Module 2 - Nuclear Chemistry

CHEM ENG
MODULE 2
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
prepared by
 Silfavan  Rodil  Capinding

 Sacdalan  Cabildo  Ergino
Chemistry Department
College of Science
Technological University of the Philippines, Manila
SY 2020 - 2021
CHEM ENG
MODULE 2: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
OVERVIEW:
In this module, the discussion will start with the study of the nuclides of an
atom and comparisons of nuclear reactions with ordinary chemical reactions. Then,
you will learn to balance nuclear equations in terms of elementary particles like
electrons, protons, neutrons, and alpha particles. (Lesson 2.1 – 2.2)
The other types of Nuclear Reactions are likewise emphasized in this module:
(Lesson 2.3)
Nuclear transmutations are nuclear reactions induced by the bombardment
of a nucleus by particles such as neutrons, alpha particles, or other small
nuclei. Transuranium elements are all created in this way in a particle
accelerator.
In nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei when
bombarded with a neutron.
In nuclear fusion, two small nuclei fuse to yield a larger nucleus with the
release of large amounts of energy.
Consequently, the stability of a nucleus is examine in terms of the neutron-to-proton

ratio. Then you will also study the decay of 238U as an example of natural
radioactivity. (Lesson 2.4)
Furthernore, you will learn to use the Einstein mass – energy equation to calculate
nuclear binding energy (Lesson 2.5)
Likewise, you can utilize the Einstein mass – energy equation to calculate the large
amounts of energy involved in a nuclear fission. (Lesson 2.6)
You also see how radioactive decays, which are all first-order rate processes, are
used to date objects. (Lesson 2.7)
Uses of Isotopes, especially radioactive isotopes, is also discussed in this module

where you will find many applications in structural determination and mechanistic
studies as well as in medicine. (Lesson 2.8)
The module concludes with a discussion of the nuclear waste categories which will
be helpful in your high major courses, i.e., Environmental Chemistry and
Environmental Planning. (Lesson 2.9)
Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Chemistry Dept. / COS, TUP Manila
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CHEM ENG
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. explain the concept of the nuclide of an atom;

2. describe the makeup of the nucleus
3. differentiate ordinary chemical reactions from nuclear reaction;
4. write and balance equations that describe nuclear reactions
5. define nuclear stability;
6. describe the relationships between neutron–proton ratio and nuclear
stability
7. tell what is meant by the band of stability
8. predict the different kinds of nuclear reactions undergone by nuclei,

depending on their positions relative to the band of stability
9. learn some of the principles governing how certain isotopes disintegrate
naturally and spontaneously;
10. describe the common types of radiation emitted when nuclei undergo
radioactive decay
11. calculate mass deficiency and nuclear binding energy
12. convert mass to energy from nuclear reactions;
13. explain the Radioactive Decay Law;
14. understand half-lives of radioactive elements
15. carry out calculations associated with radioactive decay
16. interpret disintegration series
17. tell about some uses of radionuclides, including the use of radioactive
elements for dating objects
18. cite important uses of some radioactive nuclide .
19. classify nuclear waste and learn its proper disposal

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CHEM ENG
Introduction
Chemical reactions occur when the outermost or valence electrons around
the nucleus interact. In 1896, Henri Becquerel has expanded the field of chemistry
to include the changes in the nucleus as well when he discovered that uranium
emitted radiation. Soon after his discovery, Marie Curie began studying radioactivity.
She was the first woman to win the Nobel Prize for the discovery of radioactivity
along with her husband Pierre and Becquerel. She won another Noble prize for
discovering the radioactive elements radium and polonium.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous breakdown of an atom by emission of
particles and/or radiations. All elements having an atomic number greater than 83
are radioactive. For example, the isotope of uranium, uranium-92 (23892U) decays
234
spontaneous to 90Th by emitting an alpha particle.
LESSON 2.1 The Nuclide of an Atom

Except 11H, all nuclei contains proton and neutron. These two can be
determined using the atomic number and mass number.
The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in its nucleus. Because
an atom as a whole is electrically neutral, the atomic number also specifies the
number of electrons present.
Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

The mass number of an atom is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons
in its nucleus. Thus the mass number gives the number of subatomic particles
present in the nucleus.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = Mass number – number of protons
To determine the atomic number and mass number of an element, consider this
example (can be seen in the periodic table).
mass number →4
atomic number →2He ← symbol of the element He

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CHEM ENG
4
2He means an atom of He has 2 protons, 2 electrons, and 2 neutrons.
EXAMPLE:
Representation Mass Atomic No. of No. of No. of
Number Number protons electrons neutrons
16
8O 16 8 8 8 8
29
14Si 29 14 14 14 15
28
14Si 28 14 14 14 14
It can be noticed that atoms of a given element do not have the same atomic
mass. Silicon in the above example has an atomic mass of 28 and 29. These
different versions of the same element are called isotopes (nuclides that have the
same atomic number but different mass number).
Other nuclides are isobars, and isotones. Isobars have the same mass
number but different atomic numbers. Isotones are nuclides that have the same
number of neutrons but have different atomic number. Isomers have the same
atomic number, atomic mass and number of neutrons, but with different energies.
EXAMPLE:
Given the following nuclides:
40 41 40 80 39
18Ar, 19K, 21Sc, 40Zr, 19K
Select from them the a) isotopes, b) isobars and c) isotones:
Answer:
a) Isotopes are: 41 39
19K and 19K
b) Isobars are: 40 40
18Ar and 21Sc
c) Isotones are: 40 41
18Ar and 19K

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CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.1:
I. Complete the table below.

Mass Atomic No. of No. of No. of
Representation
Number Number protons electrons neutrons
32 43
55 25
108 47
14 14
32
16S
II. Classify the following pairs as isotopes, isobars or isotones.

__________1. 146 C and 147 N ___________6. 40 40
19 K and 20 Ca
__________2. 232 233

90 Th and 90 Th ___________7. 148 O and 137 N
__________3. 40 41
18 Ar and 19 K ___________8. 213 213
83 Bi and 84Po
__________4. 136C and 125N ___________ 9. 238 239

92 U and 92 U
__________5. 32 He and 42 He 97
___________10. 40 97
Zr and 41Nb

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CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.2 Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear reactions which can be radioactive decay, nuclear transmutation,
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are very different in ordinary chemical reactions.
Table 2.1 summarizes the differences.
Table 2.1. Comparison of Chemical Reactions and Nuclear Reactions
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
Occur when bonds are broken Occur when nuclei emit particles
and/or rays
Atoms remain unchanged, although Atoms are converted to into atoms of
they may be rearranged another element.
Only valence electrons are involved. Proton, neutron, electron, and positron
are involved.
Reactions involved absorption and Reactions involved absorption and
released of small amount of energy released of immense amount of energy
Rates of reaction are affected by Rates of reaction are not affected by
surface area, concentrations, surface area, concentrations,
temperature, pressure, and presence temperature, pressure, and presence
of catalysts. of catalysts.
Balancing Nuclear Reactions

The nuclear reaction is balanced when:
 The total number of protons plus neutrons in the products and in the
reactants are the same (conservation of mass number).
 The total number of nuclear charges in the products and in the

reactants are the same (conservation of atomic number).
This can be done by considering the following elementary particles as either
reactants or products.
Elementary particles Symbols Mass Charge
1
Proton 1p or 11H ~ 1 amu 1+
1
Neutron 0n ~ 1 amu 0
Electron / Beta (β) particle 0
−1ℯ or 0
−1β ~ 0 amu 1-
0 0
Positron +1ℯ or +1β ~ 0 amu 1+
4
Alpha (α) particle 2He or 42α ~ 4 amu 2+
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CHEM ENG
0
Gamma 0γ 0 amu 0
EXAMPLE:
Balance the following nuclear equations:
1. 212
84Po →
208
82Pb + ______
2. 137
55Cs →
137
56Ba + ______
3. 78 0
33As → −1β + ______
37
4. 18Ar + −10β → ______
206
5. 238
92U → 82Pb + __ 42α 0
+ __ −1β
Solutions:
208
1. 212
84Po → 82Pb + 42α
2. 137 137Ba 0
55Cs → 56 + −1β
3. 78 0
33As → −1β + 78
34Se
37 0 37
4. 18Ar + −1β → 17Cl
206
5. 238 4 0
92U → 82Pb + 8 2α + 6−1β

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CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.2:
Complete the following nuclear reactions by identifying the X.
1. 26 1 4
12Mg + 1p → X + 2α
59
2. 27Co + 21H → X + 60
27Co
139
3. 235 1 94
92U + 0n → 36Kr + 56Ba + 3 X
4. 53 4 1
24Cr + 2α → X + 0n
5. 208O → 209F + X
6. 135 135
53 I → 54 Xe + X
7. 40 0
19 K → −1β + X
59 1 56
8. 27 Co + 0n → X + 25 Mn
135
9. 235
92U +
1
0n → 99
40Sr + 52Te + 2X
10. 63Li + 2
1H → 2X

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CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.3 Types of Nuclear Reactions

In 1902, Frederick Soddy proposed the theory that radioactivity is the result
of a natural change of an isotope of one element into an isotope of a different
element. All elements heavier than bismuth and some lighter elements exhibit
natural radioactivity and thus decay into lighter elements.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay or disintegration of unstable atomic
nucleus which is accompanied by the emission of ionizing radiation such as
electron, proton, and neutron. Radioactive substances that occur in nature emit
alpha, beta and gamma rays.
Alpha particles are emitted from alpha radiation from the nucleus of an atom.
This particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons lightly bound together.
Beta emission gives off the beta particles, 𝛽 - is ejected from the nucleus of a
radionuclide at high speed.
Gamma ray is an electromagnetic radiation which comes from the nucleus of
an atom as a result of radioactive decay.
Type of radioactivity
1. Natural- radioactivity that exist in nature. It belongs to any existing radioactive

families or series, examples: uranium, actinium, thorium
2. Artificial- radioactivity produced by man, examples: technetium, astatine,
francium
There are four types of processes that involve nuclear transformation. These
are radioactive decay, nuclear transmutation, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion.
1) Radioactive decay – is a process in which the nucleus spontaneously

disintegrates giving off radiation. Radioactive decay is the change that takes
place in the nucleus of an atom to make it stable. The more stable nuclide
resulting from the radioactive decay is called progeny or daughter nuclide.
Modes of decay:
a. Alpha decay - a type of radioactivity in which alpha (α) particles are

ejected. Alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons lightly bound
together.

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CHEM ENG
Figure 2.1: Alpha Emission
Example Exercise:
Plutonium-239 emits an alpha particle when it decays. What new
element is formed?
239 4
94Pu →X + 2α
Answer:
Mass and charge are conserved. The new element must have a mass
of 239-4 = 235 and a charge of 94-2 = 92. The nuclear charge (atomic
number) of 92 identifies the element as uranium (U).
239 235 4
94Pu → 92U + 2α
b. Beta Decay – a radioactive process is classified as beta decay if the

atomic number of the nuclide changes but the mass number does not
change.
In this process, electron is ejected from a nucleus and in the process
a neutron is converted into a proton. Also, the n/p ratio decreases since
the number of neutrons decreases and the number of proton increase.
Nuclides that have too high n/p ratio for stability, therefore, decay by
beta emission. Points representing nuclides of this type lie to the left of the
zone of stability.
Figure 2.2: Beta Emission

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c. Positron Emission (β+ decay) – a process in which a positron is electron

is ejected from the nucleus, and in the process a proton is converted into
a neutron.
Figure 2.3: Positron Emission
d. K–capture (electron capture) – is a process through which the

neutron/proton ratio of an unstable, proton-rich nuclide maybe increased.
In this process, the nucleus captures an orbital electron from the inner
energy level. The captured electron converts a nuclear proton into a
neutron. The transformation results in a product nucleus with one less
proton and one more neutron.
Figure 2.4: Electron Capture
e. Gamma emission ( 𝟎𝟎ϒ) is an emission from an excited nucleus of a

gamma photon (wavelength = 10 -12 m). Often, gamma emission occurs
very quickly after radioactive decay, however, in some cases an excited
state has a significant lifetime before it emits a gamma photon.
Ɣ has no mass ( 0 ) and no charge ( 0 ). Thus, it causes no
change in mass or numbers. Gamma rays almost always accompany
alpha and beta radiation. However, since there is no effect on mass
number or atomic number, they are usually omitted from nuclear
equations.

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CHEM ENG
Figure 2.5: Gamma Emission
2) Nuclear transmutation – a process in which one nucleus is transformed into

another through bombardment by various sub-atomic particles or ions. Nuclear
transmutation differs from radioactive decay in that the former is brought about
by the collision of two particles.
Example:
14
7N + 42α → 17
8O + 1
1p this can be abbreviated as 147N (α, p) 178O
56 54
26Fe + 21H → 25Mn + 42α this can be abbreviated as 56 54
26Fe (d, α) 25Mn
d means deuterium
3) Nuclear fission – a process in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter ones
generating one or more free neutrons. Because heavy nucleus is less stable
than its product, this process releases a large amount of energy.
Figure 2.6: Nuclear fission

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CHEM ENG
The first nuclear fission reaction studies was that of uranium-235

235 1 95 138
92U + 0n → 36𝐾𝑟 + 56Ba + 3 10n
The significant feature of uranium-235 fission is that more neutrons are produced
than are originally captured in the process. This property makes possible a nuclear
chain reaction, which is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions. In
less than a second, the reaction can become uncontrollable, liberating a tremendous
amount of heat to the surroundings.
4) Nuclear Fusion – a process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavier
one. If two light nuclei combine or fuse together to form a larger and more stable
nucleus, an appreciable amount of energy will be released in the process.
Examples:
2
1H + 31H → 4
2 He + 1
0 n (shown in Figure 3.8)
3
2He + 32He → 4
2He + 2 11H
1
1H + 11H → 2
1H + 0
+1β
Figure 2.7: Nuclear fusion

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CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.3:
1. Complete the preparations of some transuranium elements (elements with

atomic numbers greater than 92. Classify also the reaction as: (a) radioactive
decay (b) nuclear transmutation, (c) nuclear fusion, (d) nuclear fission.
a. 238 1 239
92U + 0n → 93Np + ________ __________________
b. 239 0
93Np → ______ + −1β __________________
c. 208 245 1
82Pb + ________ → 108Hs + 0n __________________
d. 242 245 1
96Cm + ________ → 98Cf + 0n __________________
e. 249 263 1
98Cf + _______ → 106Sg + 4 0n __________________
2. Fill in the blanks in the following radioactive decay series:

𝛼 𝛽 𝛽
232 228
a. Th → ______ → _______ → Th
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼
235 227
b. U → ______ → _______ → Ac
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼
233
c. _______ → Pa → _______ → _______
3. Write balanced nuclear equations for the following reactions and identify X:
a. X (p,α) 126C b. 27
13Al (d,α) X c. 55
25Mn (n,ϒ) X
80
d. 34Se (d, p) X e. X (d, 2p) 39Li f. 10
5B (n, α) X
4. Write the balanced nuclear equations for the following:
a. Beta decay of sodium-26
b. Alpha decay of 212
83Bi
c. Electron capture by 110

49In
d. Alpha decay of polonium-218
e. Production of 241
95Am through beta decay
f. Formation of 203
83Bi through alpha decay
g. Formation of 52Mn through positron emission
h. Formation of Polonium-215 through alpha decay
i. Production of 228
89Ac through beta decay
j. Formation of 81Kr through electron capture

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CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.4 Nuclear Stability

Radioisotope is a naturally or artificially produced radioactive isotope. In
order to be a radioisotope, an element must be above or below the band of stability.
This is determined when the number of neutrons is plotted against the number of
protons for the same elements shown in Figure 2.8. The lower end is linear following
the one to one ratio. These elements have the greatest stability. Once the region is
passed, this becomes curvilinear and the curve begins to take on 1.2:1, 1.4:1, and
1.5:1 ratios.
Figure 2.8: Band of Stability
Factors that determine whether a nucleus is stable:
1. Neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p)

Based on Coulomb’s law, like charges repel and unlike charges attract one
another. Thus, it is expected that proton will repel another proton considering that
they are close to each other (they are found in a very small portion of the total
volume of an atom). However, because of the presence of neutron, there are also
short-range attractions between proton and proton, proton and neutron, and neutron
and neutron.

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CHEM ENG
The stability of any nucleus is determined by the difference between the

repulsion and the short-range attraction. The nucleus disintegrates if repulsion
outweighs attraction. On the other hand, the nucleus is stable if attractive forces
prevail.
The stable nuclei of the lighter elements contain approximately equal number
of neutrons and protons (n/p = 1). These elements have the greatest stability. The
stable heavier nuclei, however, contains more neutrons than protons. With the
increasing atomic number more and more protons are placed in the nucleus. A
larger excess of neutrons is required to overcome the effect of forces of repulsion
that maneuver between protons. As a result, the n/p ratio increases with increasing
atomic number, until the ratio is approximately 1.5 at the end of the curve.
To sum up, based on n/p ratio:
 n/p = 1 (stable)
 n/p ≠ 1 (not stable)
Above the stability belt, the nuclei have higher neutron-to-proton ratio. To
lower this ratio, these nuclei undergo β-particle emission, and thus are called β-
emitters. Beta-particle emission leads to an increase in the number of protons and
a subsequent decrease in the number of neutrons.
1 1 0
0n → 1p + −1β
14 14 0
6 C → 7 N + −1β
Below the stability belt, the nuclei have lower neutron-to-proton ratio. To
increase this ratio, these nuclei either capture an e- or emit a positron, and thus are
called positron emitters.
1 0 1
1p + −1e → 0n
1 1 0
or 1p → 0n + +1β
8 8 0
5 B → 4 Be + +1β
or electron capture
8 0 8
5 B + −1ℯ → 4 Be
In these two processes, the atomic number decreases by 1 while the mass
number remains the same.

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CHEM ENG
2. Pair Principle
Another factor that determines whether a nucleus is stable is the pair principle.
Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are generally stable. A
combination of an odd proton and even neutron or vice versa is less stable. Of more
than 300 stable isotopes, roughly 200 have even number of protons. Only about 120
have an odd number of proton and an even number of neutrons. There are only 5
stable isotopes of this kind as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Pair Principle

Nuclear Number of Stable
No. of protons No. of neutrons
Stability Isotopes
Odd Odd Least stable 5

2
H, 6Li, 10B, 14N, 180Ta
Odd Even Less stable 50
Even Odd Less stable 53
Even Even Stable 164
3. Magic Numbers
Nuclear stability is associated with nuclides having number of protons or
neutrons equal to the magic numbers: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126. Magic
numbers seem to indicate nuclear shells in the same way that the atomic
numbers of the noble gases 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 indicate stable configuration.
4. Isotopes with atomic number > 83

All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher than 83 are
radioactive.

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CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.4:
1. For each pair of isotopes listed, predict which one is less stable. Encircle
the answer.
a. 6 9
f. 23 25
3Li or 3Li 11Na or 11Na
48 48
g. 20 17
b. 20Ca or 21Sc 10Ne or 10Ne
c. 40 45 95 92
20Ca or 20Ca h. 42 Mo or 43 Tc
195 196 209 242

d. 80Hg or 80Hg i. 83Bi or 96Cm
e. 12 14
6C or 6C
2. Classify each of the following nuclides as “probably stable”, “beta emitter”,

or “positron emitter”
49
a. 20Ca ______________ b. 207
80Hg ______________
208 8
c. 82Pb ______________ d. 5B ______________
e. 150
67Ho ______________ f. 26
13Al ______________
120 94
g. 50Sn ______________ h. 36 Kr ______________

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CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.5 Mass defect and Nuclear Binding Energy

The nuclear binding energy is the amount of energy required to break apart a nucleus
into its component nucleons. The conversion of mass defect into energy can be calculated
using the Einstein’s equation (E = mc2), where E is the amount of energy, m is the mass,
and c is the speed of light, equal to 3.0 x108 m/s: 1H = 1.007825 amu
Eb = (∆m)c2 1n = 1.008665 amu
where Eb = the nuclear binding energy

∆m = mass defect = masscalculated – massexperimental
masscalcd = [(no. of protons)(massproton)] + [(no. of neutrons)(massneutron)]
EXAMPLE
237
Compute for the binding energy needed to break apart a nucleus of Np into
its nucleons.
237
Solution: 93Np
mass calculated = [(no. of protons)(massproton)] + [(no. of neutrons)(massneutron)]

Protons: 93 x 1.007825 amu = 93.727725 amu
Neutrons:144 x 1.008665 amu = 145.247760 amu
mass calculated = 238.975485 amu
mass experimental of 237Np = 237.0482 amu

∆m (mass defect) = masscalculated – massexperimental
= 238.975485 amu - 237.0482 amu = 1.927285 amu
1.66054 x 10−27kg
= 1.927285 amu x
1 amu
∆m = 3.2 x 10-27 kg/nucleus 237Np
Binding Energy, Eb = (∆m)c2
Eb = 3.2x10-27kg/nucleus 237Np x (3.0x108m/sec)2
Eb = 2.880 x 10-10 (kg.m2/sec2)/nucleus 237Np
1 nucleus 237Np
Eb = 2.880x10-10 J/nucleus237Np x
237 nucleons
-12 237
Eb = 1.215 x 10 J/nucleon Np
However, physicists state the amount of energy produced in nuclear reactions
is in electron volts and Mega electron volts. Hence, the mass defect (∆m) can be
expressed as Eb by using the direct relationship between amu and eV and MeV:
1 amu = 931.5 x 106 eV or 1 amu = 931.5 MeV
931.5 MeV
So, amount of energy, Eb in MeV = 1.927285 amu x
1 amu
Eb = 1,795.27 MeV/nucleus 237Np
1,795.27 MeV 1nucleus 237Np
Eb /nucleon = x
nucleus 237Np 237 nucleons
Eb /nucleon = 7.575 MeV/nucleon
This is the amount of energy needed to break the nucleus of Np per nucleon.
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CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.5:
1. Calculate the binding energy of a 4He nucleus if the experimentally

observed mass of helium-4 atom is 4.002603 amu. How much is the binding
energy of a mole of helium?
1
Use the following atomic mass : H = 1.007825 amu
1
n = 1.008665 amu
2. Calculate the mass defect and nuclear binding energy (J/nucleon and
MeV/nucleon) of each of the nuclides:
a. O-16 (atomic mass= 15.999 amu)
b. Ni-58 (atomic mass = 58.893 amu)
c. Xe-131 (atomic mass = 131.29 amu)

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CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.6 Mass Defect and Energy in a Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into lighter
nucleus, liberating huge amounts of energy. This amount of energy is a result of the
conversion of the mass to energy that occurs during an exothermic reaction. The
relationship between the mass and amount of energy formed can be also calculated
via the Einstein’s equation (E = mc2).
c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s c = 2.9979 x 1
∆E = (∆m)c2
1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-27 kg 1 amu = 1.660
where ∆m = mass defect = ∑ mproduct/s - ∑ mreactant/s 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
1 mole = 6.022
EXAMPLE
Calculate for the amount of energy produced when nitrogen undergoes
nuclear fission
14
7N + 10n → 14
6C + 1
1p
Mass of reactants Mass of Products

14 14
7N 14.006700 amu 6C 12.010700 amu
1 1
0n 1.008665 amu 1p 1.007825 amu
mreactants =15.015365 amu mproducts =13.018525 amu
i. ∆m (mass defect) = ∑ mproduct/s - ∑ mreactant/s

= 13.018525 amu - 15.015365 amu
∆m = - 1.996840 amu
To convert amu to kg, conversion factor: 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10 -27kg is used.
1.66054 x 10−27kg
∆m = - 1.996840 amu x
1 amu
∆m = - 3.315832694 x 10 kg -27
ii. Energy, ∆E = (∆m)c2

= - 3.315832694 x 10-27kg (3.0 x 108m/sec)2
= - 2.984249425 x 10-10 kg.m2/sec2
Since 1 joule = 1 kg.m2/sec2
∆E = - 2.984249425 joules/atom N14
iii. ∆E/mole = - 2.984249425 joules x 6.022 x 1023 atoms N14
atom N14 1 mol of N14
∆E/mole = - 1.797115003 x 1014 J/mol of N14
This is a tremendously large quantity of energy produced since the enthalpies

of ordinary chemical reactions are of only 200 kJ/mole.

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CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.6:
1. Calculate the energy released by a nucleus of uranium-235 if it splits into

Barium-141 nucleus and a Krypton-92 nucleus according to the given
equation:
235 1 236 141 92
92U + 0𝑛 → 92U * → 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 10𝑛
(Masses of atoms: 235U = 235.0439239 amu; 141Ba = 141.9144064 amu;
92
Kr = 91.9261528 amu; 10n = 1.008665 amu)
2. The major reaction taking place during hydrogen fusion in a young star is:
4 11H → 42He + 2 +1 0
β + 2 00γ + energy.
How much energy (in MeV) is released per He nucleus formed? Per mole of
He?
(Masses: 11H atom = 1.007825 amu; 42He atom = 4.00260 amu;
positron = 5.48580x10-4 amu.)

SY: 2020 - 2021
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CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.7 Rate of Radioactive Decay

Three years after the discovery of radioactivity in 1896, Eister and Geltel observed
that the strength of a pure radioactive substance decreased exponentially. The rate of decay
(activity of the sample) is most often expressed in terms of the number of atoms decaying
in a unit time. This maybe stated in Becquerel (Bq) or most commonly in Curies (Ci).
1 Bq = 1 atom/sec 1 Ci = 3.700 x1010 Bq
If we let N equal to the number of atoms of radioactive substance, ∆N is the

number of atoms that disintegrate in the time interval, ∆t.
-∆N/∆t = kN
let A = -∆N/∆t
then, A = kN
where: k is the rate constant and A is the activity. The rate expression is
negative because it represents the disappearance of the radioactive substances.
Rearranging the equation above,
-∆N/N = k ∆t
The fraction lost (-∆N/ N) in a given time interval (∆t) is directly proportional
to the length of time interval. The time required for half of the sample to decay is a
time interval defined as half-life, t1/2, which is constant for each radioactive nuclide.
The curve in the figure below shows the number of radioactive atoms versus time.
Figure 2.9: Activity of Radioactive Atoms vs. Time
Let N0 be equal to the number of radioactive atom, moles or any mass unit
present at the start. After a single half–life period has elapsed, one half of the original
no. of atoms remain (1/2 N0). The number is reduced by half (1/4 N 0) by the time
another half–life has passed. Each radioactive nuclide has a characteristics half–life
and these vary widely. For example, 5Li has half–life estimated to be 10-21 seconds
and 238U has a half-life of 4.5 x109 years.
In differential form, -∆N/N = k ∆t will be –dN/N = kt

-2.303 log (N/N0) = kt
where N0 is the amount present initially (at time zero) and N is the amount
present at time t.
log (N0/N) = k t / 2.303
SY: 2020 - 2021
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CHEM ENG
This equation is similar to the following:

Nt
a) ln = −kt
N0
b) ln[Nt ] = −kt + ln[N0 ]
c) Nt = [N0 ] e−kt
After a half-life period has elapsed t = t1/2, the number of radioactive

atoms left is equal to ½ N0.
N= ½ N0
Therefore, N0/N =2
Substituting them to the expression: log (N0/N) = k t / 2.303,
log 2 = k t1/2 / 2.303
hence, t1/2 = 2.303 log 2 / k
simplifying, t1/2 =0.693/k
Radioisotope dating uses radioisotopes to determine the age of an object.

It is based on measuring the amounts of 14C and 12C in materials. The accuracy of
the method falls off about 6 half-lives of 14C (t1/2 = 5730 years) so it is used to date
objects about 36,000 years old.
14
C combines with O2 in the atmosphere and enter the pool of gasses 14CO2
and aqueous H14CO3; they mix with 12CO2 and H12CO3 reaching a constant 12C :
14
C ratio. When an organism dies, it no longer take in 14C, so the ratio of 12C : 14C
increases because the amount of 14C decreases as it decays.
Nt
From the known equation, ln = −kt, where: No=Initial amount of the nuclide
N0
Nt = final amount of the nuclide

αt
We can also use, ln = −kt
α0
where: 𝛼0 = activity in a living organism

𝛼t = activity in the object whose age is unknown

SY: 2020 - 2021
25
CHEM ENG
EXAMPLES
1. The radioactive nuclide 60

27Co has a half-life of 5.27yrs. Calculate the
mass of 60
27Co that remains from a 0.0100 g sample of nuclide after
1.0 year has elapsed.
Given:
t1/2= 5.27 yrs
60
N0 = 0.0100 g of 27Co
t = 1.0 year
Required to find: N at t = 1.0 yr
Solution:
i. t1/2 = 0.693 /k
k = 0.693 /5.27yrs = 0.132/yr
ii. log (N0/N) = k t /2.3
= [(0.132 / yr) (1 yr)]/ 2.3
log (N0/N) = 0.0574
N0/N = antilog 0.0574 = 1.14
N = N0 (1.14) = (0.0100 g 60 27Co) (1.14)
60
N = 0.00877 g 27Co
2. The half-life of 103
43Tc, a 𝛽 emitter, is 15.8 sec. a) How many atoms of
103
43Tc are present in a sample with an activity of 0.200 µCi? How much
of the sample are present in g?
Given: t1/2= 15.8 sec

Required: a) no. of atoms if A = 0.200 µCi
b) mass of sample in g
Solution:
a) i. t1/2 =0.693/k
k = 0.693/15.8 sec
k = 0.0439/sec
ii. A is the activity of the sample in terms of the no.of atoms
that disintegrate per second:
3.7 x 1010atoms/sec 1 Ci
A = 0.200 µCi x x
1 Ci 106 µCi
3
A = 7.4 x 10 atoms/sec
iii. Since A = kN
N = A/k
= 7.4 x 103 atoms/sec / 0.0439/sec
N = 1.686 x 105 atoms of 10343Tc
SY: 2020 - 2021
26
CHEM ENG
Cont. of #2
b) i. for 103
43Tc: no. of protons = 43
no. of neutrons = 60
ii. mass of 1 mole 103
43Tc = 43(1.007825amu) + 60(1.008665amu)
mass of 1 mole 103

43Tc = 103.856 amu
103 1 mole 103

43Tc 103.856 g
iii. N = 1.686 x 105 atoms of 43Tc x x
6.022 x 1023 atoms 1 mole
103
43Tc
-17
N = 2.908 x 10 g of
3. A sample of bone uncovered from the cave of Palawan has a specific

activity of 6.33 disintegration/min.g of C. If the ratio of 12C : 14C in living
organisms shows a specific activity of 15.8 d/min.g of C, find out the
age of the bones unearthed (t1/2 of C = 5730 years).
Given : ᾳo = 6.33 d/min.g t1/2 of C = 5730 years

ᾳt = 15.8 d/min.g
Required : age of the bone unearthed
Solutions:
ln 2 ln 2
i. k= =
𝑡1/2 5730 years
-4
k = 1.21 x 10 /year
αt α0
ii. ln = −kt or ln = kt
α0 αt
α0
t = (1/k) x [ln ]
αt
d
15.8min.g
t = (1/1.21 x 10-4/yr) [ln 6.33 d ]
min.g
t = 7,559.58 years = 7,560 years

SY: 2020 - 2021
27
CHEM ENG
Practice Task 2.7:
1. Plutonium – 236 is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 2.86 years. If a

sample initially contains 2.56 mg. of Pu-236, what mass of Pu-236 is
present after 7 years?
2. How long will the 2.56 mg of Pu-236 decay to 0.200 mg?
3. A skull believed to belong to an aborigine is found to have carbon-14 decay

rate of 3.50 dis/min.g.C. If living organisms have a decay rate of 14.9
dis/min.g.C, how old is the skull found (The decay rate is directly
proportional to the amount of carbon-14 present)?

SY: 2020 - 2021
28
CHEM ENG
LESSON 2.8 Uses of Radioactive Nuclides
Radioactive nuclides have found numerous uses in industries, medicines,

chemistry, geology, and biology.
Radiation is used to preserve food. It can be used to preserve root crops from
sprouting to eliminate insects from grains, and destroy bacteria that cause food
spoilage.
Radioactive nuclides can be used for dating. The half-lives of radioisotopes
have been used as “atomic clocks “ to determine the ages of certain objects.
 Radiocarbon Dating – the radioactive carbon-14 isotope decays as:
14 14 0
6C → 7N + −1β
and this serves as the basis of the radiocarbon dating technique. The half-
life of this decay is 5.73 x 103 yr.
 Dating using Uranium-238 – because uranium 238 has a very long half-life,
this makes it suitable for estimating the age of rocks in the Earth. The age
approximation is based on this:
238 206
926U → 82Pb + 6 −10β + 8 42α t1/2= 4.51 x109 yr
In the process, lead-206 isotopes formed by radioactive decay must

be found in naturally occurring uranium minerals. After one half-life, half of
the original uranium-238 is converted to lead-206 . So, mass ratio of Pb/U
=0.866. Ratios lower than 0.866 mean that the rocks are less than 4.51
x109 yr.
Similar with other pure substances, radioactive nuclides have important uses.
For example, isotopes of oxygen (Oxygen-16, Oxygen-17, and Oxygen-18) can
be used in forensics, but are even more accurate in their ability to tell whether a
certain rock originated from Earth, Mars or even an asteroid. Tritium, an isotope of
hydrogen is used to make things such as clock faces and wristwatches glow in the
dark. Cesium-137 is used in cancer treatment. Krypton-85 is used in fluorescent
lamp and in flash lamp employed in high-speed photography. Iodine-131 is used as
direct radioisotope therapy to treat hyperthyroidism. Iodine-123 is used to monitor
the functioning of thyroid gland. Sodium-24 is used to trace gas leaks, oil leaks from
oil pipes, used as radiotracer in biological research and for studies of body
electrolytes. It is used to follow the circulation of blood in a patient, locate blood clots
and identify circulation disorders.

SY: 2020 - 2021
29
CHEM ENG
The frictional wear in piston rings can be assessed by the radioactivity of the
carbon 14 that appears in the engine oil. When the ring is bombarded with neutron,
some of the carbon in steel is converted to C-14.
Alpha particles are absorbed readily by materials of low density, thus are
used in smoke detectors and similar measuring devices. Beta is absorbed in a short
distance by denser materials such as human tissue, so can be used to treat
cancerous cells in the body by concentrating the beta-emitting substance in tumors,
allowing the beta radiation to kill off only the cancerous cells and not surrounding
healthy tissue. Gamma is more penetrating and is used for industrial radiography.
LESSON 2.9 Nuclear Waste Categories
Table 2.3 shows the three levels of nuclear waste, their examples and
disposal.
Table 2.3. Nuclear Waste Categories
Category Examples Disposal
Contaminated
Low Level equipment, materials They are put in drums and
and protective clothing surrounded by concrete and put
used in hospitals and into clay lined landfill mines (near
industries surface)
Intermediate Components from They are mixed with concrete, then

Level Nuclear reactors and put in a stainless drum in a
radioactive sources used purpose-built store.
in medicine practice or
research works.
High Level Used nuclear fuels and They are stored underwater in
chemicals from large pools for 20 years, then
reprocessing plants. placed in storage casks in
purpose-built underground store
where air can circulate to remove
the heat produced. High level
wastes decay into intermediate
level after thousands of years.

SY: 2020 - 2021
30
CHEM ENG
NUCLEAR REACTIONS, NUCLEAR STABILITY
& NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS
1. Make a pair of a) isotope b)isobars and c) isotones among the following

15 14 13 12 14
nuclides: 8O 7N 6C 5B 8O
13 15 16 18 17
7N 7N 8O 9F 9F
114 114 114
2. Of the three isobars 48Cd, 49 In, 50Sn, which is likely to be radioactive?
Explain your choice.
3. Which nuclide(s) would you predict to be stable? Why?
(a) 208O 59
(b) 27Co (c) 39Li
4. What is the most likely mode of decay for each?
(a) 238
92U (b) 48
24Cr (c) 50
25Mn
5. Which isotope in each pair would you predict to be more stable? Why?
(a) 140 135
55Cs or 55Cs (c) 80 79
35Br or 35Br
(b) 26 28
12Mg or 12Mg (d) 14
7N or 18
7N
6. Complete the following equation
233 233
a. 91 Pa → 92 U + _________
221 217
b. 87 Fr → 85 At + _________
213 4
c. 83 Bi → _________ + 2α
213 213
d. 83 Bi → 84 Po + _________
14 4 17
e. 7 N+ 2 He → 8O + _________
9 1 4
f. 4Be + 1 p → 2 He + ______
g. 31H → 32He + _________
9 4 12
h. 4Be + 2 He → 6C + _________
30 30
i. 15P → 14S + _________
23 4 26
j. 11 Na + 2 He → 12 Mg + _________
7. Write the symbols for the daughter nuclei in the following nuclear
bombardment reactions.
60 98 1 35
(a) 28Ni (n, p)_______ (b) 42Mo ( 0𝑛, β )_______ (c) 17Cl (p, ɑ)_______

SY: 2020 - 2021
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CHEM ENG
8. A proposed series of reactions (known as the carbon–nitrogen cycle) that

could be important in the very hottest region of the interior of the sun is
C + 1H → A + γ
12
A =______
A → B + +10𝑒 B = ______
B + 1H → C + ɣ C = ______
C + 1H → D + ɣ D = _______
D → E + +10𝑒 E = ______
E + 1H → 12C + F F = _______
Identify the species labeled A – F.
9. Predict the kind of decays you would expect for the following radionuclides.
60 67
(a) 27Co (n/p ratio too high) _____________ (d) 29Cu _____________
20 238
(b) 11Na (n/p ratio too low) _____________ (e) 92U _____________
222
(c) 86Rn _____________ (f) 116C _____________
10. Write balanced nuclear equations for the following reactions and identify X:
12
(a) X (p,ɑ) 6C _____________________________, X = _____
27
(b) 13Al (d,ɑ) X _____________________________, X = _____
55
(c) 25Mn (n,ɣ) X _____________________________, X = _____
34
(d) 80Se (d,p) X _____________________________, X = _____
(e) X (d,2p) 39Li _____________________________, X = _____
11. Write the shorthand notation for each of the following nuclear reactions.
6 1 4 3
(a) 3Li + 0𝑛 → 2He + 1H _______________________
31 2 32 1
(b) 15P + 1H → 15P + 1H _______________________
238 1 239 0
(c) 92U + 0𝑛 → 93Np+ −1e _______________________
253 4 256 1
(d) 99Es + 2He → 101Md + 0𝑛 _______________________
27 1 26
(e) 13Al + 0𝑛 → 13Al + 2 10𝑛 _______________________
12. The following equations are for nuclear reactions that are known to occur in
the explosion of an atomic bomb. Identify X.
(a) 235 1
92U + 0𝑛 →
140 1
56Ba + 3 0𝑛 + X X = ___________
235 1 144 90
(b) 92U + 0𝑛 → 55Cs + 37Rb + 2X X = ___________
235 1 87
(c) 92U + 0𝑛 → 35Br + 3 10𝑛 + X X = ___________
235 1 160 72
(d) 92U + 0𝑛 → 62Sm + 30Zn + 4X X = ___________
SY: 2020 - 2021
32
CHEM ENG
NUCLEAR ENERGY and NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY
1. A 3H nucleus decays with an energy of 0.01861 MeV. Convert this energy

into (a) electron volts; (b) joules.
2. Arsenic-84 decays with an energy of 1.57x1015 kJ per nucleus. Convert
this energy into (a) eV; (b) MeV.
3. Calculate the following for 64Zn (actual mass = 63.9291amu):
(a) mass deficiency in amu/atom;
(b) mass deficiency in g/mol;
(c) binding energy in J/atom;
(d) binding energy in kJ/mol;
(e) binding energy in MeV/nucleon.
4. Calculate the nuclear binding energies, in J/nucleon and MeV/nucleon for
the following species:
a) 10B (10.0129 amu)
b) 11B (11.00931 amu)
c) 14N (14.00307 amu)
d) 56Fe (55.9349 amu)
5. Calculate the nuclear binding energy (in J) and the binding energy per mole
of the following isotopes :
a. 73Li (7.01600 amu)
35
b. 17Cl (34.95952 amu)
6. Calculate the binding energy, in kJ/mol of nucleons, for the following
isotopes.
(a) 158O with a mass of 15.00300 amu;
(b) 168O with a mass of 15.99491 amu;
17
(c) 8O with a mass of 16.99913 amu;
18
(d) 8O with a mass of 17.99915 amu;
19
(e) 8O
with a mass of 19.0035 amu.
Which of these would you expect to be most stable?
7. Iodine-131 is one of the most important isotopes used in the diagnosis of
thyroid cancer. One atom has a mass of 130.906114 amu. Calculate the
binding energy (a) per nucleon in MeV; (b) per atom in MeV; (c) per mole
in kJ.

SY: 2020 - 2021
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CHEM ENG
8. The 80Br nuclide decays by either β-decay or e- capture.

(a) What is the product of each process? (b) Which process releases more
energy? (Masses of atoms: 80Br =79.918528 amu; 80Kr = 79.916380 amu;
80
Se=79.916520 amu; neglect the mass of the electron involved.)
9. The first nuclear transformation (discovered by Rutherford) can be

represented by the shorthand notation 147N (ɑ, p) 178O.
(a) Write the corresponding nuclear equation for this process.
(b) Calculate the energy change of this reaction in kJ/mol.
[The respective atomic masses are 14.00307 amu for 147N, 4.00260 amu for
4 1 17
2He, 1.007825 amu for 1H, and 16.99913 amu for 8O.]
10. Curium-243 undergoes ɑ decay to plutonium-239:

243
Cm → 239Pu + 4He
(a) Calculate the change in mass, Δm (in kg).
(Masses: 243Cm = 243.0614 amu; 239Pu = 239.0522amu; 4He=4.0026
amu; 1 amu =1.661x10-24g.)
(b) Calculate the energy released in joules.
(c) Calculate the energy released in kJ/mol of reaction, and comment on the
difference between this value and a typical heat of reaction for a chemical
change of a few hundred kJ/mol.

SY: 2020 - 2021
34
CHEM ENG
RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
1. What is the specific activity (in Ci/g) if 1.55 mg of an isotope emits 1.66x10 6
ɑ particles per second?
2. What is the specific activity (in Bq/g) if 8.58 µg of an isotope emits 7.4x10 4 ɑ
particles per minute?
3. Due to decay of 40K, cow’s milk has a specific activity of about 6x10 11 mCi
per milliliter. How many disintegrations of 40K nuclei are there per minute in
1.0 qt. of milk?
4. If 1.00x10-12 mol of 135Cs emits 1.39 x105 β particles in 1.00 year, what is the
decay constant?
5. The half-life of 116C is 20.3 min. How long will it take for 95.0% of a sample to
decay? How long will it take for 99.5% of the sample to decay?
6. The activity of a sample of tritium decreased by 5.5% over the period of a
year. What is the half-life of 31H?
7. The half-life of Cobalt- 60 is 5.3 yr. How much of a 1.000 mg sample of
Cobalt-60 is left after 15.9 years have passed?
8. The isotope 212
83Bi has a half-life of 1.01 yr. What mass (in mg) of a 2.00-mg
sample will not have decayed after 3.75x10 3 hr?
9. The half-life of radium-226 is 1.60x103 yr. How many hours will it take for a
2.50-g sample to decay to the point where 0.185 g of the isotope remains?
10. Plutonium-239 (t1/2 = 2.41x104yr) represents a serious nuclear waste disposal
problem. If seven half-lives are required to reach a tolerable level of
radioactivity, how long must 239Pu be stored?
11. Technetium-99 is an ideal radioisotope for scanning organs because it has a
half-life of 6.0 hours and is a pure gamma emitter. Suppose that 80.0 mg.
were prepared in the technetium generator this morning. How many
milligrams would remain after:
a. One half–life
b. 18 hours
c. Two half–lives
d. 24 hours
12. Fluorine-18, which has a half-life of 110 minutes, is used in PET scans. If 100
mg. of fluorine-18 is shipped at 8:30 a.m., how many milligrams of the
radioisotope are still active if the sample arrives at the radiology laboratory at
1:30 p.m.?

SY: 2020 - 2021
35
CHEM ENG
13. A nurse was accidentally exposed to potassium-42 doing some brain scans
for possible tumors. The error was not discovered until 36 hours later when
the activity of the potassium-42 was 2.0 microCi/g. If potassium-42 has a half-
life of 12 hours, what was the activity of the sample at the time the nurse was
exposed?
14. A rock contains 270 µmol of 238U (t1/2 = 4.5x109 yr) and 110 µmol of 206Pb.
Assuming that all the 206Pb comes from decay of the 238U, estimate the rock’s
age.
15. A fabric remnant from a burial site has a 14C/12C ratio of 0.735 of the original
value. How old is the fabric?
16. A volcanic eruption melts a large area of rock, and all gases are expelled.
After cooling, 40 40
18Ar accumulates from the ongoing decay of 19K in the rock
9
(t1/2 = 1.25x10 yr). When a piece of rock is analyzed, it is found to contain
1.38 mmol of 40K and 1.14 mmol of 40Ar. How long ago did the rock cool?

SY: 2020 - 2021
36

Module 2 - Nuclear Chemistry

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Module 2 - Nuclear Chemistry

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CHEM ENG

 Silfavan  Rodil  Capinding

Consequently, the stability of a nucleus is examine in terms of the neutron-to-proton

Uses of Isotopes, especially radioactive isotopes, is also discussed in this module

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

1. explain the concept of the nuclide of an atom;

8. predict the different kinds of nuclear reactions undergone by nuclei,

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

LESSON 2.1 The Nuclide of an Atom

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Number of neutrons = Mass number – number of protons

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Practice Task 2.1:

I. Complete the table below.

II. Classify the following pairs as isotopes, isobars or isotones.

__________2. 232 233

__________4. 136C and 125N ___________ 9. 238 239

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

LESSON 2.2 Nuclear Reactions

Balancing Nuclear Reactions

 The total number of nuclear charges in the products and in the

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Practice Task 2.2:

Complete the following nuclear reactions by identifying the X.

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

LESSON 2.3 Types of Nuclear Reactions

1. Natural- radioactivity that exist in nature. It belongs to any existing radioactive

1) Radioactive decay – is a process in which the nucleus spontaneously

a. Alpha decay - a type of radioactivity in which alpha (α) particles are

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Figure 2.1: Alpha Emission

b. Beta Decay – a radioactive process is classified as beta decay if the

Figure 2.2: Beta Emission

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

c. Positron Emission (β+ decay) – a process in which a positron is electron

Figure 2.3: Positron Emission

d. K–capture (electron capture) – is a process through which the

Figure 2.4: Electron Capture

e. Gamma emission ( 𝟎𝟎ϒ) is an emission from an excited nucleus of a

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Figure 2.5: Gamma Emission

2) Nuclear transmutation – a process in which one nucleus is transformed into

Figure 2.6: Nuclear fission

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

The first nuclear fission reaction studies was that of uranium-235

Figure 2.7: Nuclear fusion

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Practice Task 2.3:

1. Complete the preparations of some transuranium elements (elements with

2. Fill in the blanks in the following radioactive decay series:

c. Electron capture by 110

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

LESSON 2.4 Nuclear Stability

Figure 2.8: Band of Stability

Factors that determine whether a nucleus is stable:

1. Neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p)

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

The stability of any nucleus is determined by the difference between the

Prepared by: E. V. SILFAVAN•C.D.SACDALAN•M.S.P.RODIL•M.C.T.CABILDO•E.S.CAPINDING•G.A.ERGINO

Table 2.2. Pair Principle

Odd Odd Least stable 5

4. 136C and 125N _ 9. 238 239