overcrowded, with a primary
focus on literacy and numeracy. This paper describes aspects of a research project currently being undertaken
with primary school teachers in the Australian Capital Territory who would like to develop more confidence
within themselves to provide meaningful musical experiences in their classrooms and their communities. This
case study looks at teacher’s perceptions of a particular model of music professional development that
involves teachers undertaking a semester long course which focuses on the social outcomes of music first and
foremost and the musical outcomes as a bi-product of this training. Initial findings reveal that a majority of the
teachers surveyed believed that they had developed more confidence when singing with their class; singing
with students in the presence of another adult; singing with adults; and individual singing in front of other
adults.

Emerging technologies: Valuing what student think now and into the future
Bradley Merrick

This presentation will examine the many ways in which emerging technologies, such as web 2.0 applications;
online programs, mobile devices and a plethora of software and hardware are impacting upon the development
of music education. Using a range of different technology based examples from varied classroom based
scenarios in a secondary setting and a sample of data collected from student about the use of emerging
technologies, this presentation will formulate an argument for purposeful use of technologies that provide a
deeper, more authentic understanding of music.

Informal learning, popular music and technology: An insight into the development of musical
understanding in secondary school rock bands
Bradley Merrick & Simon Smith

This presentation continues the examination of the use of informal approaches to learning used by secondary
students in a large Independent school in Sydney. Following on from previous presentations about this
informal approach and rock music at the previous two ASME conferences (2007, 2009), this paper will report
on the ever-present use of these approaches in 2011. Drawing upon data collected from selected secondary
students in surveys, interviews, combined with footage from selected case studies of students and bands
involved in rehearsals, this presentation will highlight the modes of communication and learning commonly
used by students as they refine their music. It will also examine approaches used by students as they perform
both original and existing repertoire. It will also examine the increasing use of emerging technologies amongst
students as they learn, rehearse, perform and distribute their own music in a world where instant
communication is part of their daily existence. Issues associated shifts in the modes of learning and these
technologies will be discussed as well. Implications for future design of curriculum, meaningful assessment
and classroom pedagogy will also be discussed in relation to the secondary classroom.

Keyboard Evolution: A modern curriculum based music program for first year High School
Ric Mills, Simon Smith & Kate Whitney

Keyboard Evolution is a unique curriculum-based music program for first year high school, which offers a
package solution to music in the classroom. This great innovation enables schools to teach a modern
‘Keyboard’ course and also meet music learning outcomes. At the very core of the program is the central idea
that students should be able to learn and engage in music-making through the keyboard. Keyboard Evolution

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covers all the core elements and many of the key concepts of music understanding in a fun and relevant way
for both teachers and students and can be executed on most brands of keyboards. The program boasts a very
simple but very structured pathway to learning the various concepts taught both practically and theoretically.
Each session is flexible and can be completely finished in a lesson or can be taught over a few sessions (this is
dependant on the school and the time they set aside for music/keyboards). Within the simple structure each
step always contains a safety net full of ideas and technological examples to support the delivery. Teachers
just need a PC or a MAC and to be online with speakers during the session. Throughout the student workbook
there are helpful pointers indicating whether a particular topic is covering ‘dynamics’, ‘texture’ or ‘pitch’.
There are also constant reminders of both traditional note names and the modern equivalent (semibreve/whole
note). Keyboard Evolution takes some key genres covered at this level and has included some great
arrangements allowing for simple play for elementary students to advanced parts for the more experienced, all
within the same arrangement. For example, Lightly Row has two versions a fun pop version with beats and
modern sounds as well as a Jazz experimental version in order to help students understand what sharps and
flats are. Repertoire also consists of music by the likes of Coldplay, Justin Beiber and Beethoven! Students
learn about instrumentation too and will discover what instruments look like as well as playing them on the
keyboard. The course also teaches the point of auto-accompaniment and its place in a keyboard method (not
ignoring the function as most tutorials do). Moreover, one of the main aims of Keyboard Evolution is to create
higher conversions of students to elective music. With this program and its exciting features, feedback from
the participating schools is that it’s already making its mark. However, it’s not even the framework or the
material which is exciting teachers, it’s the amazing way each lesson is filled with relevant Youtube samples,
downloadable video tutorials, midifile backings, extra repertoire for the advanced and often forgotten about
student and a whole world online for both teachers and students. The website hosts two main portholes; one
for students and one for teachers. This is a place where teachers can download fact sheets, chord charts, music
theory elements, extra repertoire; share their own performance inspiring their students and much more.
Students can also publish their performances, compositions and even present via podcast on KR Casio
broadcast worldwide via the net.

Outcomes of the distance education review: Implications for music education in NSW
Julie Montague

Distance Education programs are provided by the New South Wales (NSW) Department of Education and
Training (DET) to isolated school students resident in NSW and to those who are prevented from attending
schools on a regular basis due to special circumstances. Distance Education programs are also available to
secondary schools unable to provide curriculum access through their own resources. A review of the provision
of Distance Education was undertaken during 2008, focusing on student and school access to distance
education, pedagogy and support for student learning in a distance education environment. It included a study
of structures and methodologies and looked at ways of better reflecting the potential of contemporary society
to meet the needs of distance education learners. As part of the consultation process, both a Review Report
and Discussion Paper were released in November 2008 and in September 2010, the outcomes of the review
were published in a document entitled A More Connected Future: Outcomes of the Distance Education
Review. The following paper explores issues arising from A More Connected Future: Outcomes of the
Distance Education Review for music education and outlines some of the strategies being utilised at Sydney
Distance Education High School to address the changing face of music by distance education.

Crackle and pop: An exciting hands-on approach to early childhood music

Paul Myatt

In early childhood music programs we are aiming to combine two disciplines; early childhood education and
music. Each discipline has its own goals and strategies however they do not always coincide. This workshop
presents games and activities that allow young children to build a solid foundation of musical skills whilst
allowing them to ‘play’, experiment and discover. Props and resources are used to stimulate children’s
imaging as well as enabling children to access learning through auditory, kinesthetic and visual channels.

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iPhone, iPad, iPod, iHUH? New technologies workshop
Paul Myatt

With the advent of the “I” revolution, what’s changed in music teaching? All this technology, how does it
enhance your teaching. Join the workshop to discover how to use all this very accessible technology and how
you can utilise it in your teaching. Find out why integrating technology is so important in teaching children
today, but also how paper and pencil and writing is still as vital for children’s learning.

Negotiating learning and teaching relationships in the private tertiary music studio
Jessica O’Bryan

While recent research has begun to explore aspects of one-to-one music lessons, even within the last few years
this ancient learning and teaching approach has functioned within a tradition of concealment. This paper
illuminates the relationship between teacher and student within the private tertiary music studio, investigating
how learning and teaching relationships are negotiated and how both explicit and implicit cultural practices
may shape student autonomy or dependence. Employing a cultural psychology lens within a social
constructivist paradigm, this paper presents narrative accounts of three case studies of tertiary singing lessons.
Case studies were conducted of three eminent Australian conservatorium-based singing teachers and one of
their second-year singing students. Semi-structured interviews were held with each participant concerning
their experiences in music; values and beliefs about singing, and the student/teacher relationship. Each dyad
filmed approximately ten singing lessons over the course of one semester, and critical events from the videos
were transcribed and analysed using Narrative Inquiry methods. A final video-prompted interview was held
with each participant to elicit further data relating to specific lesson events.
In two cases, the students displayed autonomous learning behaviour and strong commitment to both their
studies and their teachers, who variously rewarded and reinforced these behaviours. The third case study
reveals the student’s struggle to develop learning autonomy, and the impact of this struggle on the learning
and teaching relationship.

Musical Futures
Ken Owen

Musical Futures is a highly successful UK based approach to secondary music education. Informed by the
work of Lucy Green (and others) the Musical Futures team has systematized informal learning and non formal
learning into a classroom music program that has found a place in over 1,000 English secondary schools and
is engaging thousands of students along the way. The Musical Futures sessions provide a practical, hands on
overview of the program and focusing on its unique approach to teaching and learning.

Teaching in tertiary studios in the USA

Kelly A. Parkes

The purpose of this research paper is to share the perceptions of applied studio teachers in tertiary settings in
Northern America, and to report their views about tertiary teaching. A secondary purpose of this paper is to
generate a discussion with participants to explore how these results may different to applied studio teachers’
perceptions in Australia. A pilot survey was sent randomly to 1500 USA applied studio teachers and this
paper represents the results of one section of the survey, namely the exploratory section consisting of specific
open-ended questions. These questions asked why teachers chose to become an applied studio teacher, who
taught them to teach, what they need from their administrators to teach more effectively, and what might
prompt them to discontinue teaching altogether. Self-selecting participants (n = 154) who were willing to
answer the open-ended items about these issues, shared their perceptions in an online survey environment.
After extensive qualitative content analyses, findings show that reasons for teaching mirror those reported by
classroom music teachers, (e.g., love for teaching, love for sharing music, or love for young people). Other
reasons included giving back to the community, desiring an increased income, needing a job or job security,
and the notion that being a performer inherently included being an applied studio teacher. Diverse paths for
learning to teach were reported as were varied reasons for quitting teaching. Implications for administrators,
teacher satisfaction, and performance teacher education will be shared along with specific directions for future

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research.

Supporting and assessing new types of reflective practice in music student teachers
Kelly A. Parkes

The purpose of this workshop is firstly to identify and share new methods of eliciting reflective practice from
tertiary music education students. Reflective thinkers know how to make meaning across their experiences
and use their emerging understandings to further their learning. This session explores the potential of
rethinking pedagogy with web 2.0 technologies (including but not limited to Weblog Blogs and VideoLog
Vlogs) which allow us to examine the roles of audience, voice, and identity in fostering students’ unique
reflective practice. Following a discussion of relevant literature across the music education field, the presenter
will share both examples of student ‘multimodal’ reflective practice and evaluative rubrics used to assess the
reflective practice. Hands-on exploration will include application of assessment rubrics and engagement with
the web 2.0 tools. The process of developing assessment rubrics will also be illustrated. The presentation will
show the improvements observed in music education students’ reflective practice. Participants will gain an
understanding of the ways web 2.0 tools support distinct reflective practices and they will be able to
discriminate high-level reflective practice from other types of reflective practice in exemplars of student work.
Participants will examine evaluative rubrics appropriate for assessing reflective practice and see high quality
reflective prompts modeled. It is also expected that participants will be given the opportunity to use rubric
exemplars to evaluate cases of diverse student reflection. In addition, participants will be given materials
which they may alter to suit their own teaching needs, while keeping the evaluative strategies intact.

Effectively using technology in beginning and developing band courses

Bruce Pearson

Knowing when and how to incorporate today’s technology for the benefit of band student achievement can be
challenging. In this session you will discover new ways to effectively use multiple technologies in private
lessons, sectionals, and full band rehearsals – all with minimal teacher preparation while using the Tradition
of Excellence Comprehensive Band Method. Special emphasis will be placed on ways to weave technology
together with standards-based pedagogy to develop comprehensive musicianship in every student.

Why music is basic: The value of music education

Bruce Pearson

The value of music education is being questions like never before. Music educators must accept the challenge
of educating the public. Educating the parents of our students in the value of music education is equally as
important as the education we do in the classroom. Dr Pearson will discuss important research about why
music should be a part of every child’s education.

Broadening the definition of essential terms in the discussion of excellence in community music
practice, applied to the social music philosophy of the ANU Music Education Program
Georgia Pike

The paper reports on an element of my initial research on music in the ancient world and its relation to the
philosophies of the Music Education program (MEP) and the ANU School of Music. In my thesis, I am to
interpret the MEP within a broad historical and cultural context, with a view to expanding notions of
excellence in music making in general. The aim of the paper is to identify and discuss three essential terms
used in relation to music and excellence: music, technique and excellence. Classical linguistics techniques will
be used to expand the definitions of these terms, with a view to applying the broadened definitions to a
discussion of current MEP practices.

Learning through choral music

Anne Power

This paper explores different kinds of performance found in community singing. Through data consisting of

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reflections from members of choirs and choral directors, a number of features are examined that relate to the
lens of participatory performance (Turino, 2008). The research design gives rise to some findings about the
participants’ and choir directors’ views about learning involved in choral music.

Kromata: Early childhood music program

Pamela Rallis

Kromata is a metaphorical term used to identify a program developed to stimulate young children. The actual
term, Kromata has been inspired by the invention of the Pythagoras’s chromatic scale. (Pythagoras 6th Century
BC). Kromata is the step by step application of elements in early childhood education fused together, with the
intent to keep a young child stimulated throughout the learning process. Kromata is a progressive educational
idea involving young students’ active engagement, social development, mental stimulation, progressive
learning and cognitive enhancement. It fuses together music, vocabulary, mathematics, freedom of expression,
critical thinking, multidisciplinary tasks and pedagogy in an organic way to achieve the best positive results. It
is designed for early childhood developmental stages. The process began with a very basic constant pulse,
which was layered by gradually increasing the range of rhythmic patterns commencing with simple clapping
exercises to enhance stimulation: thus creating the KROMATA path. By intersecting the cells: music,
vocabulary, numbers, personal creativity and combining them with freedom allows a child to explore:
resulting in progressive learning and productivity both educationally and artistically. Educational components
are fused: music, dance, verbal and art form that do create a confidant expressive child. (Kromata © Pamela
Rallis) The children created pictures and colouring sheets in a positive response to participation in the music
program enhancing all the parallel process with the addition of enrichment with vocabulary expansion,
numbers, simple mathematics and instrumentation. The Curwen hand signs and solfege are easy items for the
children to imitate and learn.

Work, play, excellence and participation: Adolescent musicians’ motivation to engage in high-level skill
development
James Renwick

Research into musicians’ motivation (Austin, Renwick, & McPherson, 2006) has typically adapted key
theoretical frameworks from educational psychology, investigating such concerns as musicians’ confidence in
their abilities, the effects of achievement goals, and intrinsic-extrinsic reasons for engagement. This study
focuses on the inherently artistic aspects of what motivates musicians to devote the thousands of hours of
work necessary to reach expertise. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve secondary students
(mean age = 15.8 years) attending either a highly selective high school specialising in classical music
performance and/or a highly selective state-wide jazz ensemble. Questions focused on what motivates the
participants to engage in music-making and investigated motivational antecedents and consequences of
significant musical experiences. Theoretical concerns (e.g., self-efficacy, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation,
achievement goals) were embedded in questions, but interviewees’ perspectives guided the dialogue.
Transcripts were analysed using NVivo software according to grounded theory principles (Corbin & Strauss,
2008). Major themes emerging from ongoing analysis are the tendency for music-making–initially
intrinsically or socially motivated in a recreational context–to take on powerfully vocational, communicative,
aesthetic and above all competence-related motives. These developing motives contrast with the findings of a
parallel investigation of tertiary music students reported elsewhere. A fuller understanding of what makes for
a healthy, truly artistic engagement in the development of musicality may assist policy makers and researchers
to create more nurturing environments for aspiring musicians.

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Policy and practice in arts education: finding the balance
Rowena M. Riek

The purpose of education is one of the most politically and socially relevant and engaging topics of our age.
As governments are faced with the increasing influence of globalisation and enculturation of systems that
traditionally were national and dominantly controlled domestically, education policy remains one of the few
areas that successive Australian governments can control in order to predict an outcome to service the
‘unknown future’ (Rizvi & Lingard, 2010; Mortimore, 2008). This paper provides insights into the current
education policy climate and how in turn this affects arts policy and practice. The paper specifically examines
the affects of mandated reforms (NAPLAN – National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy and the
proposed National Curriculum) on arts education policy and practice in the setting of a primary school. Key
focus is given to how teachers present the Arts Key Learning Area in an increasingly competitive and
crowded curriculum.
This study explores the choices made by teachers in an educational setting with regards to achieving the best
outcomes for students. Through various data collection methods, an illuminating picture can be drawn about
the choices teachers make in terms of education practices for their students and where music and arts
education fit into this picture. The paper argues that in the current climate of the ‘audit culture’ (Groundwater-
Smith & Mockler, 2009; Lingard, 2010) subjects that are considered ‘non-core’ are in danger of being
marginalised. This study provides valuable information about how the balance can be struck between these
competing dialogues.

Transitions from primary to secondary in music education: What is being done to smooth out the
bumps?
Rowena Riek & Cade Bonar

Music is a compulsory subject in the primary school system in Queensland. Students across the state attend a
minimum of 30 minutes a week with a specialist music teacher who has a skills-based curriculum to
implement over the 8 years of primary school attendance. When students move into their first year in the
secondary system, Music is often compulsory, usually for only one or two terms, as part of a ‘smorgasbord’ of
Arts subjects. As a result, many students do not choose Music when it becomes an elective subject in
subsequent years and numbers are dropping in schools dramatically (Pascoe et al., 2005; Lowe, 2007, 2008;
Green, 2008; Hartwig, 2009). This paper examines a selection of primary and secondary schools in
Queensland in terms of how music students are prepared for the move from primary to secondary, and
continued engagement through this transitional phase into elective studies. Attention is given to curriculum
requirements ñ performance skills and general musicianship skills, along with teacher impressions from both
operating systems ñ and how individually and systemically, we as music educators are implementing
procedures that best develop and support an ongoing interest in music and music study. Using interviews
and surveys, this paper examines school collaboration and how it is best used to benefit the transition to
secondary school, and to the ongoing support for music in schools. The paper will then provide a number of
recommendations for the transition from one system to another.

Metacognition in music performance: A practical approach to implementing self-assessment and

evaluation learning activities into teaching practice
Stefanovych Roberts

Research (Black & Harrison, 2001; Black & Wiliam, 1989; Boud, 1995 & 2000; Fontana & Fernandes, 1994;
Hattie 2009; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; McDonald & Boud, 2003; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006; Ninness
et al., 1998; Sadler, 1989, 1998; Towler & Broadfoot, 1992; Yorke, 2003) convincingly demonstrates that
formative assessment and specifically, assessment for learning is one of the most powerful educational tools
for promoting effective learning and contributes to the raising of standards. Key factors of assessment that
promote and improve successful learning include sharing learning goals with students, assisting students to
know and to recognise the standards they are aiming for, self-assessment, providing feedback that leads to
students recognising their next steps and how to take them, and teacher and students reviewing and reflecting
on assessment data. There has been increased interest in self-assessment over the past 15 years. Research
(Black & Wiliam, 1998; Boud, 1995, 2000; Boud, Cohen & Sampson, 1999; McDonald & Boud, 2003;

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Hattie, 2009; Taras, 2001, 2002, 2003) has demonstrated that the implementation of student self-assessment
and self-evaluation strategies can lead to significant enhancements in learning and achievement. However,
relative to the volume of studies of self-assessment conducted in higher education, those in a secondary
context are considerably limited in number and scope. This interactive workshop in music performance
metacognition (self-assessment and self-evaluation) will build on the paper ‘Metacognition in Music
Performance: Theoretical frameworks within an Assessment for Learning paradigm’ that presented the work
and theoretical models of student improvement and metacognition of Sadler (1989), Hattie (2009), Hattie and
Timperley (2007). The workshop will provide training in what and how to design, develop and integrate into
teaching programs research based metacognitive learning activities and strategies in student self-assessment
and self-evaluation into music performance classroom and private studio practice.

A study of becoming a music teacher: What do music education graduates think?

Jennifer Rowley

‘Teaching could possibly be a bit soul destroying at times. I love music and I love playing, writing, and
talking about music, I just hope that passion remains with me’ (Music Education Graduate #7, 2010). Music
education students face a dilemma in their shift from musician to music teacher as they begin their teaching
career. This study investigated the expectations of 41 beginning music teachers before they began their
classroom music teaching career in secondary (and some primary) schools. This paper reports on the
comments made by students about their fears, concerns and anticipated roadblocks to their beginning teaching
career. ‘One of my observations as a student is that teachers that have a high level of performance experience
and creative ability become frustrated by the process of teaching. My fear is that I will not be able to find a
balance between the role of artist and educator (Music Education Graduate #17, 2010). The paper presentation
will explore how the music student’s role of musician/performer progresses to music teacher, which relies on
aspects of social cognition and encourages a different identity role to that of musician/performer. This
research will open up pathways to determining the shift in identity from musician/performer to music teacher
where it is posited that the musical identity is somewhat lost in the role of teacher. How can this imbalance be
addressed and how can the music teacher’s musicality be discreetly housed within the role of classroom music
teacher?

The heart of engagement: Fostering affinity for music

Jennifer StGeorge

For many people, the appeal of music lies in its connection to human emotions. A great deal of research has
explored the emotions that are felt to inhere either in the formal structure of the music or in its symbolic
messages, and across generations and cultures, music has an indubitable appeal. Yet in the instrumental music
education field, this emotional connection is rarely examined. In this presentation, I will argue that identifying
more about ‘liking music’, especially in young learners, has a role to play in explaining the music learning
experience and how participation in learning can be sustained. Specifically, I propose that people’s emotional
connection to music can be conceptualised as an ‘affinity’, and I describe both the underlying structure and
the process of its development. The presentation is based on findings from the qualitative elements of a mixed
methods study undertaken for a dissertation that explored student engagement with learning.

Like a bridge over troubled waters

David Salisbury

Can the use of technology be a ‘bridge over troubled waters’ of low student numbers taking up post-
compulsory music classes? Studies by Salisbury (2008 & 2010), Lowe (2009 & 2010) and Stuart (2010) have
identified a trend of falling student numbers in post compulsory music classes in Australia (WA and QLD)
and New Zealand (Christchurch). These studies have identified issues in relation to the use of music
technology in the classroom such as students preferring recording music compositions versus notating it,
using looping programs and sequencing software and feeling unsure about their ability to successfully
complete a task based on a more classical music approach. This paper looks at the pedagogical issues involved
with the use of music technology in the classroom and more importantly how teachers with minimal
experience using music software cope with the demands of this type of approach. This question was originally

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discussed in an article by the author (Salisbury 2008) in a paper delivered at the ANZARME conference based
on the 2005 National Review produced by Pascoe et al. The review recommended the increase use of
contemporary music and music technology in the classroom however the overarching problem is the capital
investment needed to implement more technology in the classroom and that many of the current teachers had
limited experience with contemporary music. This paper looks at ways of addressing these problems in a
practical cost effective way.

Life-long learning in the community ensemble setting: A comparative study of group music making for
older learners in Australia, the United States and Canada
Graham Sattler

Census figures from across the developed world reveal an aging population. With this demographic shift,
increasing number of over 50s are taking to productive recreation activities such as group music learning and
making. Factors including increased free time, disposable income, desire to stay mentally and physically
active, changing family and social networks, and unrealized or discontinued musical aspirations, are bringing
more and more individuals into adult music-making communities. Accompanying this trend is an increasing
awareness amongst music organizations and suppliers – leading to the growth of bands and orchestras, choirs
and other ensembles designed specifically for adult learners. This papers reports on observations of adult
learner ensemble programs in Canada, the USA and Australia; representing diversity of ensembles type, size
and cultural composition.

Early childhood and middle years workshops

Ann Slade

Peter de Vries in his role as Music Council of Australia’s early childhood music expert gives as his tips for
engaging young children in music making. These include: sing sing sing; get into musical play; encourage
your children to move to music and expose children to musical instruments.
(http://www.musicplayforlife.org/index.php/research/music-early)
‘Intuitive aptitude for music stabilizes at about age 9, the early childhood years are critical to the development
of children’s potential for comprehending and producing music’ (Stellacci & McCarathy).
This practical 60 minute workshop will equip participants with games and activities to motivate and engage
4–7 year olds in these four ways (singing, musical playing, moving, instruments). Delegates will join
presenters in tried and tested activities that create both a positive response from children and the basis for
further musical learning.

Playing it by ear: Audiation and expression in the music studio

Chris Sommervelle

This study involves an investigation of three exceptional pianists. A 17-year old male from rural Australia, a
31-year old male from London, England and a 14-year old female born in Hong Kong. Despite widely
disparate backgrounds, in each case performances by them have been widely acknowledged to have a
profound effect on the listener. This research attempts to document a range of factors that may have had some
impact on these musicians’ ability to make music in a powerful and meaningful way. Of particular interest is
that each pianist comes from an informally trained background. This involved teaching themselves by copying
recordings of music by ear. This learning technique, the hallmark of informal music learning, has led each
pianist to exceptional aural and memorization skills, potential for improvisation and the ability to play with
meaning. Of associated interest, is that this process is seen to be highly enjoyable, so much so that there is a
demonstrated rage to learn. These factors are investigated in the light of the deliberate practice literature.

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Towards a multidimensional understanding of music education with children aged birth to three years
Jennifer Stevens-Ballenger

It is widely acknowledged that music education begins from the very earliest days of life, and that musical
learning is optimised in the pre school years. However, little is known about how music education is
experienced by Australian children before the age of three years. In order to have an informed discussion
about music with the very young, it is important that a multidimensional understanding of practices and
perspectives be sought. An examination of literature, from across a range of disciplines, revealed that there are
numerous stakeholders in music education with very young children, amongst them; parents and guardians,
early childhood professionals, healthcare professionals, and musicians. However, to this researcher, there is no
known study that attempts to scope the diverse perspectives and practices across Australian early childhood
music. This paper presents the outline of a study currently underway that aims to provide base data in early
childhood music education.

Surfing sound waves between the flags: Balancing and coordinating music and literacy strategies for
contemporary early music classrooms
Rebecca Thomas

Recent educational reforms have focused primarily on the need for quality literacy and numeracy teaching.
With increased emphasis placed on these learning areas, it is timely for music educators to identify, highlight
and share how they incorporate these key aspects of the curriculum in their daily lessons and music programs.
Ideally, early years music classes are play-based; and through games, action songs, storybooks and repertoire,
young students develop preliminary literacy skills. This practical workshop will identify specific activities that
develop general literacy and musical literacy skills from Pre-Prep classes through to Year 4. Participants will
explore ways to (a) improve spelling, punctuation, structure, reading and writing, and (b) appeal to visual,
aural and kinaesthetic learning styles. Useful repertoire that encourages lyric improvisation and rhyming will
be suggested, along with a selection of clever and appropriate storybooks. The diverse learning needs of
students often require teachers to devise multi-level activities for their classes. This workshop will present
possible solutions for classroom instrumental work and performance challenges that extend the literacy
development of all students. While government policies, curriculums and funding may change, teachers
always have students who deserve a quality education and the right to be literate. This workshop aims to
encourage music educators to swim or surf between the flags and develop core skills that will enhance young
lives.

Technological improvements: Teaching and assessing made easy with technology

Kate Thompson

This workshop aims to introduce some new ideas about the inclusion of technology in the music classroom.
Incorporating technology need not be an expensive or complex task. It does not need to be about buying
programs or throwing out your current curriculum in favour of an ICT centred program but rather the concept
that technology is just a tool. It’s not about the technology, it’s about the teaching that the technology enables.
The workshop will outline a variety of ways in which classroom music teachers of all year levels can integrate
simple and inexpensive technologies that will improve their teaching and aid with the assessment of students.

Composition as a process of revision and refinement

Benjamin Thorn

Mozart was said to be able to conceive a piece as a perfect whole, and then simply and rapidly write it down.
Most composers can’t, and the composition process is one of revision and refinement, as ideas are shaped,
rearranged, and not infrequently discarded, to reach the final result. When we teach composition and analyse a
piece of music what we look at is the logic of this final result, which is important, since it develops critical
thinking about what works and why. But it is also important to think about the revision processes and consider
how the final result might have been engendered. This paper proposes an approach to composition (and
teaching it) that focuses on the revision and modification of ideas. As a model it analyses three different
stages or versions of one of my own keyboard pieces Underground Currents (which among other things

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changed from a piano piece to a harpsichord piece en route). At each stage I analyse the good and less than
good elements and how and why they are changed. We will look at both macro and micro structures and
elements and how they interact. This is the sort of analysis that student composers need to develop in order to
develop their craft and compositional skills.

Creating worksheets and flashcards with Sibelius

Katie Wardrobe

If you’ve ever wanted to make your very own custom worksheets and flashcards using Sibelius, this session is
for you. We’ll look at the techniques involved in creating stick notation, blank staves for students to write in,
melodic and rhythmic flashcards, writing note names inside noteheads, automatically adding sol-fa, copying
musical graphics to Word. We’ll also explore a range of the best 1700+ ready-made resources in The
Worksheet Creator. Suitable for beginners and experienced Sibelius users.

Essential Sibelius tips for working more effectively

Katie Wardrobe

This session will feature some favourite time-saving tricks for busy teachers. By taking the time to learn how
to use Sibelius ‘the right way’ and pick up a few new techniques, you can cut your score and creation time in
half.

Music technology resources on a shoestring

Katie Wardrobe

Would you like to incorporate technology into your music teaching but don’t have a large budget? Whether
you’re into podcasting, creating backing tracks, recording original compositions and arrangements, notating
arrangements, reinforcing aural skills or film scoring, there is a free or low-cost solution for almost every
music technology requirement. This session will take a look at ways in which you can save time preparing
classroom resources, record student performances, edit songs, explore podcasting, notate your arrangements,
print custom-made blank sheet music, make your own posters or play instruments online. The session will
cover PC, Mac and web-based applications.

Really easy recording and editing for the non-technical

Katie Wardrobe

Make your own sound waves: this session will look at the basics of recording student performances and class
work using inexpensive equipment and free software. We’ll look at a range of microphone options – from
handheld recording devices to USB microphones that plug directly into your computer – and learn how to
transfer recordings to your computer for editing. Using the free, cross-platform program Audacity, we’ll cover
basic audio editing techniques including removing vocals from recordings, deleting unwanted audio, creating
fade-ins and fade-outs and applying simple effects. The techniques covered are perfect for recording students
in class, archiving school ensemble performances, creating podcasts, digital storytelling, creating a library of
audio musical examples and more. Technophobes welcome!

Teaching composition with technology

Katie Wardrobe

Technology can offer an alternative, engaging approach to teaching composition when used alongside tried
and tested conventional composing methods (ie. employing the use of a pencil and paper!). Using a program
such as GarageBand (Mac) or Acid (PC), we will begin by looking at ways to teach arranging techniques by
focusing on tangible musical aspects like structure, texture, timbre, harmony and form. We’ll move on to the
creation of original material ñ in bite-sized pieces at first ñ by looking at the ways students can create
rhythmic and melodic snippets of music from scratch which can be added back into their content library.
We’ll discuss ways you can adapt repertoire you are currently using in class, and examine the art of remixing
(a cooler term for ‘arranging’), by looking at the audio-visual creations of artists like DJ Kutiman and Pogo.

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Finally, we’ll look at effective ways to use introduce notation programs like Sibelius, Finale or MuseScore to
composition students and discover how audio recordings of student compositions can provide aural and visual
feedback.

Combining the two D's: Disseminating and documenting music making to support both practice and
theory
Susan West

This paper reports on the development of a theoretical framework and mixed model data-collecting paradigm
for a large-scale, longitudinal, practice-based approach to music education. The Music Education Program at
the ANU School of Music has a 25 year continuous history, the last half of which has been devoted to the
development of a new model for music education based on altruistic, shared music making within and beyond
the school gate. Given its strong practical orientation, the challenge has been to provide a framework for the
Program that continues to provide active, flexible support for those ‘at the coal face’ while building a relevant
theoretical underpinning and a framework for collecting and analyzing data in ways that support the
Program’s dissemination. In the lead up to Canberra’s 100th Birthday in 2013, the Music Education Program,
in cooperation with the ACT Government and the Department of Education and Training, has devised an
ambitious model for increasing and sustaining mass musical engagement in the whole of the ACT. This mass
project has acted as the catalyst for refining and documenting the Program’s approach and providing a mixed
model data collection framework that will strengthen the research profile of the Program while continuing to
support its school and community impact. It also provides pathways by which teacher-researchers can be
supported to contribute to the research field of music education in ways that are meaningful and immediately
accessible to other practitioners, whether music teachers or general classroom teachers.

Taking music into the 21st century classroom project - paper

Anna Yerbury

Responding to needs identified in recent market research, Musica Viva will be extending the resources offered
to support its education programs through use of web-based technology. From 2011 onwards Musica Viva In
Schools will significantly expand its online resources. The scale of the project is extensive and will ensure that
more students and teachers have access to quality music education resources than ever before. In order to
achieve this Musica Viva has established partnerships with organisations with expertise in the delivery and
development of digital education.
There are a number of modes through which this project will be articulated:
1. K-8 Online teaching resources
When the Australian Curriculum (Arts) is introduced, teachers will be looking for teaching resources and
professional learning that assist them in delivering and assessing outcomes aligned with the new curriculum.
Therefore, Musica Viva is developing new teaching resources or ‘modules’ which can link together to create a
teaching program for a whole year. Each module will contain:
• Age specific, curriculum linked lesson activities for 5 – 8
• Relevant MP3 files
• Video Clip illustrating dance steps
• Video clips demonstrating teaching techniques
• Assessment Rubrics
• IWB Activities
• Work Samples
2. Creation of Interactive Whiteboard Activities
3. Developing an On-line Community of Learning for Teachers
4. Developing a secure Networking Site for students and teachers to interact with musicians in the program.

Taking music into the 21st century classroom project

Anna Yerbury

When the Australian Curriculum (Arts) is introduced, teachers will be looking for teaching resources and

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professional learning that assist them in delivering and assessing outcomes aligned with the new curriculum.
Musica Viva in Schools has been at the forefront of developments in technology and has established
partnerships with experts in online delivery and IWB development. Their aim is to develop resources which
will: increase equitable access; enhance flexibility; improve efficiency; create a greater breadth of learning
resources; develop a stimulating and creative ‘cyber’ community. K-8 Online teaching resources Musica Viva
aims to develop teaching resources that: are downloadable via the Internet, link to the Australian Curriculum,
are modular and fit into a framework for learning across K-8 for 1 year, integrate ICT into the learning
experience, and produce enhanced learning outcomes for students in the areas of music, literacy, numeracy,
indigenous culture, Asian culture and ICT The K-8 teaching resources will be presented to teachers as discreet
‘modules’ which can link together to create a teaching program for a whole year. Each module will contain:
Lesson Activities for 5 - 8 Lessons, curriculum linked, relevant MP3 files, video clip illustrating dance steps,
video clips demonstrating teaching techniques, assessment rubrics, IWB Activities and work samples. This
workshop will involve participants in lesson activities that range through the four areas of infants, lower
primary, upper primary and lower secondary. The workshop will include practical demonstration of how to
use the IWB activities and how the modules are linked and sequential. The workshop will demonstrate the
wide range of teaching resources that will be available so teachers can select what is relevant to their
programs and their students.

Students’ perceptions of factors contributing to their piano sight-reading skills

Katie Zhukov

Sight-reading of music is often viewed as an inborn talent rather than a skill that can be trained. Research into
sight-reading has been fragmented, with interesting experiments conducted in the 1970s and 1980s, a lull in
the 1990s and a renewed interest in the 2000s. The main focus so far has been on eye movement, error
detection and teaching strategies. No studies have been replicated and few use similar approaches. The
literature suggests that the size of accompanying repertoire, rhythm training and understanding of
characteristics of different styles are some of the factors contributing to fluent sight-reading. Students
participating in the current postdoctoral research project into teaching of piano sight-reading at the School of
Music, University of Queensland, described their accompanying experience and rated their own sense of
rhythm, knowledge of style and sight-reading ability. The analysis of questionnaire data shows a strong link
between accompanying and overall score in all three categories and sight-reading ability. The findings support
earlier research into predictors of sight-reading and highlight the need to consider skill level in rhythm and
understanding of style as contributing factors in the development of good sight-reading. Students’ comments
from the interviews suggest that while many participants still held the common view that the best way to
improve sight-reading is simply to practise it, there was a complex interaction of many skills involved in
sight-reading: understanding variety of rhythmic patterns, maintaining the flow and reading ahead (skills
developed in accompanying), analysis and pattern recognition specific to different musical styles.

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