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(Course Outline) SYLLABUS IN STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY b. Summarizes data for public use
I. Introduction to Statistics and Probability (Review of Junior HS Concepts) Students study statistics for several reasons:
--- REVIEW TEST (multiple choice) to be uploaded in the Aralinks on Feb. 4) 1. Like professional people, you must be able to read and understand the various
II. Random Variables and Probability Distributions statistical studies performed in your fields. To have this understanding, you must be
1. Discrete and Continuous Random Variable knowledgeable about the vocabulary, symbols, concepts, and statistical procedures
2. Discrete Probability Distribution used in these studies.
3. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Variance of a Discrete Random Variable 2. You may be called on to conduct research in your field, since statistical procedures are
III. Normal Distribution basic to research. To accomplish this, you must be able to design experiments; collect,
1. Continuous Probability Distribution organize, analyze, and summarize data; and possibly make reliable predictions or
2. Normal Distribution (Normal Curve) forecasts for future use. You must also be able to communicate the results of the study
3. Standard Score or Z-score in your own words.
IV. Sampling and Sampling Distributions 3. You can also use the knowledge gained from studying statistics to become better
1. Random Sampling (Probability Sampling) consumers and citizens. For example, you can make intelligent decisions about what
2. Parameter and Statistic products to purchase based on consumer studies, about government spending based
3. Sample Mean and Central Limit Theorem on utilization studies, and so on.
V. Estimation of Parameters …………………………………………………………………………..
1. Point and Interval Estimation
2. T-distribution BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
VI. Test of Hypothesis A. DESCRIPTIVE Statistics comprises those methods concerned with the collection,
VII. Correlation and Regression Analyses (Enrichment) description, and analysis of a set of data without drawing conclusions or inferences
…………………………………………………………………………………………………… about a larger set.
References: Any Statistics and Probability Books The main concern is simply to describe the set of data such that otherwise obscure
Textbook: Next Century Statistics and Probability by Jesus P. Mercado (Phoenix) information is brought out clearly.
Conclusions apply only to the data on hand.
GRADING SYSTEM in Statistics and Probability B. INFERENTIAL Statistics comprises those methods concerned with making predictions
Written Works (60%) Performance Tasks (40%) or inferences about a larger set of data using only the information gathered from a
subset of this larger set.
ACTIVITIES The main concern is not merely to describe but actually predict and make inferences
Midterm/Final
& QUIZZES --- 35% PROJECT --- 40% based on the information gathered.
Term EXAM --- 25%
Conclusions are applicable to a larger set of data which the data on hand is only a
subset.
.REVIEW…IN…INTRODUCTION…TO…STATISTICS…&…PROBABILITY.
STATISTICS
In its singular sense, Statistics is a branch of science which deals with the collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.
In its plural sense… statistics is a set of numerical facts/figures.
For example: - vital statistics in a beauty contest
- monthly sales of a company
- daily peso-dollar exchange rate
General Uses of Statistics
a. Aids in decision making
*provides comparison
*explains action that has taken place
*justify a claim or assertion
*predicts future outcome
*estimates unknown quantities

REVIEW --- Introduction to Statistics and Probability (handouts) Ms. Jean Brosa
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The difference between descriptive and inferential statistics can be drawn clearly on the Statistic:
following grounds: - a numerical characteristics of the sample.
✓ Descriptive Statistics is a discipline which is concerned with describing the population - a measure that describes a sample.
under study. Inferential Statistics is a type of statistics; that focuses on drawing …………………………………………………………………………..
conclusions about the population, on the basis of sample analysis and observation.
✓ Descriptive Statistics collects, organises, analyzes and presents data in a meaningful
way. On the contrary, Inferential Statistics, compares data, test hypothesis and make
predictions or estimations of the future outcomes.
✓ There is a diagrammatic or tabular representation of final result in descriptive statistics
whereas the final result is displayed in the form of probability.
✓ Descriptive statistics describes a situation while inferential statistics explains the
likelihood of the occurrence of an event.
✓ Descriptive statistics explains the data, which is already known, to summarize sample.
Conversely, inferential statistics attempts to reach the conclusion to learn about the
population; that extends beyond the data available.

✓ Of 350 randomly selected people in the town of Luserna, Italy, 280 people, or 80%, had
the last name Nicolassi. An example of descriptive statistics is the following statement
: "80% of these people have the last name Nicolassi.“ PROBABILITY
✓ Of 350 randomly selected people in the town of Luserna, Italy, 280 people, 80%, had - is a measure of how likely it is that some event will occur.
the last name Nicolassi. An example of inferential statistics is the following statement : - It is the chance of an event occurring.
"80% of all people living in Italy have the last name Nicolassi." - Here’s the formula:
We have no information about all people living in Italy, just about the 350 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔
living in Luserna. We have taken that information and generalized it to talk about all 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔
people living in Italy. The easiest way to tell that this statement is not descriptive is by
trying to verify it based upon the information provided.
TERMS used in the Study of Probability
Example of Inferential Statistics: *Experiment: The work or activity that generates the results to be studied.
✓ Let’s say you wanted to know the favorite ice cream flavors of everyone in the *Outcome: The result of an experiment.
world. Well, there are about 7 billion people in the world, and it would be impossible *Sample space: All possible outcomes.
to ask every single person about their ice cream preferences. Instead, you would try to For example: when a die is rolled the sample space will be {1,2,3,4,5,6},
sample a representative population of people and then extrapolate your sample results and sample space is usually denoted by the symbol S.
to the entire population. S = {1,2,3,4,5,6 }, n(s) = number of outcomes = 6
…………………………………………………………………………..
Population:
- refers to the totality of objects under study.
- a collection of all the elements under consideration in a statistical study.

Parameter:
- a numerical characteristics of the population.
- a measure that describes a population. Note: Formula to get the total possible outcomes in tossing a coin given
Sample: the number of toss.
- a small part that serves as a representative of the population.
- a part or subset of the population from which the information is collected.
𝟐𝒏
where 𝒏 is the number of toss

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*Event: A collection of outcomes from a specified sample space. 5. getting a sum of 8 = 5/36
For example, when we rolled a die, we could define an event A as odd numbers 6. getting sum divisible by 5 = 7/36
A = {1,3,5 }, n(A) = number of outcomes = 3 7. getting sum of atleast 11 = 3/36 or 1/12
8. getting a multiple of 3 as the sum = 12/36 or 1/3
Pr(Event): The probability of an event occurring. 9. getting a total of atleast 10 = 6/36 or 1/6
10. getting an even number as the sum = 18/36 or 1/2
11. getting a prime number as the sum = 15/36 or 5/12
12. getting a doublet of even numbers = 3/36 or 1/12
13. Find the odds in favour of getting the sum 5 = 4/32 or 1/8
14. Find the odds against getting the sum 6: = 31/5
15. Find the odds of getting a total of atleast 10. = 6/30 or 1/5

Complementary Events - Events whose probabilities add up to 1 . Two events are …………………………………………………………………………..
complementary when one event occurs if and only if the other does not.
For example, the complement of success is failure and the compliment of Worked-out problems on Playing cards probability:
failure is success.
If the event is A, the complement of A is written as A’ .

ODDS - The ratio of the probability of an event to the probability of its complement.
For example, the ratio of favorable outcomes to unfavorable outcomes.
ODDS = (Success over failure)

Atleast means greater than or equal to (≥)

For example: Atleast 10; (10, 11, 12 , 13, ….)

Atmost means less than or equal to (≤)

A card is drawn from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards.
For example: Atmost 10; (10, 9, 8, 7, …)
Find the probability of: (ANSWER --- in lowest term)
…………………………………………………………………………..
Experiment: Rolling a pair of dice (w/ 36 possible outcomes) 1. a king of red colour = 2/52 or 1/26
2. a non-face card = 40/52 or 10/13
3. a black card = 26/52 or 1/2
4. neither a spade nor a jack = 36/52 or 9/13
5. neither a heart nor a red king = 38/52 or 19/26

…………………………………………………………………………..

The TERMS we use to describe the CHANCES.

Impossible : Impossible events have probabilities of zero.
Two dice are thrown simultaneously. Find the PROBABILITY of: (ANSWER --- in lowest term) Unlikely : Very unlikely events have probabilities close to zero.
1. getting six as a product = 4/36 or 1/9 Even chance : Even chance events have probabilities close to 0.5
2. getting sum ≤ 3 = 3/36 or 1/12 Likely : Very likely events have probabilities close to one.
3. getting sum ≤ 10 = 33/36 or 11/12 Certain : Certain events have probabilities of one.
4. getting a doublet = 6/36 or 1/6

REVIEW --- Introduction to Statistics and Probability (handouts) Ms. Jean Brosa
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VARIABLE 3. Or are the values obtained from measurement, such as heights, IQs, or
A variable is a characteristics or attribute or property of persons/objects which can assume temperature?
different values or labels. This type of classification—i.e.,
• Data are the values (measurements or observations) that the variables can assume. how variables are categorized, counted, or measured—uses measurement scales.
• Variables whose values are determined by chance are called RANDOM variables. Levels of measurement
• An experimental unit is the individual or object on which a variable is measured. 1. Nominal Level
2. Ordinal Level
3. Interval Level
4. Ratio Level

1. QUALITATIVE variables are variables that can be placed into distinct categories,
according to some characteristic or attribute.
For example, if subjects are classified according to gender (male or female),
then the variable gender is qualitative.
Other examples are religious preference, political affiliation, occupation, marital
status, geographic locations, etc.
2. QUANTITATIVE variable is numerical and can be ordered or ranked.
A variable that takes on numerical values representing an amount or quantity.
For example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order 1. NOMINAL Level
according to the value of their ages. ✓ The nominal level is the weakest level of measurement where numbers or symbols
Other examples are height, weight, body temperature, distance, time, length, are used simply for categorizing subjects into different groups.
etc. ✓ Data in this level are classified into categories. Names are used are labels.
Quantitative variables can be further classified into two groups: Numbers and letters are used to represent variables.
a. DISCRETE variable is a variable which can assume finite, or, at most, ✓ No ranking or order can be placed on the data.
countably infinite number of values, usually measured by counting or Examples of Nominal Level
enumeration. It can be assigned values such as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to 1. Marital Status: (Single, Married, Divorced, Widowed)
be countable. 2. Zip Codes: (4510, 4511, 4512, etc.)
Examples of discrete variables are… 3. Political party: (Democratic, Republican, Independent, etc.)
- the number of children in a family 4. Religion: (Christianity, Judaism, Islam, etc.)
- the number of calls received by a switchboard operator 5. Gender: Male, Female
each day for a month M may be used instead of Male
- the capacity of an auditorium F may be used instead of Female
b. CONTINUOUS variables, by comparison, can assume an infinite number 2. ORDINAL Level
of values in an interval between any two specific values. They are ✓ It contains the properties of the nominal level, and in addition, data in this level
obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals. are ranked but the degree of difference between them are not determined.
For example: ✓ Items are ordered in some low-to-high manner.
temperature, age, weight, distance, time, an amount, etc. Example:
1. Size: S-small M-medium L-large XL-extra large
In addition to being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables can be classified by how 2. Rank: 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
they are categorized, counted, or measured. 3. Rating: 1-poor 2-fair 3-good 4-excellent
1. For example, can the data be organized into specific categories, such as area 3. INTERVAL Level
of residence (rural, suburban, or urban)? ✓ It has the properties of the nominal and ordinal level, and in addition, the
2. Can the data values be ranked, such as first place, second place, etc.? distances between any two numbers on the scale are of known sizes. An interval

REVIEW --- Introduction to Statistics and Probability (handouts) Ms. Jean Brosa
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scale must have a common and constant unit of measurement. Furthermore, the Two types existing studies:
unit of measurement is arbitrary and there is no “true-zero” point. 1. documentary sources – published or written reports,
(Zero does not mean total absence of what is being measured.) periodicals, unpublished documents, etc.
Examples of Interval Level: 2. field sources – researchers who have done studies on the area of
• IQ interest, are asked personally or directly for information needed.
• Temperature (in Celsius) 5. Registration Method – e.g., car registration, student registration, and hospital
4. RATIO Level registration
The ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of interval
measurement, and there exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same CENSUS or complete enumeration is the process of gathering information from every unit in
variable is measured on two different members of the population. the population.
Examples: SURVEY sampling is the process of obtaining information from the units in the selected
• Age sample.
• Number of correct answers in an exam …………………………………………………………………………..
• Length
• Mass SAMPLING
• Area Sampling is the process or technique of selecting a representative sample from the
• number of phone calls received entire population.
…………………………………………………………………………..
Probability Sampling vs Non-Probability Sampling
✓ In non-probability sampling (also known as non-random sampling) not all
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA members of the population have a chance of participating in the study.
1. Primary Source vs Secondary Source ✓ This is contrary to probability sampling (known as random sampling), where
a. Primary source – data measured by the researcher/agency that published it. each member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being
b. Secondary source – any republication of data by another agency selected to participate in the study.
Example:
The publications of the National Statistics Office are primary sources and Advantages & Disadvantages:
all subsequent publications of other agencies are secondary sources. ✓ With non-probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it
will often be hard for us to know how well we've done so.
2.
External Data vs Internal Data ✓ In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods over non-
a. Internal data – information that relates to the operations and functions of probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous.
the organization collecting the data. ✓ However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not
b. External data – information that relates to some activity outside the feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling, so researchers tend
organization collecting the data. to use non-probability sampling.
Example:
The sales of SM are internal data for SM but external data for any other
Methods of NON-PROBABILITY Sampling
organization such as Robinson.
1. Purposive Sampling
…………………………………………………………………………..
2. Convenience Sampling
3. Quota Sampling
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
4. Expert Sampling
1. Survey Method – questions are asked to obtain information, either through self-
5. Snowball Sampling
administered questionnaire or personal interview.
1. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
2. Observation Method – makes possible the recording of behavior but only at the time
- sets out to make a sample agree with the profile of the population based on some
of occurrence.
preselected characteristics.
3. Experimental Method – a method designed for collecting data under controlled
- where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the
condition.
population and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s
4. Use of existing studies – e.g., census, health statistics, and weather bureau reports
purpose.

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5. SNOWBALL SAMPLING (chain-referral sampling)

2. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING (or Accidental Sampling/Availability Sampling) - a method used when characteristics to be possessed by samples are rare and difficult
- is a method that relies on data collection from population members who are to find. It involves primary data sources nominating another potential primary data
conveniently available to participate in study. source to be used in the research.
✓ Facebook polls or questions can be mentioned as a popular example for - In other words, snowball sampling method is based on referrals from initial subjects
convenience sampling. In its basic form, convenience sampling method can to generate additional subjects; like the process of networking.
be applied by stopping random people on the street and asking questionnaire
questions. …………………………………………………………………………..
- In other words, this sampling method involves getting participants wherever you can
find them and typically wherever is convenient. In convenience sampling no inclusion Methods of PROBABILITY Sampling (known as RANDOM Sampling)
criteria identified prior to the selection of subjects. All subjects are invited to
participate. 1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Stratified Sampling
3. QUOTA SAMPLING 3. Systematic Sampling
- selects a specified number (quota) of sampling units possessing certain 4. Cluster Sampling
characteristics, given that the quota is based on the proportion of subclasses in the 5. Multi-Stage sampling
population.
…………………………………………………………………………..
Application of Quota Sampling:
Your research objective is to evaluate the impact of cross-cultural differences on
employee motivation in Virgin Media in the UK. You need to assess the effectiveness of
employee motivational tools taking into account gender differences among the
Be ready for REVIEW TEST (multiple choice) to be uploaded in
workforce. the Aralinks on February 4, 2021.
Quota sampling can be applied in the following manner:
1. Dividing the population into specific groups.
• Virgin Media employees in the UK as the sampling frame
need to be divided into the following five groups
according to their cultural background:
European; Asian (India); Asian (China); Black (African); Other
2. Calculating a quota for each group.
• You supervisor confirms that in order to achieve research
objectives, 30 representatives from each group and the
total sample size of 150 respondents would be
appropriate.
3. Determine specific condition(s) to be met and quota in each group
• Both genders, males and females need to be represented
equally in your sample group. This is a specific condition
that has to be satisfied. Accordingly, you recruit 15 males
and 15 females from each group.

4. EXPERT SAMPLING
- selects sample in accordance with an expert’s judgement.

REVIEW --- Introduction to Statistics and Probability (handouts) Ms. Jean Brosa
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INSTRUCTIONS FOR ALL THE ACTIVITIES IN STATISTICS & PROBABILITY:

Read and follow every instruction given.

✓ Worksheets /Answer sheets: any WHITE paper (either long or short)
✓ Output must be handwritten (readable).
✓ Write your COMPLETE NAME (Last name, First name, Middle initial) and SECTION
on EVERY PAGE of your answer sheets.
✓ BOX your FINAL answer.
✓ Pointing System:
1-point for the final answer (handwritten)
2-points for the complete solution/computation/explanation (handwritten)
✓ For the computation,
If the answer is a fraction, write it in SIMPLIFIED form. (lowest term)
If the answer is a decimal number, use two-decimal places or four-decimal
places.
✓ How and Where to Submit your Handwritten Output:
Paste its picture in a word-document, then upload it (in pdf) under your name in
the E-portfolio.

REVIEW --- Introduction to Statistics and Probability (handouts) Ms. Jean Brosa