Change and control in reactivity

Nuclear Reactor Physics

Topic 6: Fuel Burnup

Wei WANG
wwang326@cityu.edu.hk

1
 previous topics Reactor physics in steady state

The reactor burns up fissile nuclides and generates new nuclides, accumulates
products (fragments), changes coolant temperature and controls the motion of
control rods, varying with operating time.

Reactor dynamics

Slow change Instantaneous change

Change in fuel Neutron kinetics in

composition over time reactor start-up,
Change in reactivity Change in neutron flux
(e.g., products of heavy shutdown and power
nuclide isotopes) regulation

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Topics in slow change
o Fuel burnup
The long-term changes in the properties of a nuclear reactor over its lifetime
are determined by the changes in composition due to fuel burnup and the
manner in which these are compensated.
The economics of nuclear power is strongly affected by the efficiency of fuel
utilization to produce power, which in turn is affected by these long-term
changes associated with fuel burnup.

o Changes in fuel composition in an operating reactor and their effects on the

reactor;
▪ Products of heavy nuclide isotopes;
▪ Burnup;
o Xenon and Samarium poisoning;
o Fertile-to-Fissile Conversion.

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Changes in Fuel Composition

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Initial Composition of a Fuel Element
o The initial composition of a fuel element will depend on the source of the fuel.
For reactors operating on the uranium cycle, fuel developed directly from
natural uranium will contain a mixture of 234U, 235U, and 238U, with the fissile
235U content varying from 0.72% (for natural uranium) to more than 90%,

depending on the enrichment.

Recycled fuel from reprocessing plants will also contain the various isotopes
produced in the transmutation–decay process of uranium.

234U
233U

234U 235U
238U
235U 233U

A fuel element

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Change in the Composition during Operation
o Various fuel nuclei are transmuted by neutron capture and subsequent decay.
For a uranium-fueled reactor, this process produces a variety of transuranic
elements in the actinide series of the periodic table.
The fissile nuclei themselves also undergo
neutron transmutation via radiative capture
followed by decay or further transmutation.
Topic 2

The fission products tend to be neutron-

rich and subsequently decay by beta or
neutron emission (usually accompanied
by gamma emission);

They undergo neutron capture

to be transmuted into a heavier
isotope, which itself undergoes
radioactive decay and neutron
transmutation again.
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Change in the Composition during Operation
o Various fuel nuclei are transmuted by neutron capture and subsequent decay.
For a uranium-fueled reactor, this process produces a variety of transuranic
elements in the actinide series of the periodic table.

234U

238U
233U

235U

A fuel element

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Fuel Transmutation–Decay Chains
o 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝐔 is the only naturally occurring isotope fissionable by thermal neutrons.
o Three other fissile isotopes (e.g., 233U, 239Pu, 241Pu) can be converted by
neutron transmutation and decay of fertile isotopes (e.g., 238U, 232Th).

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Fuel Depletion–Transmutation–Decay Equations
o Production and destruction of an isotope:

β-decay
(n,f) fission
absorption
(n,γ) capture (n,γ)
C A

β-decay
(n,f) fission

𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐃𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

= −
𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀

𝑑𝑁𝐴
= 𝑁𝐶 𝜎𝛾,𝐶 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 + 𝑁𝐵 𝜆𝐵 − 𝑁𝐴 𝜎𝑎,𝐴 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 − 𝑁𝐴 𝜆𝐴
𝑑𝑡
Neutron (n,γ) Decay Neutron Decay
reaction rate rate absorption rate
reaction rate
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Fission Product Species j
o The fission event usually produces two intermediate mass nuclei.
o Even though the fission products undergo transmutation and decay, the total
inventory of direct fission products plus their progeny increases in time.

Topic 2
𝒅𝑵𝒇𝒑 𝒅𝑵𝒋
=෍ = ෍ 𝜸𝒋 𝜮𝒇 𝝓 𝒓, 𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒋 𝒋
Fj

when 𝑗 = A: A 𝜸𝑨 𝜮𝒇 𝝓 𝒓, 𝒕

𝛾𝑗 : the fraction of fission events that

produces a fission product species 𝑗,
σ𝑗 𝛾𝑗 = 1.

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Depletion (Production-Destruction) Equation
o General production-destruction equation satisfied by a fission product species A

Eq.(1) Depletion equation

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀 𝐃𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
= 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀 + −
𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐀
𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐟𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐦𝐮𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬
𝑑𝑁𝐴
= 𝜸𝑨 𝜮𝒇 𝝓 𝒓, 𝒕 + ෍ 𝑁𝑖 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 𝜆𝑖→𝐴 + 𝜎𝑖→𝐴 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 𝜆𝐴 + 𝜎𝑎,𝐴 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑖
FA
fraction of fission events transmutation of isotope i to Destruction of isotope A
that produces a fission produce isotope A
product species j

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Solution of the Depletion Equation
o The depletion equations can be integrated to determine composition changes
over the lifetime of the reactor core loading if the time dependence of the flux
is known.
o Assume that the flux is constant in the interval 𝑡𝑖 < 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑖+1 (a depletion-time
step ∆𝑡burn = 𝑡𝑖+1 − 𝑡𝑖 ), the production-destruction equations can be written in
matrix notation as:
𝑑𝑁𝐴
= 𝜸𝑨 𝜮𝒇 𝝓 𝒓, 𝒕 + ෍ 𝑁𝑖 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 𝜆𝑖→𝐴 + 𝜎𝑖→𝐴 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 − 𝑁𝐴 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡 𝜆𝐴 + 𝜎𝑎,𝐴 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑖

𝑑𝑵𝐴 𝑡
= 𝑭 𝜙 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑨 𝜙 𝑡𝑖 𝑵𝐴 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

o General solution:
𝑵𝐴 𝑡𝑖 + 1 = exp 𝑨 𝑡𝑖 ∆𝑡 𝑵𝐴 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑨−1 𝑡𝑖 exp 𝑨 𝑡𝑖 ∆𝑡 − 1 𝑭 𝑡𝑖
▪ The accuracy of the solution depends on ∆𝑡burn being chosen. so that
𝜆𝐴 + 𝜎𝑎,𝐴 𝜙 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 ∆𝑡burn ≪ 1 for all the isotopes involved. For this reason, it
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is economical to reformulate the physical production-destruction equations
Measure of Fuel Burnup
o The most used measure is fission energy release per unit mass of fuel, that is
the fission energy release (in megawatt-days) divided by the total mass of fuel
nuclei (fissile plus fertile) in the initial loading (in 1000 kg or 1 tonne).
o Units can be megawatt-days per tonne (𝐌𝐖 ∙ 𝐝Τ𝐭), MW ∙ dΤkg, or
10−3 MW ∙ dΤkg.

𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 o 𝑊𝑈 : total mass of fuel nuclei;
𝐵𝑈 = 𝑇
𝑊𝑈 o ‫׬‬0 𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡: fission energy release in megawatt-days.

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Fuel Composition Changes with Burnup
o The original fissionable isotope 235U naturally decreases as the reactor operates;
o the neutron transmutation of the fertile isotope (e.g., 238U) produces the
fissionable isotope 239Pu, which in turn is transmuted by neutron capture into
240Pu and higher actinide isotopes.

Isotope concentration (kgΤt)

Fuel burnup (MW ∙ dΤt)

Buildup of Pu in a uranium-fueled reactor
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Fuel Composition Changes with Burnup
o Heavy Metal Composition of Spent UO2 Fuel at Discharge:

Recycle of 235U and 239Pu from spent fuel

can highly increase the utilization of the
uranium resource.

< 0.001%
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Compensation for fuel-depletion reactivity effects
o There are a variety of reactivity effects associated with the change in fuel
composition. The reactivity effects of fuel depletion must be compensated to
maintain criticality over the fuel burnup cycle.

▪ The major compensating elements are the control rods, which can be
inserted to compensate positive depletion reactivity effects and withdrawn
to compensate negative depletion reactivity effects.
▪ Adjustment of the concentration of a neutron absorber (e.g., boron in the
form of boric acid) in the water coolant is another means used to
compensate for fuel-depletion reactivity effects.
▪ Burnable poisons (e.g., boron, erbium, or gadolinium elements located in
the fuel lattice), which themselves deplete over time, can be used to
compensate the negative reactivity effects of fuel depletion.
Reactivity control Topic 7

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Poisoning

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 Topic 5 Criticality conditions
o Reactivity

𝑘∞ 𝑘eff − 1 𝑘 − 1 𝜌 indicates the degree of

𝑘eff = 𝜌≝ ≝
1 + 𝐿2 𝐵12 𝑘eff 𝑘 deviation from reactor criticality.

Type Subcriticality Criticality Supercriticality

𝑘∞
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 value 𝑘1 < 1 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘1 = =1 𝑘1 > 1
1 + 𝐿2 𝐵12

𝜌 value 𝜌<0 𝝆=𝟎 𝜌>0

𝜆1 value 𝜆1 > 0 𝜆1 = 0 𝜆1 < 0

2
𝐵𝑚 value 2
𝐵𝑚 < 𝐵12 2
𝐵𝑚 = 𝐵12 2
𝐵𝑚 > 𝐵12

Asymptotic
decaying Steady-state increasing
shape

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 Topic 2 Thermal neutron utilization
o Thermal neutron utilization 𝑓: the fraction of the absorbed neutrons which are
absorbed in the fuel.

absorb fissile Σabsorb fissile 𝑁fis 𝜎𝑎fis

𝑓= = =
absorb total Σabsorb fissile + Σabsorb nonfissile 𝑁fis 𝜎𝑎fis + 𝑁other 𝜎𝑎non−fis

fission

fissile absorption ①

radiative
1 neutron capture

leakage from system ③

non-fissile absorption ②
scattering event does not neutron
compete for a neutron.
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Poisoning
o Effective multiplication constant under non-poisoning and poisoning
𝑘eff = 𝜂𝑓𝜀𝑝𝑃𝑁𝐿 ≡ 𝑘∞ 𝑃𝑁𝐿
o Neutron Utilization f: the fraction of the absorbed neutrons which are
absorbed in the fissile nuclides.
non-poisoning poisoning
absorb fissile Σ𝑎𝐹 Σ𝑎𝐹
𝑓= 𝑓= 𝐹 𝑓′ = 𝐹
absorb total Σ𝑎 + Σ𝑎𝑀 Σ𝑎 + Σ𝑎𝑀 + Σ𝑎𝑃
▪ Σ𝑎𝐹 : thermal absorption cross section of fissile fuel;
▪ Σ𝑎𝑀 : thermal absorption cross section of moderator;
▪ Σ𝑎𝑃 : thermal absorption cross section of fission products.

𝑘eff − 1 𝑘 − 1
′
𝑘′ − 𝑘
𝜌≝ ≝ ∆𝜌 = 𝜌 − 𝜌 = ′
𝑘eff 𝑘 𝑘𝑘

Poisoning: the change in reactivity due to

𝑘′ − 𝑘 𝑓′ − 𝑓 Σ𝑎𝑃 Σ𝑎𝑃
∆𝜌 ≈ = ≈− 𝐹 =− the absorption of neutrons by product
𝑘′ 𝑓′ Σ𝑎 + Σ𝑎𝑀 Σ𝑎 fragments.
𝛴𝑎 : (non-poisoning)
absorb total 20
149Sm and 135Xe Poisoning
o The short-term time dependence of two fission product progeny, 149Sm and
135Xe, which have very large absorption cross sections and large product

fraction from fission events , introduces some interesting reactivity transients

when the reactor power level is changed.

▪ The concentrations rapidly increase after the start-up of the reactor;

▪ The concentrations rapidly change due to radioactive decay, in case of the
change of operation conditions;
▪ 149Smand 135Xe have effect on the reactivity in case of reactor start-up,
shutdown and power regulation.

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Xenon (135Xe) Poisoning

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135Xe Poisoning
o Thermal reactor must consider the effect of 135Xe poisoning because it has very
large absorption cross section around 3e6 barns in thermal region;
o Absorption cross section dramatically decreases in fast region, such that the
effect of 135Xe poisoning becomes weak in fast reactor.
absorption cross section (106 barn)

Average absorption cross section is

around 3e6 barns in thermal region.

0.025eV neutron energy (eV)

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135Xe Poisoning
Generation
Concentration Generation of isotope A Destruction
o 135Xe Transmutation–Decay Chains of isotope A
= of isotope A +
from fission
from other
−
of isotope A
transmutations

𝑑𝑁𝐼 𝑡
Isotope 135I = 𝛾𝑇𝑒 𝛴𝑓 𝜙 − 𝑁𝐼 𝜆𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡
Isotope 135Xe = 𝛾𝑋𝑒 𝛴𝑓 𝜙 + 𝑁𝐼 𝜆𝐼 − 𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙
𝑑𝑡

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(1) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration under Startup
o New reactor startup, to set initial conditions:
Isotope 135I 𝑁𝐼 0 = 0

Isotope 135Xe 𝑁𝑋𝑒 0 = 0

o Time-dependent 135I and 135Xe concentration after startup:

𝛾𝐼 Σ𝑓 𝜙 𝛾𝐼 + 𝛾𝑋𝑒 Σ𝑓 𝜙
𝑁𝐼 𝑡 = 1 − exp −𝜆𝐼 𝑡 𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡 = 1 − exp − 𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙 𝑡
𝜆𝐼 𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙
𝛾𝐼 Σ𝑓 𝜙
+ exp − 𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙 𝑡 − exp −𝜆𝐼 𝑡
𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙 + 𝜆𝑋𝑒 − 𝜆𝐼

o Equilibrium 135I and 135Xe Concentration

𝛾𝐼 Σ𝑓 𝜙

𝑁𝐼 , 𝑁𝑋𝑒
Isotope 135I 𝑁𝐼 ∞ =
𝜆𝐼
𝛾𝐼 + 𝛾𝑋𝑒 Σ𝑓 𝜙
Isotope 135Xe 𝑁𝑋𝑒 ∞ =
𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙
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time after startup (hr)
(1) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration under Startup
o Slide 17 Change in reactivity under non-poisoning and poisoning
Poisoning: the change in reactivity due to
𝑘′ − 𝑘 𝑓′ − 𝑓 Σ𝑎𝑃 Σ𝑎𝑃
∆𝜌 ≈ = =− 𝐹 =− the absorption of neutrons by product
𝑘′ 𝑓′ Σ𝑎 + Σ𝑎𝑀 Σ𝑎 fragments.
𝛴𝑎 : absorb total

𝛾𝐼 + 𝛾𝑋𝑒 Σ𝑓 𝜙
𝑁𝑋𝑒 ∞ =
𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙

Σ𝑎Xe 𝑁𝑋𝑒 ∞ 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝛾𝐼 + 𝛾𝑋𝑒 Σ𝑓 𝜙

Δ𝜌𝑋𝑒 ∞ ≈− =− =−
Σ𝑎 Σ𝑎 Σ𝑎 𝜆𝑋𝑒
𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 + 𝜙
𝜙 > 1014 ~1015 cm−2 ⋅ s −1
𝜆𝑋𝑒 Τ𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 = 0.756 × 1013 cm−2 ⋅ s −1
Σ𝑓 ΤΣ𝑎 ≈ 0.6~0.8

𝛾𝐼 + 𝛾𝑋𝑒 Σ𝑓 ▪ relative to the ratio between reactor fission cross

Δ𝜌𝑋𝑒 ∞ ≈− section and absorption cross section;
Σ𝑎
▪ the value is acceptable, thus, 135Xe poisoning has
Δ𝜌𝑋𝑒 ∞ ≈ 0.04~0.05 negligible effect on full power operating reactors.
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(2) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration after Shutdown
Generation
Concentration Generation of isotope A Destruction
o 135Xe Transmutation–Decay Chains of isotope A
= of isotope A +
from fission
from other
−
of isotope A
transmutations

𝑑𝑁𝐼 𝑡
Isotope 135I = 𝛾𝑇𝑒 𝛴𝑓 𝜙 − 𝑁𝐼 𝜆𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡
Isotope 135Xe = 𝛾𝑋𝑒 𝛴𝑓 𝜙 + 𝑁𝐼 𝜆𝐼 − 𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝑋𝑒 + 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙
𝑑𝑡

Assume 𝜙 → 0
after shutdown

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(2) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration after Shutdown
o New reactor shutdown, to set initial conditions (shutdown setup time t=0):
Isotope 135I 𝑁𝐼 0 = 𝑁𝐼 ∞
Equilibrium 135I and 135Xe Concentration Slide 22
Isotope 135Xe 𝑁𝑋𝑒 0 = 𝑁𝑋𝑒 ∞

o Time-dependent 135I and 135Xe concentration after shutdown:

𝛾𝐼 Σ𝑓 𝜙0 𝛾𝐼 + 𝛾𝑋𝑒 Σ𝑓 𝜙0 𝛾𝐼 Σ𝑓 𝜙0
𝑁𝐼 𝑡 = exp −𝜆𝐼 𝑡 𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡 = exp −𝜆𝑋𝑒 𝑡 + exp −𝜆𝑋𝑒 𝑡 + exp −𝜆𝐼 𝑡
𝜆𝐼 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙0 + 𝜆𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝐼 − 𝜆𝑋𝑒

derivative

𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡 Σ𝑓 𝜙0
ቤ = 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝛾𝐼 𝜙0 − 𝛾𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝑋𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙0 + 𝜆𝑋𝑒

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(2) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration after Shutdown
𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡 Σ𝑓 𝜙0
ቤ = 𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝛾𝐼 𝜙0 − 𝛾𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝑋𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝜙0 + 𝜆𝑋𝑒
>0

𝛾𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝑋𝑒 𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡

IF 𝜙0 < ≈ 2.76 × 1011 cm−2 ⋅ s−1 , ቤ <0
𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝛾𝐼 𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
135Xeconcentration after shutdown decreases varying with time;
Peak xenon won’t exist.

𝛾𝑋𝑒 𝜆𝑋𝑒 𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡

o Xenon peak IF 𝜙0 > ≈ 2.76 × 1011 cm−2 ⋅ s −1 , ቤ >0
𝜎𝑎,𝑋𝑒 𝛾𝐼 𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
135Xe concentration after shutdown increases varying with time;
Typical flux values (e.g., 𝝓𝟎 ≈5 × 1013 n/cm2·s) in thermal reactors
are well above these threshold levels, and for typical flux values, it
yields a peak xenon time of ≈11.3 hour.
𝑑𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡 1 1+𝜙0 𝜎𝑎𝑋𝑒 ൗ𝜆𝑋𝑒 𝜙0 >5𝑒13 1 𝜆𝐼
𝑑𝑡
= 0 ⇒ 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⋯ 𝜆 −𝜆 ln 1+𝜙0 𝜎𝑎𝑋𝑒 ൗ𝜆𝐼
𝑡max ≈ 𝜆 −𝜆 ln 𝜆𝑋𝑒
≈ 11.3h
𝐼 𝑋𝑒 𝐼 𝑋𝑒

29
(2) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration after Shutdown
o Iodine pit behavior: the reactivity of the reactor after the shutdown first
decreases, then increases again, having a shape of a pit.

peak xenon 𝑵𝑿𝒆,𝐦𝐚𝐱 ∆𝝆𝐦𝐚𝐱 ∆𝜌 = − Σ𝑎𝑃 ΤΣ𝑎 Slide 17

1. The increase of 135Xe

which produced by the
𝛽 -decay of 135I after
shutdown.
2. There is no 135I produced
when shutdown, after 135I uses
Iodine pit up, 135Xe decreases by 𝛽-decay.
tp: re-startup by
control of control rod; iodine pit depth (to the minimal ρ)
tf: cannot re-startup
by control rod.
xenon peak time
iodine pit time (the duration)
operation shutdown

shutdown
setup time
30
(2) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration after Shutdown
o The depth of the pit and the deadtime highly depend on the neutron flux before
the shutdown.
▪ The larger the neutron flux before shutdown, the large the depth of iodine pit.
▪ The post-shutdown buildup of xenon is of little importance in low-flux reactors but
may be troublesome in reactors designed to operate at high flux.
▪ If at any time after the shutdown of a reactor the positive reactivity available by
removing all control rods is less than the negative reactivity due to the xenon, the
reactor cannot be restarted until the xenon has decayed.

Reactor deadtime: if the reserve reactivity is

NOT sufficient to overcome the Xe build up
after reactor shutdown, the reactor cannot be
restarted for a period of time until the Xenon
has decayed.

deadtime

31
From: J. R. Lamarsh and A. J. Baratta, Introdcution to Nuclear Engineering
(2) Time-dependent 135Xe Concentration after Shutdown
o The depth of the pit and the deadtime highly depend on the neutron flux before
the shutdown.
o Shutdown in a manner of progressive reduction of the reactor power can lead
the depth of iodine pit very small, because a part of 135Xe and 135I are destructed
due to neutron absorption and decay under relative low power operations.

32
(3) Effect of Power-level Change
o New reactor startup, to set initial conditions:
Isotope 135I 𝑁𝐼 0 = 𝑁𝐼 ∞
Equilibrium 135I and 135Xe Concentration when 𝜙1
Isotope 135Xe 𝑁𝑋𝑒 0 = 𝑁𝑋𝑒 ∞ Slide 22

𝜙1 → 𝜙2

𝑃1 → 𝑃2 𝜙1 → 𝜙2

Assume 𝜙1 → 𝜙2

33
(3) Effect of Power-level Change
𝜙1
o Decrease of power-level:
Analogous to changes in 135Xe concentration 𝜙2
and reactivity after shutdown.

o Increase of power-level: 𝜙2

Reverse to changes in reactivity after

shutdown or under decrease of power-level. 𝜙1 𝑁𝐼 𝑡

𝑁𝑋𝑒 𝑡

34
Samarium (149Sm) Poisoning

35
149Sm Poisoning
Generation
Concentration Generation of isotope A Destruction
o 149Sm Transmutation–Decay Chains of isotope A
= of isotope A +
from fission
from other
−
of isotope A
transmutations

𝑑𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝑡
Isotope 149Pm = 𝛾𝑃𝑚 𝛴𝑓 𝜙 − 𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝜆𝑃𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝑡
Isotope 149Sm = 𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝜆𝑃𝑚 − 𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜙
𝑑𝑡

1.7h << 53h, so it is assumed here 149Pm

is directly produced from fission events.

FISSION
very
large
36
(1) Time-dependent 149Sm Concentration under Startup
o New reactor startup, to set initial conditions:
Isotope 149Pm 𝑁𝑃𝑚 0 = 0

Isotope 149Sm 𝑁𝑆𝑚 0 = 0

o Time-dependent 149Pm and 149Sm Concentration after startup

𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 𝜙 𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓
𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝑡 = 1 − exp −𝜆𝑃𝑚 𝑡 𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝑡 = 1 − exp −𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜙𝑡
𝜆𝑃𝑚 𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚
𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 𝜙
− exp −𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜙𝑡 − exp −𝜆𝑃𝑚 𝑡
𝜆𝑃𝑚 − 𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜙

o Equilibrium 149Pm and 149Sm Concentration

149Pm
𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 𝜙
Isotope 𝑁𝑃𝑚 ∞ =
𝜆𝑃𝑚
𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓
Isotope 149Sm 𝑁𝑆𝑚 ∞ =
𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚
37
(1) Time-dependent 149Sm Concentration under Startup
o Slide 17 Change in reactivity under non-poisoning and poisoning
Poisoning: the change in reactivity due to
𝑘′ − 𝑘 𝑓′ − 𝑓 Σ𝑎𝑃 Σ𝑎𝑃
∆𝜌 ≈ = =− 𝐹 =− the absorption of neutrons by product
𝑘′ 𝑓′ Σ𝑎 + Σ𝑎𝑀 Σ𝑎 fragments.
𝛴𝑎 : absorb total

𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓
𝑁𝑆𝑚 ∞ =
𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚

Σ𝑎𝑆𝑚 𝑁𝑆𝑚 ∞ 𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝛾𝑆𝑚 Σ𝑓

Δ𝜌𝑆𝑚 ∞ ≈− =− =−
Σ𝑎 Σ𝑎 Σ𝑎

Δ𝜌𝑆𝑚 ∞ ≈ −0.007 ≪ Δ𝜌𝑋𝑒 ∞ ≈ 0.04~0.05

o Time to 𝑁𝑆𝑚 ∞ has to satisfy:

1 1
𝑡≫ & 𝑡≫ 𝑡 > 100hr
𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜙 𝜆𝑃𝑚
time after startup38(hr)
(2) Time-dependent 149Sm Concentration after Shutdown
Generation
Concentration Generation of isotope A Destruction
o 149Sm Transmutation–Decay Chains of isotope A
= of isotope A +
from fission
from other
−
of isotope A
transmutations

𝑑𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝑡
Isotope 149Pm = 𝛾𝑃𝑚 𝛴𝑓 𝜙 − 𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝜆𝑃𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝑡
Isotope 149Sm = 𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝜆𝑃𝑚 − 𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜙
𝑑𝑡

Assume 𝜙 → 0

FISSION
very
large
39
(2) Time-dependent 149Sm Concentration after Shutdown
o New reactor shutdown, to set initial conditions (shutdown setup time t=0):
Isotope 149Pm 𝑁𝑃𝑚 0 = 𝑁𝑃𝑚 ∞
Equilibrium 149Pm and 149Sm Concentration
Isotope 149Sm 𝑁𝑆𝑚 0 = 𝑁𝑆𝑚 ∞ Slide 22

o Time-dependent 149Pm and 149Sm

Concentration after shutdown
𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 𝜙
𝑁𝑃𝑚 𝑡 = exp −𝜆𝑃𝑚 𝑡 increase
𝜆𝑃𝑚

𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 𝜙
𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝑡 = + 1 − exp −𝜆𝑃𝑚 𝑡
𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 𝜆𝑃𝑚

𝛾𝑃𝑚 Σ𝑓 149Smconcentration
𝑁𝑆𝑚 ∞ =
𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚 before shutdown
Σ𝑎𝑆𝑚 𝑁𝑆𝑚 𝑡 𝜎𝑎,𝑆𝑚
Δ𝜌𝑆𝑚 ∞ ≈− =− decreases 40
Σ𝑎 Σ𝑎 time after startup (hr)