BOILERS, CHILLERS

Designing chilled water systems

Typically used for cooling and dehumidifying a building’s air, chilled water (CHW) systems
circulate it throughout a building or campus complex. CHW systems also may be used for
removing process or other heating loads.
BY RANDY SCHRECENGOST, PE, CEM, STANLEY CONSULTANTS, AUSTIN, TEXAS SEPTEMBER 16, 2014

Learning objectives:
1. Understand the codes and standards that guide CHW system design and energy e ciency requirements.
2. Learn design basics for CHW systems to meet a distribution loop’s load requirements.

3. Understand key equipment and its integration to improve energy e ciency.

Regardless of whether the design is for a new chilled water (CHW) system or a modi cation to an existing system,
an early review of codes, standards, and regulations is necessary to allow for an expedient design and avoid con icts
that will cost time and money to resolve. Local, state, and federal codes and regulations will dictate permitting
requirements that affect the location of buildings and equipment (central plants, cooling towers, buried piping
systems), fuel handling and storage, environmental emissions and noise, water quality, and safety items.

Groups such as ASHRAE, Air Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI), the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and NFPA all have standards to review for systems, equipment, and testing
requirements.

A good primary resource for most engineers today is ASHRAE. ASHRAE’s various technical committees write
standards and guidelines to establish consensus for such items as: methods of testing and classi cation, design,
protocol, and ratings for systems and equipment components of those systems. These consensus standards and
guidelines are developed by industry leaders with a wide variety of practical and technical/research experience, and
published to de ne minimum values or to encourage acceptable and enhanced performance.

ASHRAE has numerous technical sources of information including a series of four handbooks that are updated every
4 years. Two of these handbooks, Fundamentals – 2013 and HVAC Systems and Equipment – 2012, contain several
chapters lled with information and basic criteria needed to design CHW systems. Each handbook has an entire
chapter dedicated to listing “Selected Codes and Standards Published by Various Societies and Associations”
relevant to the topics covered within the handbooks.

All of the related building system codes—Building O cials Code Administrators International (BOCA) and
International Building Code (IBC )—and system components such as piping (ASME B31), ductwork (SMACNA),
motors and generators (IEEE, NEMA, UL), and other codes and standards are listed for reference. This is very
valuable for any designer or engineer beginning a new project, as these resources are updated every 3 or 4 years.

There are several major components within a CHW system, but chillers are machines lled with refrigerants used in
the exchange of heat to “create” and provide the cold water. When chillers are placed in rooms or con ned spaces,
the designer of the system must incorporate safety provisions to the equipment operator and/or the public.
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2013: Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems is the reference standard for
“machinery rooms” that typically house the larger equipment (i.e., chillers, pumps) necessary for a CHW system. This
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of Refrigerants.

ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings is the reference

standard for energy e ciency. This standard illustrates minimum e ciency and control systems requirements along
with commissioning for building envelope, HVAC, power, lighting, and other equipment, all of which is included in a
CHW system design. In ASHRAE 90.1, Chapter 6 is where designers will nd minimum energy e ciency
requirements for HVAC and CHW system construction with listings for component items such as water- and air-
cooled chillers, piping system design ow rates, insulation, and controls.

In addition, ASHRAE also published Guideline 22-2012: Instrumentation for Monitoring Central Chilled-Water Plant
E ciency, which helps designers better understand how to control CHW plants, and has recently developed a District
Cooling Guide – 2013 under the auspices of ASHRAE Technical Committee 6.2, District Energy, which does an
excellent job of covering items mentioned later in this article.

What is a CHW system?

From the early years of HVAC design, the use of CHW to transfer heat from areas of higher loads (e.g., building loads
at air handler coils, or industrial equipment loads at heat exchangers) to a condensing water loop or a refrigeration
system for heat rejection has been successful. In a very broad sense, a CHW system consists of the following
components:

A heat absorption component such as a chiller (or evaporator)

A compressor in a refrigerant cycle
A heat rejection component such as a cooling tower (or radiator)
CHW piping
Either condenser water (CW) piping (for a water-cooled system) or refrigerant based piping (for an air-cooled
or evaporative-cooled distribution system) to move the separate uid systems between the respective
components.

Each of the CHW and CW/refrigerant distribution systems will include various additional components and devices
such as a pump, a compressor, an expansion tank, air separators/air eliminators, water or refrigerant treatment and
ltration devices, isolation and control valves, and a controls system consisting of numerous temperature, pressure,
and ow rate metering and control devices. For chillers using air cooling on the condenser side, there is no need for a
condenser water loop including piping, cooling tower, and pump. For this article, the uid systems discussed will be
water only.

The CHW portion of the system circulates and ows between the chiller and the building loads through pumping by
the CHW pump (although dependent upon the system, usually referred to as the primary pump), and can be operated
as constant ow or variable ow. For water-cooled chillers, a condenser water loop is necessary, and always
operates when the chiller is energized to operate. This loop also requires a condenser water pump to circulate the
CW through the piping between the chiller and the cooling tower or heat rejection device (radiator or closed circuit
cooler). The CW system has traditionally been a constant ow (CF) system, but recently designs have included
variable ow (VF) in this system as well. Any variable ow application (CHW or CW) increases the intricacy of the
design, construction, and operation of a system, but at times of low load and corresponding reduced ow rate
requirement, may offer signi cant pump energy savings. Decisions regarding constant and variable system ows
dictate designs typically referred to as primary/secondary (PS) and variable primary (VP) system designs.

Selecting a CF versus a VF system requires many considerations during the design effort. As with any design, the
designers of a CHW system should consider various options and equipment through discussions with the owner,
and recommend one or more of these options to meet the project goals and performance requirements. Among the
many important items to consider regarding these system designs are any system constructability and budgetary
constraints, system operability, operations and maintenance costs, and energy consumption costs.

Depending on the size of the building and the related cooling loads necessary to cool and dehumidify the building’s
airstreams or other processes where some form of cooling is needed, the CHW system may have more than one of
the larger components mentioned (chillers, cooling towers, pumps), and may be independent from nearby
surrounding buildings. Or the building may have some combination of CHW distribution piping systems connected to
a larger thermal utility network that serves several buildings simultaneously from a large, remote central plant
arrangement.
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CHW system types 

The rst step in designing any e cient, effective HVAC system for a building is to perform an accurate building load
calculation and energy model. The 2013 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals Chapters 18 and 19, and ASHRAE 90.1
provide methods and guidelines for developing HVAC load calculations and building energy modeling. The type of
CHW system designed and installed and the amount of the CHW required for these cooling loads will be a major
component in the overall building energy usage. When designing new or retro tting existing CHW systems, the
interaction between all building loads as related to outdoor air (OA) ventilation requirements, and the energy needed
to condition that amount of air ow, along with the internal building’s return air (RA) loads and any other process heat
loads, should be part of the system considerations so all the equipment can be sized and controlled properly to
account for all the energy impacts, including the energy transfer for hydronic system preheat or precool
opportunities.

An independent, stand-alone single chiller system type is relatively easy to design and operate, but even though the
rst cost is less, this system is typically the least energy-e cient design for buildings. This is because chillers are
normally selected within a small percentage range of the calculated design process loads of the building (or
buildings) they serve. Based on a variety of research, and dependent on the building loads throughout the day, the
majority of the time the CHW system operates at part load and is in the 45% to 60% range. The chiller operates at full
capacity for only a small percentage of time.

Designers should select a chiller at a higher part load e ciency to maximize energy savings based on the larger run
hours at part load. Review AHRI’s Standard 550/590: Performance Rating of Water-Chilling and Heat Pump Water-
Heating Packages Using the Vapor Compression Cycle for more details. Additionally, if the building’s cooling
requirements include any mission critical functions within its structure, provisions for redundancy (N+1) must be
incorporated in the design. If a single chiller fails, or a related single pump or cooling tower associated with the chiller
fails, the CHW system or all cooling capacity is lost. Thus, many CHW systems have two or three redundant
equipment components installed. This provides some level of backup and allows for more e cient operation at low-
load time periods. There are exceptions with some manufacturers who provide dual compressor chillers that can
operate at a high-e ciency point at 50% capacity (one compressor), and also provide some redundancy for a chiller
plant.

Figure 2 is a schematic that shows a building single-chiller CHW system. Figure 2 illustrates a similar independent
system, but where multiple components would be installed because the building, and the cooling load, is larger or
redundancy is required (N+1). In both single-chiller and multiple-chiller arrangements, the CHW loop can be either
constant ow or variable ow (which must remain above manufacturer required minimum ows).

The use of two or more chillers with part load capacity will provide more opportunities to improve the CHW system
part-load performance and help reduce energy consumption, and can greatly assist in providing redundancy in the
design. These chillers can be designed to operate in series or parallel modes. (Figure 5 is a parallel chiller
arrangement.)

Figure 6 shows a large 1450-ton chiller, which is one of three in a parallel arrangement. The parallel arrangement is
more common with chillers that are typically the same type and size, but is not mandatory. The chillers do not need
to be sized individually to meet the building capacity but can be operated together to do so. In this case, the CHW will
ow in parallel paths through both chillers and will generally experience similar pressure drops. In a series chiller
arrangement, the CHW ow will go through both chillers in series and the water pressure drop is additive. In both
arrangements, one or both chillers may be on variable speed drives (VSDs) and the CHW, and even the condenser
water, loop can be either constant ow or variable ow.

Finally, the building or buildings may not have any chillers or cooling towers, but only CHW distribution piping
systems connected to a larger thermal utility network from a remote CHW central plant (CP) arrangement. Typically
these central CHW plants serve multiple buildings of various types ranging in function or use, size, construction
materials, age, and cooling loads. Some buildings may have more than one CHW loop inside its walls. The building’s
piping distribution systems may or may not have a pump (typically identi ed as a secondary or tertiary building
pump depending on the system) within its structure. The larger CHW central plant that provides the buildings with
CHW may have chillers in a parallel or series arrangement, and may have pumps (primary and/or secondary) located
within the CP building.

Another term for this type of arrangement that is becoming more common is a district cooling plant (DCP) that also
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serves a localized campus, whether in a college or university
Policy setting, an industrial complex, or large urban mixed-useX
for more information.
site. The design of these DCPs must take into account the diversity of all loads throughout the area they serve
including when the different peak loads will occur. (See Figures 3 and 4 for schematic arrangements of a larger
central plant.)

CHW pumping schemes

Regardless of the CHW plant location, an overall campus thermal utility master plan can provide the design options
for consideration and evaluation of pumping schemes for circulating CHW. There are two common con gurations
for CHW plant pumping schemes that will work with the selected CHW equipment to deliver the CHW to a building or
group of buildings:

1. Primary-secondary (PS)
2. Variable-primary (VP).

In the PS scheme, the primary CHW loop is typically constant volume ow while the secondary loop is variable
volume ow. There are still some older systems where the secondary loop is also constant volume. This loop will
have three-way valves located at some or all of the building loads to allow for required minimum ow rates. However,
these systems are commonly being replaced because the technology and e ciencies of the chillers have increased,
as have the energy costs associated with operating the distribution system. The VP scheme, sometimes called
direct-primary, can be either a constant or a variable volume ow system. Again, because energy costs are so
important, this loop is usually variable ow with variable frequency drives (VFDs) on the primary pumps.

The designer should become aware of the various advantages and disadvantages for either scheme, which include:
central plant operators’ familiarity with their different operational modes, different size pump motor requirements,
different capital investment requirements for infrastructure, and “low delta T syndrome.” See Figure 5 for a schematic
that shows a proposed PS CHW system; Figure 6 is a schematic that shows a possible VP CHW system.

Along with the discussion of pumping schemes, it is important to understand the phenomenon known as low delta T
syndrome, and its subsequent impact on chiller plant capacity and energy usage.

CHW system design considerations

CHW systems are all designed for a differential temperature or delta T between the CHW supply and return water
between the chiller and the building loads. This delta T will affect building equipment (air handling or fan coil units)
coil sizes, distribution system pumping costs, and chiller sizing and costs with associated energy costs required to
produce the differential. A higher delta T usually means the costs will increase for the chiller as it will affect the chiller
evaporator log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and require longer tubes or more chiller passes, which in turn
increases chiller pressure drops that need to be overcome by the pumps. Table 2 illustrates a distribution pumping
cost relationship.

For the planned system, designers need to vary their selections of CHW supply temperatures along with the CHW
delta T ranges to determine the best balance for each. Selecting a chiller for a higher delta T may reduce other
equipment cost and energy use when compared to the traditional 10 F delta T. At higher temperature differentials of
12 to 18 F delta T, low supply water temperatures (38 to 40 F), and variable ow with modulating valves, a design
strategy could reduce pump energy (lower ow) and piping installation cost (smaller pipe sizes).

However, lower leaving water temperatures use more energy that may not be offset by perceived gains in pumping
and fan energy savings. Colder supply water means higher compressor horsepower costs. And the selected delta T
will also affect a building’s air handler coils regarding ow rates and supply air temperatures. The distribution loop’s
supply temperature should be set for the building’s temperature and humidity control needs. The total annual system
energy use must be considered for any of these options.

Low delta T syndrome

Low delta T syndrome occurs when a design CHW temperature range is not maintained. Every CHW plant will
experience low delta T at some point during its continued operation. This phenomenon causes plant operators to run
extra pumps and chillers to meet CHW load. This in turn reduces the plant’s cooling output capacity and wastes
energy. A CHW plant’s output capacity can be de ned by the following equation for a water-only system:

Q (Btu/hr) = 500 x gpm x delta T

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Because load is directly proportional to ow rate and delta T, a change in delta T will require a change in ow rate for
the same load. A change in ow rate implies a change in delta T for the same load. In a plant setting, if delta T is low,
at least three problems can occur: increased pump energy usage, an increase in chiller energy usage, and an inability
to meet some cooling loads. Designers should research and become familiar with this phenomenon but realize low

delta T is a symptom of problems on the load side at the buildings and possible overpumping at the plant on the
CHW loop (see Table 3).

Hydraulic modeling

Some form of hydraulic modeling of a building or thermal utility distribution CHW system should be completed for
any design because of the relationship of the volumetric ow rate to the pressures that will be experienced in the
system. The system pressures will dictate the selection of the component equipment (chillers, pumps, etc.) as well
as the pressure class of all the distribution piping, ttings, and valves within the system. These pressures will, in turn,
be related to the selected pumping scheme. The typical system delivering CHW from a chiller or the entire central
plant is a closed loop hydronic system, and this means that the starting point within the system is the same as the
ending point within that system. For reference, the typical condenser water system is considered an open loop, but it
can be closed dependent on the heat rejection equipment used.

Every component within the CHW system will affect the pressure of the CHW at any point and will: x the pressure at
a particular level, increase the pressure, or decrease the pressure. Expansion tanks within a closed loop system will
act as the point of constant pressure and be considered the reference pressure for the system, and will also allow for
the expansion or contraction of the CHW due to thermal and volumetric changes in the closed system. The CHW
pumps will increase pressure by raising the suction pressure at the pump by the total dynamic head of the system.

The total dynamic head of the system is de ned as “equal to the total discharge head minus the total suction head of
the CHW pump typically expressed in feet of water.” All equipment within the system (chillers, heat exchangers), and
all piping, ttings, isolation and/or control valves, and any other appurtenances will decrease the system pressure
through the friction effects as the water passes through the system.

System controls

Control sequences are a key element in achieving any energy management and savings goals. Most chiller control
sequences are straightforward and easy to use for the operation of one or more chillers within a plant. All chillers
have an internal sequence they use to run, and a series of safety sequences to prevent inadvertent damage while
starting or running. An overall control sequence can be simply manually enabling the chiller or chillers to run as
needed, although this could lead to wasted energy as the chillers will run even when not needed, or automating the
process through a BAS.

The control schemes for a CHW system usually vary with the size and complexity of the system, and especially with
the type of pumping scheme chosen. The system’s CHW ow can be controlled from static pressure, which provides
some reliability but has limited exibility for operational changes, and can waste energy in over pumping. Or, CHW
ow can be controlled from differential pressure using delta P at the CHW plant, in the distribution system, and/or at
the hydraulically most remote location. In addition, there is typically some type of chiller staging sequence such as
with load or amps (kilowatts) of the motors, or some other strategy such as Btu metering and metering secondary
CHW ow rates.

As mentioned earlier, ASHRAE has developed numerous sources of information for CHW systems that can be used
as resources for the designer. Furthermore, ASHRAE 90.1 requires various efforts such as pump pressure
optimization where pump control setpoints are varied due to control valve positions in the system, and CHW
temperature reset, which uses feedback from the building control valves and outside air temperatures to reset the
CHW supply temperature upward when available to reduce chiller loads. In some cases, these efforts may be easy,
particularly if the CHW system is relatively small and/or the chiller plant is part of the building.

It is not as easy if the chiller plant is part of a campus environment, although decoupling the central plant control
from any building-level control would allow the plant to operate as it needs to while the buildings all operate
separately. A complete optimization of a plant must evaluate the e ciency of the entire CHW system and operate all
the individual components (chillers, cooling towers, pumps) at various levels to optimize the overall CHW system
operation.
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Randy Schrecengost is a project manager/senior mechanical engineer with Stanley Consultants. He has extensive
experience in design and project and program management at all levels of engineering, energy consulting, and facilities
engineering. He is a member of the Consulting-Specifying Engineer editorial advisory board.

References

1. ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Systems and Equipment 2012

2. ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals 2013
3. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2013: Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems
4. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2013: Designation and Safety Classi cation of Refrigerants. 
5. ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
. ASHRAE Guideline 22-2012: Instrumentation for Monitoring Central Chilled-Water Plant E ciency
7. ASHRAE District Cooling Guide – 2013
. McQuay International Chiller Plant Design, Application Guide 2002
9. ITT Fluid Technology Corporation, 1968, Primary Secondary Pumping Application Manual
10. ITT Fluid Technology Corporation, 1996, Large Chilled Water Systems Design Workshop Manual
11. “Chilled Water Plant Pumping Schemes,” James J. Nonnenmann, PE, Stanley Consultants Inc.
12. “Chilled Water System Hydraulics,” James J. Nonnenmann, PE, Stanley Consultants Inc.

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