Whole

A STUDY OF RADIATION AND NATURAL CONVECTION
OF AIR ON DRYING OF COFFEE BEANS IN A HEAT

RECOVERY SOLAR DRYER
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
by
Siti Noor Suzila MAQSOOD UL HAQUE

B. Eng. Hon. (Chemical) UTM, M. Eng. (Chemical), UTM
School of Chemical Engineering

The University of New South Wales
Australia
May 2013
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
TheslsiOiuertatlon Sheet
Surname or Family name:: Maqsood ul Haque
First name: Sltl Noor Suzlla Other namels:
Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD
School: School of Chemical Engineering Faculty: Engineering
Title: A study of radiation and natural convection

of air on drying of coffee beans In a heat recovery
solar dryer
Abstract 360 words maximum:
A solar heat recovery dryer for drying coffee beans was designed and tested based on heat recovery through
condensation. A mathematical model of the dryer was built based on heat and mass transfer, fluid flow and boundary
analysis. Experimental data from the first run was used to estimate two critical constants in the model, and seven
subsequent runs at different conditions were used to validate the model. The simulated results and the experimental
data correlated well with ,-2 = 0.97. Design of the solar heat recovery dryer was then optimized in terms of annual
profit, estimated from operation, maintenance, construction and product costs. The three parameters optimized were
the dryer height, length, and the depth of the coffee bed. A sensitivity analysis of the profit equation showed that the
tray area, density of coffee beans and the price of labour had the most effect on profit. From this, a suitable design of
the solar heat recovery dryer was developed for local conditions.
Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation
I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in
part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all
property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in Mure works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation.
I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral
theses only).
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Date
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1
ORIGINALITY STATEMENT
‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my
knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another
person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational
institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any
contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at
UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that
the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to
the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or
in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’
Signed ……………………………………………..............
th
Date ……………15 MAY 2013………………..............
2
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive
and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University
libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of
the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also
retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this
thesis or dissertation.
I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in
Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only).
I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I
have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not
been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of
my thesis or dissertation.'
Signed ……………………………………………...........................
th
Date ………………………15 MAY 2013…….....................
AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT
‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final
officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred
and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the
conversion to digital format.’
Signed ……………………………………………...........................
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In The Name of Allah, The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful. Alhamdulillah, all praises
to Allah for the strengths and His blessings in completing this thesis.
This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and the help
of several individuals who in one way or another contributed and extended their valuable
assistance in the preparation and completion of this study. First and foremost, I would
like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Robert Driscoll, for his
supervision and constant supports. His invaluable help of constructive comments and
suggestions throughout the thesis work have contributed to the success of this research.
Not forgotten, my special appreciation to my co-supervisor Prof Adesina Soji for his
excellent guidance, caring, patience and providing me with excellent atmosphere for
doing research. I would also like to thank Dr. George Srzednicki for his unselfish and
unfailing support as my co-supervisor. To Dr. Alice Lee, Dr. Janet Paterson, Prof. Ken
Buckle and Dr. Fransisco Trujillo, thank you for being such a kind and concerned panel
reviewers. To IK Ling Lau, thank you for the support and help towards my postgraduate
affairs.
I would also like to thank Mr. John Zentveld for his kindness in supplying green
coffee beans for my experimental work. This research would not complete without his
support. I am grateful to the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and Universiti
Teknologi MARA (especially to the dean of Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Prof.
Sharifah Aishah) for their financial support throughout my studies. Sincere thanks goes
to my friends Karrie, Normah, Yang, Kitty, Xin, Ghazaal, Joy, Nadine, Amy, Pim, kak
Aniek, kak Yuslina, Ilya, Anis, Nana, Aisyah, Nurul, Leana and Dayu for their kindness
and moral support. To kak Nani, assistance warden of Malaysia Hall Sydney, thank you
for giving me a place to stay in the first few years of my studies.
A special thanks goes to my family. Words cannot explain how grateful I am to
my mother, father, mother in law, father in law for all the sacrifices that you have made
on my behalf. To my daughter, Aleesya Sofea, thank you for being strong and a good
girl when mummy left you right after your birth. This thesis is also dedicated to my
newborn daughter Merissa Emelda. Finally I would like to thank my beloved husband,
Mohammad Zafwad for always being there, even when we are far apart, cheering me up
and stood by me in the good times and bad.
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
LIST OF FIGURES 9
LIST OF TABLES 16
NOMENCLATURE 17
ABSTRACT 21
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION 22
1.1 Background 22
1.2 Statement of Problem 26
1.3 Justification of Study 26
1.4 Objective 27
CHAPTER 2 :LITERATURE REVIEW 28
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Coffee Drying 32
2.3 Mechanical Dryers 37
2.3.1 Hot Air and Screen Bottom Trays 37
2.3.2 The Vibrated Tray Dryer 37
5
2.3.3 Rotary Flow Dryer 39

2.3.4 The Rotary Drum Dryer 39
2.3.5 The Torres Rotary Dryer 41
2.3.6 Rotary Conduction Dryer 42
2.3.7 The Moreira Vertical Dryer 44
2.3.8 American Vertical Grain Dryer 45
2.3.9 Shivers Dryer 46
2.3.10 Fluidized Bed Drying 48
2.4 Solar Drying 50
2.4.1 Open Sun Drying 51
2.4.2 Direct Solar Drying 52
2.4.3 Indirect Solar Drying 53
2.4.4 Types of solar dryer 55
2.5 A review of solar-energy drying system 57
2.5.1 Passive mode (natural convection) solar dryer 57
2.5.2 Active mode (forced convection) solar dryer 69
2.5.3 Economics Aspect for Solar Dryers 89
2.5.4 Future Prospective and Impediment of Solar Dryers 90
2.6 Drying and Modeling Concepts 91
2.6.1 Drying Fundamentals 91
2.6.2 Basic Principles 92
2.6.2.1 Water Activity 92
2.6.2.2 Equilibrium Moisture Content 94
2.6.2.3 Drying Rate Curves 99
2.6.2.4 Thin Layer Drying Analysis 101
2.6.2.5 Heat Recovery Concept 104
2.7 Thermo physical Properties of Coffee 108
2.7.1 Structure 108
2.7.2 Density 109
2.7.3 Specific Heat 111
2.8 Theory of Solar Radiation 114
6
2.9 Solar Dryer Modeling 119
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY 129
3.1 Raw Materials 129

3.1.1 Australian Coffee Cherries 129
3.2 Equipment and Chemical Used in The Experiments 131
3.3 Analytical Methods 132
3.3.1 Size 132
3.3.2 Moisture Content 135
3.4 Equipment Set Up 137
3.5 Data Analysis 141
CHAPTER 4: INITIAL SIMPLE MODEL 142
4.1 Analysis of Prototype Greenhouse Dryer 142

4.2 Mass and Energy Balance Equations 145
4.2.1 First Segment (Dryer Bed) 145
4.2.2 Second Segment (Transport) 147
4.2.3 Third Segment (Condensation) 148
4.2.4 Fourth Segment (Mixing) 149
4.2.5 Buoyancy Equation 151
CHAPTER 5: NEW CONCEPT OF THE HEAT RECOVERY DRYER 153
5.1 Introduction 153

5.2 Overall Analysis of Dryer 155
5.3 Overall Analysis Of The Mathematical Modeling 156
5.4 Interaction between Bed and Region 1 158
5.5 Lower Air Region 1 162
5.6 Upper Air Region 2 165
7
5.7 Condensation Regions 166

5.8 Analysis of Boundary Element 167
5.9 Solution Approach to Boundary 175
5.10 Mixing Conditions In The Top Region 2 178
CHAPTER 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FOR MATHEMATICAL

MODELING DEVELOPMENT 180
6.1 Experiment Run 1 180

6.1.1 Comparison between weather season 184
6.2 Summary of the experiments 186
6.3 Results of experiment Run 2 187
6.4 Results of Experiment Run 4 190
6.5 Results for Experiment Run 5 192
CHAPTER 7: OPTIMIZATION 200
7.1 Introduction 200

7.2 Response Surface Methodology 201
7.2.1 Obtaining H1, L1 and δ as random values 203
7.2.2 Obtaining final run time (t) from the simulation 203
7.2.3 Obtaining RSM Model values as a comparison with time and bed
temperature from the simulation 204
7.3 Economic Model 206
7.4 Optimization Technique 212
7.5 Simulated Results 215
7.6 Sensitivity Analysis 217
8
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS 219
CHAPTER 9: RECOMMENDATIONS 221
APPENDIX A : DETAILED WEATHER PLOTS FOR EACH RUNS 222
REFERENCES 225
9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Summary of work reported in the literature 23
Figure 1.2 : World’s 10 Top Coffee Producing Countries 24
Figure 1.3: Top 10 Arabica Coffee Producing Countries 25
Figure 1.4: Top 10 Robusta Coffee Producing Countries 25
Figure 2.1:Coffee processing stages 35
Figure 2.2: Flowchart showing various options for coffee drying 36
Figure 2.3: Hot air and screen bottomed trays 37
Figure 2.4: Vibrated tray dryer 38
Figure 2.5: Rotary Flow Dryer 39
Figure 2.6: Rotary Drum Dryer 39
Figure 2.7: Torres Dryer 42
Figure 2.8: Rotary Conduction Dryer 43
Figure 2.9: Moreira Dryer 44
Figure 2.10: American vertical dryer 46
Figure 2.11 : Shivers Dryer 48
Figure 2.12 : Fluidized Bed Dryer 49
Figure 2.13 : Open sun drying principle 52
Figure 2.14 : Direct solar drying principle 53
Figure 2.15 : Single tray reverse absorber cabinet dryer 54
Figure 2.16 : Indirect solar drying system principle 54
Figure 2.17: Picture of a passive cabinet solar dryer 56
Figure 2.18 : Picture of an active solar convective dryer 57

10
Figure 2.19 : Picture of natural-circulation greenhouse dryers 58
Figure 2.20 : Experimented mixed-mode natural convection solar dryer 59
Figure 2.21 : Picture of a passive solar cabinet dryer 60
Figure 2.22 : Schematic diagram of a cabinet-type solar dryer 60
Figure 2.23 : Picture of box-type solar dryer (left) and mixed-mode type
solar dryer (right) 61
Figure 2.24 : Reversed absorber with thermal storage 62
Figure 2.25: Picture of direct solar dryer 62
Figure 2.26 : Comparison of collector and mixed mode design 63
Figure 2.27 A multi-shelf domestic solar dryer 64
Figure 2.28: Schematic diagram of a fixed bed dryer 65
Figure 2.29: Picture of indirect natural convection solar dryer 65
Figure 2.30: Picture of an indirect solar dryer 66
Figure 2.31: Solar dryer 67
Figure 2.32: Solar tunnel dryer 68
Figure 2.33: Natural convection and mixed mode solar dryer 69
Figure 2.34 : Forced convection solar dryer 70
Figure 2.35 : Forced circulation experimental design 71
Figure 2.36 : Prototype of indirect solar dryer. 72
Figure 2.37 : Schematic diagram of the drying system 72
Figure 2.38: A solar cabinet dryer 73
Figure 2.39: Hohenheim tunnel type dryer 74
Figure 2.40: The multishelf solar dryer 75
Figure 2.41: Greenhouse solar dryer 76

11
Figure 2.42: Solar tunnel dryer with integrated collector and biomass
furnace 77
Figure 2.43: Hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) integrated greenhouse

dyer 78
Figure 2.44: Diagram of a solar batch dryer 79
Figure 2.45 : Tunnel greenhouse dryer 80
Figure 2.46: Forced convection mode greenhouse dryer for prawns 81
Figure 2.47: Solar tunnel dryer 81
Figure 2.48: Cross section of solar heat collector 82
Figure 2.49: Floor plan of the coffee processing which includes drying
building 84
Figure 2.50: Front and top view of the solar dryer 85
Figure 2.51: (a)View of the improved greenhouse dryer, 85
Figure 2.52: Schematic diagram of the solar dryer 86
Figure 2.53: Greenhouse dryer under natural convection mode 87
Figure 2.54: Roof Integrated Solar Dryer 88
Figure 2.55 : Pictorial View of The Greenhouse Dryer 89
Figure 2.56: Influence of water activity on various reactions in foods 94
Figure 2.57: Sorption isotherms 95
Figure 2.58: Sorption isotherms for coffee produced in Costa Rica 96
Figure 2.59: Typical drying rate curve 100
Figure 2.60: Dropwise and filmwise condensation of steam on copper

plate 105
Figure 2.61: Film condensation on a vertical plate 105
Figure 2.62: Cross section view of a coffee cherry 109

12
Figure 2.63: Annual variation in extraterrestrial radiation 115
Figure 2.64: Zenith angle, azimuth angle and for a plane inclined at 116
Figure 2.65: Extraterrestrial and terrestrial 118
Figure 2.66: Energy Balances in The Solar Tunnel Dryer of Depth ‘b’ 120
Figure 2.67: Heat Balances on the Flat –Plate Collector of Depth ‘b’ 121
Figure 3.1 : Wet freeze coffee beans 129
Figure 3.2 : Freeze coffee beans with skins 130
Figure 3.3 : Washed wet coffee beans 130
Figure 3.4 : Vernier calliper with dried coffee bean 132
Figure 3.5: Dimensions of a coffee bean taken into consideration 132
Figure 3.6: Vacuum oven 136
Figure 3.7: Desiccators 136
Figure 3.8 : Analytical balance 136
Figure 3.9 : A picture of the greenhouse dryer 138
Figure 3.10 : Coffee beans on trays with temperature sensors 138
Figure 3.11 : A view from the back of the greenhouse dryer 139
Figure 3.12 : Pyranometer data logger (left) and the power supply (right) 139
Figure 3.13 : A picture of the analytical balance and the computer 139
Figure 3.14 : An upper view of the coffee beans in the greenhouse dryer 140
Figure 3.15 : A side view showing pyranometer 140
Figure 4.1 : Actual geometry 143
Figure 4.2 : Simplified geometry 144
Figure 4.3 : First segment: product/air interaction 145

13
Figure 4.4 : Exchange between upper and lower segments 147
Figure 4.5 : Picture of the third segment 148
Figure 4.6 : Fourth segment: mixing 150
Figure 4.7: Buoyancy Diagram 152
Figure 5.1: Isometric view of the concept diagram 154
Figure 5.2: Side view of the dryer 155
Figure 5.3: Isometric view 155
Figure 5.4 : Overall analysis of the air flows 156
Figure 5.5: Main flows for mass and heat balances in the dryer 157
Figure 5.6 : Picture of boundary layer on the lower front wall 157
Figure 5.7: Flowchart of the basic drying model 158
Figure 5.8: A one-dimensional finite differencing of a slab with interior

node and one surface node detailed 159
Figure 5.9 : Picture of air-bed interaction 161
Figure 5.10 : Picture of lower air region interaction 162
Figure 5.11 : Picture of upper air region interaction 165
Figure 5.12 : Diagrammatic air and mass interchange in boundary layer 166
Figure 5.13 : Interaction between air and boundary for ith element. 167
Figure 6.1: Moisture Content Plot for Run 1 181
Figure 6.2: Temperature Plot for Run 1 182
Figure 6.3 : Relative Humidity Plot for Run 1 182
Figure 6.4: Residuals Plot for Run 1 186

14
Figure 6.7: Relative Humidity Plot for Run 2 189
Figure 7.1: Excel spreadsheet before SOLVER evaluation 202

15
Figure 7.2: Excel spreadsheet after SOLVER evaluation 202
Figure 7.3: Required function for lambda 2 208
Figure 7.4: Required function for Lambda 1 209
Figure 7.5: Variation of front height of the dryer with profit 216
Figure 7.6: Variation of front length of the dryer with profit 216
Figure 7.7: Variation of thickness of the coffee bed with profit 217
16
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Thin layer equations derived and tested by various researchers ...... 103
Table 2.2: Values of bulk and true density determined from literature. ............... 110
Table 3.1 Equipment required for thermophysical experiment ............................. 131
Table 3.2: Determination of dimensions for wet coffee bean ................................ 133
Table 3.3: Determination of dimensions for dried coffee bean ............................. 134
Table 6.1: Summary of all important parameters .................................................... 186
Table 7.1 : Obtaining RSM Model values for time .................................................. 205
Table 7.2 : Testing deletion of the constants using SOLVER ............................... 206
Table 7.3 : Calculations for lambda 2 Penalty Function ........................................ 208
Table 7.4: Calculations for Lambda 1 Penalty Function ........................................ 209
Table 7.5: Dryer dimensions for basic mode and optimum mode ........................ 215
Table 7.6: Sensitivity of variables in optimization equation ................................... 217
17
NOMENCLATURE
A – area
As – surface area for crop (m2)
b – constant in equation 2.4 depending on material and its temperature
c – constant in equation 2.5 related to heat of absorption of water vapour
C – specific heat
CA – specific heat of dry solid
CB – specific heat of water
Cw – specific heat of water
CD – specific heat of dry solid
d – height of bed above floor
d – constant in equation 2.6 depending on material and its temperature
e - constant in equation 2.6 depending on material and its temperature
f – constant in equation 2.7 depending on temperature
g – constant in equation 2.7 depending on temperature
EMC – equilibrium moisture content
D – bed product depth
g – gravity
H – humidity
h – height
hfg – latent heat
– heat transfer coefficient
h – specific or true enthalpy
I – irradiation
k – thermal conductivity
K - thin layer drying parameter (Page model)
K’ – drying constant (s-1)
Km – mass transfer coefficient of water vapour (kgs-1m-2)
L – length
M – dry basis moisture content
18
Me – equilibrium moisture content (decimal, dry basis)

Mo – initial moisture content (decimal, dry basis)
Mt – moisture content at time ‘t’ (decimal, dry basis)
N - thin layer drying parameter (Page model)
m – mass
R – gas constant
RH – relative humidity
p – heat recovery fraction
P – pressure
Pv – water vapor pressure in product (Nm-2)
Pva – vapor pressure of drying air (Nm-2)
Pvs – saturation vapor pressure (Nm-2)
̇ – rate of heat flow
Q – heat
RH – relative humidity (fraction)
R – gas constant
R0 – universal gas constant (Jmol-1K-1)
r’ – cylindrical capillary radius (m)
T – temperature (K)
TF – freezing temperature
t – time (s)
flow speed
Vv – volume of water absorbed by product isothermally at vapour
Vm – volume of water absorbed when internal surfaces are totally covered
W – moisture content (wet basis)
Xw – moisture content (wet basis)
x – horizontal distance
y – vertical distance
z – axis
19
Greek alphabet
µ – viscosity
– latent heat (evaporation)
– thickness
– thermal diffusivity
– density or
– reflectivity
– transmissivity
– emissivity
σ – surface tension of moisture (Nm-1)
α – angle of contact between moisture and capillary wall
θ – roof inclination
Subscripts
1,2 – region 1 and 2

a – air, esp. moving air in dryer
amb - ambient
b – boundary
c or con – convection
dp – dew point
e – equilibrium
f – final (over interval
i - initial
i – index
n –index for time intervals
o – initial value
p – product (coffee bed)
– product at initial condition
s, sol – sun, solar
20
s – saturated vapour
- vapour
V – static air mass (upper or lower region)
w - water
– water in product
– water in vapour
W1-W4 – walls W1 to W4
21
ABSTRACT
A solar heat recovery dryer for drying coffee beans was designed and
tested based on heat recovery through condensation. A mathematical model of
the dryer was built based on heat and mass transfer, fluid flow and boundary
analysis. Experimental data from the first run was used to estimate two critical
constants in the model, and seven subsequent runs at different conditions were
used to validate the model. The simulated results and the experimental data
correlated well (r = 0.97). Design of the solar heat recovery dryer was then
optimized in terms of annual profit, estimated from operation, maintenance,
construction and product costs. The three parameters optimized were the dryer
height, length, and the depth of the coffee bed. A sensitivity analysis of the profit
equation showed that the tray area, density of coffee beans and the price of
labour had the most effect on profit. From this, a suitable design of the solar heat
recovery dryer was developed for local conditions.
Keywords : solar heat recovery dryer, buoyancy of air, natural convection,

mathematical modeling and optimization
22
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Coffee is a popular beverage throughout the world, starting in Arab

countries, then spreading to the rest of the world to become one of the worlds’
favourite beverages. A cup of coffee is not the same in different countries for
example, an American appreciate coffee more with milk, and prefer instant
coffee, whereas an Italian favours espresso coffee. A cup of coffee can differ in
many ways, for example in blend, roast and grind. Coffee is famous for its
stimulant effects, which helps people to concentrate more during work and
therefore is drunk primarily amongst working and professional employees. Coffee
is more of a luxury item. The importance of coffee has generated increased
coffee production both for Robusta and Arabica coffee beans, resulting in
increased research into many areas of coffee processing, and quality. Figure 1.1
is a summary of areas of work reported in the literature. The figure shows that
the study of coffee is divided into three sections;
a) the coffee processing system

b) chemical properties
c) coffee consumption and human health.
These studies can be further divided into three groups, which refer to the
green, roast and instant coffee technologies. Studies on green coffee focus on
the treatment and storage of green coffee beans, and drying. Studies in drying
have focused on types of dryers and mathematical modeling of the dryer.
23
Studies on coffee
Study on the chemical Study on coffee

Study on the coffee properties and quality of consumption on human
processing system coffee health
(Sarrazin et al., 2000) (Chou and Benowitz, 1994)
Green coffee Roast coffee Instant coffee

technology technology technology
(Yeretzian et al., (Burmester et al.,
2012) 2011)
Treatment & Drying process

Storing
(Suárez-Quiroz et al.,
2004)
Mechanical Dryer Solar Dryer

(Finzer et al., 2003)
Forced Convection Natural Convection

(Phillips, 1965) (Mwithiga and Kigo,
2006)
New dryer design and

mathematical modeling
Figure 1.1: Summary of work reported in the literature

24
In 2012, Brazil was the world leader for the production of coffee followed
by Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and India. Brazil produces about 54,500,000
bags (1 bag weighs 60kg) annually followed by Vietnam with 18,725,000 bags,
Colombia with 9,500,000 bags, Indonesia with 9,325,000 bags and India with
5,100,000 bags annually (Seriousrankings.com, 2012). Brazil is the top producer
for Arabica coffee producing 41,800 bags followed by Colombia with 9,500 bags
and Ethiopia with 4,400 bags. Vietnam is the top producer for Robusta coffee
producing 18,150 bags followed by Brazil with 12,700 bags and Indonesia with
7,950 bags (Doom, 2011). Shown below in Figure 1.2 is the pie chart for coffee
producing countries in the year 2012. Figure 1.3 and 1.4 show the charts for
Arabica and Robusta producing countries based on ranking.
Figure 1.2 : World’s 10 Top Coffee Producing Countries (Seriousrankings.com,

2012)
25
Figure 1.3: Top 10 Arabica Coffee Producing Countries (Doom, 2011)
Figure 1.4: Top 10 Robusta Coffee Producing Countries (Doom, 2011)

26
1.2 Statement of Problem
The heat recovery dryer was initially designed specifically for farmers in
the rural highlands area of the Papua New Guinea, to assist with drying. This
required a low cost solar dryer. The specific new design feature is a heat
recovery system, which recovers latent heat by condensation which is specifically
design for Papua New Guinea highlands. . The heat recovery solar dryer was
designed to meet particular drying requirements for the product and location to
give optimum drying conditions, but needed to be tested in Sydney. The other
basic parameters for drying such as temperature, relative humidity, airflow and
the characteristics of the product to be dried can be adjusted for different weather
conditions using a mathematical simulation, which uses data and weather files to
provide this flexibility. The development of a simulation model was a valuable
tool for predicting the performance of the solar drying system. This was to avoid
full scale experiments for different products, drying seasons and systems
configurations, which are time-consuming, costly and impractical. Furthermore,
simulation of solar drying is essential in order to see the drying rate of the food
product to be dried and also for the optimization of the dimensions of solar drying
systems.
1.3 Justification of Study
Mathematical modeling was used to justify the solar dryer as an effective

heat recovery dryer. Thermodynamic variables were studied to identify those of
greatest importance in design. Important factors were to reduce losses, improve
quality of the dried products, to reduce drying time and to improve profit by
design optimization. This concept in the end can be applied for any other
commodities with different weather conditions, but for the purpose of this study,
coffee beans were selected.
27
1.4 Objective
The overall goal of this research was to design, model and optimise a heat
recovery solar dryer for drying coffee beans. This was done by analyzing basic
heat and mass flows, and the kinetics of coffee drying itself, so that based on
these concepts, a model of a heat recovery dryer was established.
Specific objectives:
1) To derive heat and mass equations to model a solar heat recovery dryer
2) To carry out experiments on drying of coffee beans, for validation of the
model.
3) To optimize, based on profitability.
The initial design parameters were based on some experimental work done by
previous researchers. The design was then improved by modeling three main
parameters, bed depth, dryer width and height. The optimum value of these
parameters was found using response surface analysis of outputs from the full
computer model, resulting in a new improved design.
28
CHAPTER 2 :LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Drying is the removal of moisture from a food product and is one of the
oldest methods of preservation, practiced since ancient times. Drying is the
removal of moisture to a safe level to maintain quality during storage. Microbial
deterioration in the food product is controlled and the rates of other deterioration
reactions are reduced. The dried food product is lighter and easier to store and
transport.
The structural configuration of the dryer must be specific ffor the product
whether grains, fruits, vegetables or other food products. All dryers reduce
quality, but many drying methods have been developed to be least detrimental to
food product quality. The reduction of product quality is due to enzymatic
reactions, mycotoxin development, microorganism growth and insect infestation.
Researchers have studied from conventional methods such as open sun drying
to the advanced technologies method such as impulse drying to accomplished
this task. Open sun drying has been practiced for a thousand of years. Usually,
crops require a large area for drying and are spread out and occasionally mixed
to ensure uniformity. Since traditional sun drying is a relatively slow process,
considerable losses may occur. Sun drying has been adopted by nearly 80% of
farmers, as they cannot afford to buy or operate expensive dryers.
Furthermore, drying by sun method requires laborers to spread, mix,

protect the product. Sun drying is vulnerable to spoilage of the product due to
weather, rodents, birds, and overheating. Increases in world population have led
to 13.1% of the world population being undernourished, so the need to design a
proper dryer which is affordable to rural people is essential (World hunger
Education Service, 2012). Mechanical drying, offers a solution to all of the
problems encountered by open sun drying, at a cost. The mechanical drying
29
process is flexible, providing an optimum drying condition by adjusting the

temperature in the dryer. The major drawback of mechanical drying is the high
capital and operating costs. Economies of scale make this possible for
companies, but generally impractical for farmers.
Solar dryer is an elaboration of conventional open sun drying methods

which concentrates solar energy allowing faster drying. An enclosed dryer offers
an alternative which can dry the food product in clean, hygienic and sanitary
conditions to national and international standards, with the appeal that the energy
is from solar radiation, so it is free. Solar dryers have been mainly used in small
scale food process industries and is more convenient to rural farmers as it is
generally cheaper than mechanical dryers.
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization, China was the

biggest producer country for rice and paddy in 2010. Most of the food produced
by third world countries is for local consumption, but increasingly some is for
export. Food products are usually exported in bulk, and needed to be stored
properly at safe moisture content. A good implementation of a drying system is
needed in order to keep these perishable products as stabilized products that
can be kept with minimal controlled environment for an extended period of time.
Solar dryers contribute to this process and are mostly used in developing
countries to dry crops such as grapes, cardamom, chilli, tea, coffee, tobacco,
raisin, ginger, turmeric and black pepper. However they are still mainly dried by
open sun drying in South east asia where temperatures in the country can get to
as high as 30°C or more. The climate in sea is mostly hot and wet, and exposure
to direct sun may cause case hardening in some cases, where the outer layer
becomes hard trapping moisture inside. If solar dryers are considered, their
design must avoid case hardening, and generally must consider relevant quality
criteria.
30
Listed below are the advantages of using a solar dryer as compared to open sun
drying:-
(1) It is faster as in the food dried inside the solar dryer will be heated with
solar radiation concentrated by a collector to generate a higher air
temperature.
(2) It is more efficient since the food can be dried faster and therefore will
spoil less. Thus, less food product will be lost.
(3) It is hygienic. The solar dryer is an enclosed system which prohibits
animals, insects, dust and any other contaminants from damaging the
dried food products.
Listed below are the advantages of a solar dryer compared to mechanical

drying:-
(1) It is cheaper as a solar dryer can be built from local building material
for example, wood, plastics and chicken wire, because it is smaller.
(2) It is environmental friendly as a solar dryer does not need fuel, gas or
electricity to provide energy for drying.
(3) It is suitable for remote areas as the farmers will not have to worry
about location and special set up for this type of dryer.
(4) It is user friendly and does not need a complicated operating manual to
run it.
There are still barriers to adoption of solar drying. These are

(VijayaVenkataRaman et al., 2012):-
(1) The need to prove the cost-effectiveness of solar drying systems.
(2) Lack of good technical information.
(3) The lack of good practical experience to local communities.
31
The literature review provides some of the technical information on the

design and operating principles for various types of commercially available solar
crop dryers available in many regions of the world where solar energy is
expected to have the greatest potential. To be adopted, solar drying must prove
to the world that it can saved dollars and energy. Many publications on designs
of various types of solar dryers have been done. Ekechukwu (1999) presented a
comprehensive review of the fundamental principles and theories of drying of
agricultural products, from the earliest reported sorption and moisture equilibrium
models to thin layer and deep bed drying analyses. A comprehensive review of
various designs, details of constructions, operational principles of the wide
variety of practical designs of solar energy systems were reported by
Ekechukwu and Norton (1999a). They evolved a systematic classification of solar
dryer, which grouped solar dryers into both active or forced-convection solar
dryers, and passive or natural-convection solar dryers.
A further review on the efficient design and construction of solar energy

air heating collectors of distributed and mixed mode designs of low temperature
solar dryers was presented by Ekechukwu and Norton (1999b). A further review
on the solar energy drying systems was made by Sharma et al. (2009). Fudholi
et al. (2010) reviewed various types of solar dryers with respect to the product
being dried, considering technical and economic aspects for agricultural and
marine products, defining four types of solar dryers; (1) direct solar dryers, (2)
indirect solar dryers, (3) mixed-mode dryers and (4) hybrid solar dryers. A review
of popular types of dryers applied to drying of food products on a small scale in
the Asia Pacific region, and of new types of dryers with improved technologies,
was made by Murthy (2009). A review on testing procedures, both economic and
engineering, for solar drying systems was presented by Sodha and Chandra
(1993).
32
2.2 Coffee Drying
The coffee industry was chosen for the current study as coffee
consumption has grown widely in the world. Coffee is known to contain caffeine
as a stimulant, which prevents the drinker from getting sleepy and allows better
concentration at work. The development of coffee usage started in Arabia along
the Red Sea near Aden. The coffee beans were subsequently called Coffee
Arabica, ignoring its agricultural origin which was Ethiopia. The Arabs
appreciated the taste and the stimulant effect of coffee. Coffee then spread to
Cairo and Turkey which is close to the Mediterranean sea. The Coffee then
moved to Venice, Italy, Greece and later to Spanish, French and African
Mediterranean seaports. Although these countries appreciated coffee in different
ways, by adding lemon, sugar, milk, cream, whitener, chocolate or liquor in their
cup, they all found beneficial effects from coffee consumption. Coffee then
carried its taste to the new world, the Carribean, Central and South America and
later to the far east. Japan was introduced to coffee after World War 2 and
become one of the largest coffee importers.
Coffee drying is one of the major steps in coffee processing, and has a
significant effect on the quality (flavour and aroma) of coffee beans after
processing. The overall processing stages of coffee is shown in Figure 2.1. The
main coffee processing method is to convert the raw fruit (cherry) of the coffee
plant into green coffee beans which are later used for roasting and grinding. The
cherry which is the fruit, has the pulp removed first, by pulping or hulling, leaving
the seed or bean which is then dried. A coffee plant starts to produce flowers 3 to
4 years after it is planted. The fruits with flowers, commonly known as coffee
cherries, appear as the first useful harvest around 5 years after planting. Around
eight months after the emergence of the flower, the cherries ripen by changing
colour from green to red, and it is at this time that they should be harvested.
There is one major harvest a year in most coffee-growing countries, although in
countries such as Colombia, where there are two flowerings a year, there is a
33
main and secondary crop. In most coffee growing countries, the crop is picked
by hand, though it is a difficult process and labour intensive, but in Brazil where
the landscape is relatively flat and the coffee fields immense, the process has
been mechanized.
Coffee cherries processed by the wet method are called wet processed or
washed coffee, and those processed by dry methods without washing and
fermenting, are called dried coffee. The purpose is the same, which is to remove
the mucilage layer covering the coffee beans, but the wet process produces a
higher quality of coffee than the dry process. In the wet method, the outer skins
covering the seeds or bean is removed before drying. The coffee cherries are
sorted by immersion in water straight away after they are picked. The coffee
cherries which float are classified into a lower quality of coffee as they may
contain less coffee beans in the cherry. The remaining skin of the cherries and
pulps are also removed. The coffee beans still have a significant amount of pulp
adhering (mucilage layer), which needs to be removed by the classic
fermentation and wash method or a newer procedure (semi-dry process) called
machine-assisted wet processing, aquapulping or mechanical demucilaging.
In the ferment and wash method of wet processing, the remaining

mucilage layer is removed by breaking down the cellulose, by fermenting the
beans with microbes (Erwinia dissolvens) and washed them with large amounts
of water. For machine-assisted wet processing, fermentation is not used to
separate the bean from the remainder of the parchment; rather, this is done
through mechanical scrubbing. This can cut down on water usage and pollution
by reducing the amount of fermenting and washing water. In addition, removing
mucilage by machine is more convenient and easier than removing it by
fermenting and washing because it is faster and can be done with a large amount
of coffee beans. However it still produces a lower quality of coffee beans.
34
The beans are then dried to a water content of about 11% before being
sent to the mill where sorting, grading, bagging and roasting take place. Coffee
beans can be dried in the sun by a solar dryer or mechanical dryer. Drying using
a machine is normally done where space is limited or the humidity of the area is
too high for the beans to dry. The drying process is important as it affects the
final quality of the green coffee. An overdried coffee will become brittle and
produce too many defective beans. Coffee that has not been dried appropriately
will be too moist and prone to rapid deterioration, caused by attack of fungi and
bacteria. In conclusion, listed below are the main features that can be applied in
order to produce the highest quality of coffee:-
a) The fruit must be picked while it is in ripe condition and green and
overripe cherries should be excluded
b) The fruit must be processed as quickly as possible.
c) Any contamination by other foreign bodies, especially microorganisms,
must be avoided
In the early 1980s, a trend of drying coffee beans by mechanical dryers

began. This was caused by factors such as weather which made coffee drying
more risky and affected the quality of coffee by allowing the growth of molds. The
large ground area required to dry coffee beans, and the long duration of time
required for drying made the mechanical dryer more favourable. Listed in the
next section are some of the mechanical dryers used for drying green coffee
beans in the post harvest process. Figure 2.2 shows the various options for
coffee drying in the industry.
35
WET PROCESS DRY PROCESS

Produces ‘washed’ coffee Produces ‘natural’ coffee
Greens to sun Cherry reception/sorting Cherry reception/sorting

Waste material
drying
Floaters to sun Flotation-wet/dry feed Waste material Flotation
drying
Water to Pregrader / pulper Lights back Sun drying/raking
recycling through pulper
Pulp to Pregrading channel
composting
Fermentation tanks
Water to Washing
recycling
Water to Grading chanel
recycling
Skin drying remove all
free/excess water
Sun/mechanical drying
Storage/conditioning
MILLING PROCESS
Foreign material to waste Precleaning/destoning Foreign material to waste
Parchment skin to waste or furnace Milling/hulling Husk to composting or furnace
Grading by bean size / screening
Grading by bean density (gravity table)
Remove defects/ foreign matters Manual or machine sorting Remove defects/ foreign matters
and classification
Bagging and storage/shipment or silo for bulk

storage /shipment
Figure 2.1:Coffee processing stages (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)

36
Coffee Drying
Cheaper Options Expensive Options
Open Sun Drying Solar Dryer Mechanical Dryers
Fluidized Bed Dryer

Hot Air/Screen
Direct Indirect Bottom Trays
Shivers Dryer
Vibrated Tray American

Dryer Vertical Grain
Natural Forced Dryer
Convection Convection
Wilken Rotary Moreira
Flow Dryer Vertical Dryer
Natural Forced
Convection Convection Rotary
Guardiola
Rotary Drum Torres Rotary Conduction
Dryer Dryer Dryer
Figure 2.2: Flowchart showing various options for coffee drying

37
2.3 Mechanical Dryers
2.3.1 Hot Air and Screen Bottom Trays
This type of dryer is suitable for small scale drying (shown in Figure
2.3). It consists of a horizontal wood platform for, which the top is enclosed by
trays and the bottom made of wire screen or perforated metal. Wet coffee
beans are placed on the trays and heated air is supplied to the coffee bed
from a power-driven fan and heater. The source of the heat can be wood,
coal, oil, steam or even dry parchment coffee hulls. To avoid contamination of
coffee from smoke produced by the fuel, drying air can be heated indirectly by
means of a heat exchanger in order to avoid damaged to the cup quality of
coffee. The stirring and loading of coffee can be done manually by hand. The
operation of this dryer can be carried out under a roof, and also can be
movable so that sun may be used if available. The process has rather poor
fuel efficiency and the labor cost is high in relation to production. The dryer
suitable to dry natural or washed coffee (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979).
Figure 2.3: Hot air and screen bottomed trays (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)
2.3.2 The Vibrated Tray Dryer
The vibrated tray dryer shown in Figure 2.4 consists of a vertical tunnel
measuring 0.33m × 0.18m × 1.30m with four trays inside. The trays
measuring 0.26m ×0.14m × 0.02m are supported by a vibrated shaft
consisting of perforated plates covered by a mesh. The trays, inclined at 3° to
the horizontal are positioned side by side in the drying tunnel, and are
connected by downcomers (C). A rubber curtain is supported to the
downcomer to dampen the falling beans that are fed to each subsequent tray.
38
The vibration system (F) connected to the vibrating shaft (A) supports the
movement of the trays. The coffee cherries are fed at the top of the dryer (B)
and channeled to the buckets elevator (N) measuring 3.2m × 0.7m × 0.6m by
a conveyor. The arrangement of the buckets are ensured to be at a safe
distance in order to prevent interference in loading and discharging. The
coffee cherries are fed through a vibratory feeder (L) and are circulated
continuously in the dryer until the desired moisture content is reached. The
dryer is controlled with an orifice plate (M), a series of electrical resistances
(R), a blower (S), and thermocouples (T). The coffee cherries flow horizontally
on the vibrated trays, and come into contact with the dry air which flows from
the bottom when drying (Finzer et al., 2003). A correlation between heat and
mass transfer in the batch vibrated tray dryer of coffee fruits were reported by
Sfredo et al. (2005). The experiment determined the drying kinetics, the heat
and mass transfer coefficients and the effective moisture diffusivity in the
coffee fruits. The vibration of the tray increased the drying rate as well as the
effective moisture diffusivity and consequently the heat and mass transfer
coefficients.
Figure 2.4: Vibrated tray dryer (Finzer et al., 2003)

39
2.3.3 Rotary Flow Dryer
This dryer is a simple and efficient dryer with a hot air-screen dryer as
shown in Figure 2.5. This dryer features automatic loading and unloading and
rotating power-driven rakes that keeps the coffee continuously stirred. The
picture shows a 6.1m diameter model and has a capacity about 2.5 ton of
finished green coffee per 24 hour. It has an oil consumption of 3.1 gal per
hour and fuel efficiency of about 40 to 45 percent.
Figure 2.5: Rotary Flow Dryer (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)
2.3.4 The Rotary Drum Dryer
Figure 2.6: Rotary Drum Dryer ;(a) Steam Heated Dryer ;(b) Drum section
(Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)
40
The rotary drum dryer as shown in Figure 2.6 is a horizontal cylinder

which can accommodates batches of up to 5450kg of wet parchment coffee.
The cylindrical walls are fabricated from perforated sheet steel to allow free
outward passage of moist air. Heated air is fed to the coffee through a hollow
trunion in each end and is distributed into the coffee from an axial duct with
radial perforated arms. The warm air which passes through the stirred coffee
escapes through an outer cylinder wall. This dryer has a diameter of
approximately 1.8m and 4.9m long with a net volume of 8.5m3.
The air temperature in the dryer is controlled by monitoring the

temperature of the coffee, which can be determined by a thermometer. The
inlet hot air can be as high as 90°C keeping the coffee temperature in a safe
range below 45 to 50°C, provided the coffee is wet. The air temperature will
gradually decrease as the drying proceeds and coffee dries. The air
temperature can be monitored using an automatic temperature control. The
drying time for this batch may be shortened to 30 to 36 hours when the
temperature of air and drying coffee is kept in the safe range.
This dryer has been used widely throughout the coffee growing world
for many years because it is a simple dryer and does not require high skill to
operate. It does not have air recirculation, and therefore does not have a good
heat efficiency. The heated air sometimes is heated by a heat exchanger to
avoid smoke contamination, which reduces the heat efficiency of the dryer.
Other factor that affect the heat efficiency of this dryer is when air is heated by
generate steam, the cost of the heated air maybe 65 times higher than direct
heating due to boiler efficiency and heat exchange losses. In general, the
coffee quality needs to be monitored to avoid off-flavors if it is exposed to
smoke.
41
2.3.5 The Torres Rotary Dryer
The Torres dryer (shown in Figure 2.7) consists of a cylinder with a

diameter of 2.1m and 9.1m long. It has another concentric cylinder on the
inside with a diameter of 0.9m. They are made of heavy wire screen
supported with a stiff frame. This dryer is manufactured in Brazil. The dryer
was design for natural coffee, although washed coffee may also be dried in it.
The manual recommends rest periods for moisture equalization. The dryer
has no re-circulation of the drying air. The coffee is fed into an annular space
between the inner and outer cylinders. The heating air system, much like that
of a Guardiola dryer, is fed into the inner cylinder and forced out through the
coffee. The coffee may be loaded and unpacked while running, thus making
the dryer both a batch and continuous dryer.
Firstly, coffee is placed in the dryer allowing it to dry for a period and
removed into a container for a resting period. The reason for this resting
period is to allow the coffee to reach moisture equalization, since different
coffee berries start at different moisture contents. After the resting period,
coffee is returned to the dryer and the cycle repeated until the coffee is fully
dried to about 12 percent moisture. Nevertheless, the dryer needs auxiliary
machinery for handling coffee, such as conveyors, elevators, chutes and
hoppers. The main advantage of this method is that the heterogenous
material may be brought to a homogenous final moisture content without
overdrying the portions which were driest at the beginning. The disadvantages
are that this drying method involves a rather complicated schedule for
programming the movement of coffee and also involves a large cost of
investing, a large building, bins and handling machinery, and high power
consumption for moving so much coffee many times.
42
Figure 2.7: Torres Dryer (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)
2.3.6 Rotary Conduction Dryer
A rotary conduction dryer also known as a rotary conduction unit, was

used by Mwithiga and Jindal (2004) to study the drying of parchment coffee,
by developing a time-temperature drying history and associating this with the
measured product quality. The rotary conduction dryer basically uses the
same principle as any other type of rotary dryer. It consists of a rotary heating
cylinder, electrical heating chamber, feeding bin, support and driving
mechanism and the coffee recirculating system. This rotary dryer was
constructed from 3 mm thick mild steel sheet, was 250 cm long and 60 cm in
diameter as shown in Figure 2.8. A continuous helical flight with a pitch of 15
cm and 15 cm of height was fitted to the inner surface of the cylinder. The
function of this flight was to provide uniform movement of coffee beans in the
forward direction, as well as continuous contact of grain with the heating
surface for better heat transfer. In order to have proper feeding of coffee
beans into the dryer, a conical section was attached to the inlet end of the
heating cylinder. The coffee was guided through an inclined chute to an
inclined screw conveyor for recirculation at the exit end of the cylinder. This
dryer used natural convection in its operation as both ends of the cylinder
were left open during the operation. To ensure a smooth rotation, two guide
rings of 0.64 m thick and 5 cm wide were mounted around the cylinder to
43
support the heavy duty ball bearings. The heater chamber had two partitions,
and the upper half of the cylinder could be opened at its middle cross section
for maintenance purposes. The inner surface of the enclosing cylinder was
insulated with thick asbestos sheets and the outer surface was covered with
two layers of thick microfiber insulation. There were three separate control
circuits used to supply heat to the rotary conduction dryer. The dryer was
seated on two heavy duty roller bearings. An electrical motor with variable
speed was installed to rotate the heating cylinder. An inclined screw elevator
was installed at the end of the heating unit to collect the coffee and deliver it
back to the feeding bin for the recirculation of coffee. The coffee doesn’t have
to wait in the feed bin prior to its reentry into the heating cylinder as the
amount of coffee used for batch continuous drying was adequate for
continuous recirculation of coffee.
Figure 2.8: Rotary Conduction Dryer (Mwithiga and Jindal, 2004)

44
2.3.7 The Moreira Vertical Dryer
Figure 2.9: Moreira Dryer (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)
The Moreira dryer was designed and manufactured in Brazil. It uses

wood as the fuel source with a special wood burning furnace designed to not
produce smoke, and to accomplish complete combustion. Thus, it was
claimed that no heat exchanger is needed as the fuel efficiency is high. A
picture of the Moreira vertical dryer is shown in Figure 2.9. The fire source as
shown in the picture has a cylindrical shape and was positioned slightly
inclined, leaning 15° towards the dryer at the top. The dimension for this
firebox was 76cm in diameter and 102cm high. The ambient air enters the
upper part of the grate and meets the glowing charcoal face of the wood fire
which was placed in the firebox. The wood is fed continuously to the back of
the firebox and when the air reached the fire face, the wood will turn into
charcoal and therefore burns without smoke. Hence, the coffee quality is
preserved.
45
A fan is used to deliver drying air to the coffee chamber, which is set
vertically. The coffee chamber has the dimensions of 9m high, 1.83m long
and 1.37m wide. The drying air which passes through the coffee chamber will
then escape through outlet screens which sit on top of the vertical wall
chamber. When the chamber is full, the coffee is discharged slowly at the
bottom of the tower to a conveyor belt which carries it to a hopper filled with
partially dried coffee beans. These partially dried coffee beans are then
recirculated continually in the dryer until they reach the desired moisture
content. Because the drying air which passes through the elevated coffee
becomes saturated with water in the tower and can do no more drying, the
upper part of the tower serves as an equalizing bin. If the coffee is cooled
slightly in the elevator, some moisture is likely to be condensed on the coffee
but this quantity is considered negligible. Some of the sensible heat would be
conserved in warming the descending coffee beans and thus improving heat
efficiency. Thus it is practically guaranteed that the full drying capacity of the
air is utilized. It is clear that this dryer is designed for batch operation although
the coffee may be discharge slowly by making a single pass through the
dryer. A preliminary drying of the coffee beans is needed for this operation.
2.3.8 American Vertical Grain Dryer
This dryer was originally designed for crops like corn, wheat and rice.
However, in 1952 people tested a unit for washed coffee beans. This dryer
has features similar to the Moreira Dryer and may be equipped with tempering
as in the Torres Dryer. Figure 2.10 shows a picture of an American Vertical
Grain Dryer which features two columns with louvers through which the coffee
passes downward. Each of the columns is open to the inside chamber
through which the hot air flows up through the coffee beans. At the bottom of
the chamber, there will be an exit to discharge the coffee into a trough which
then is channeled to a hopper and chute into a bucket elevator. The bucket
will carry the coffee beans into the top of the chamber for another cycle or it
may be stored in a bin for a rest period.
46
The supplied heated air is controlled by a fan and a direct-fired oil

heater, which has a thermostat connected to sensor located in the hot air
chamber within the dryer. This dryer needs a sufficient depth of coffee beans
maintained on the top of the dryer so that this will create a resistance to the
air flow and hence, will avoid wasting air by leaking. This type of dryer is also
good for recirculation of drying air. The dryer was designed in five models
sizes which can accommodates 2000 to 32000 Ib of dry parchment coffee per
24 hour. The dryer is operated by filling it with wet parchment coffee beans,
either directly from the washing process (moisture content of about 40 to
48%), or after pre-drying by one-pass at a much lower rate through the same
type of dryer.
Figure 2.10: American vertical dryer (Sivetz and Desrosier, 1979)
2.3.9 Shivers Dryer
The Shivers dryers as shown in Figure 2.11 has a special mechanism,

which is a rotating radial helical transporter that sweeps the driest beans from
the bottom of the silo and thrusts them to the top of the silo continually. This
effect will produce uniformly dried batches of coffee beans and also will
minimize the overheating and damage to localized areas of beans. The
47
Shivers dryer can dry up to 3.5 ton batch of beans with inlet air temperatures
as high as 170ºC as used in Columbia, March 1976. The coffee beans (at
about 53 percent moisture content) are fed into the dryer. The condition inside
the silo is near saturation temperatures at all times.
This dryer uses 30 litres per hour of diesel oil fuel to heat air, which
flows at about 7000 litres per second. The air flows up through 0.48cm holes
across the silo area. Screw conveyors are used for loading or unloading, so
as to get the fullest use of the dryer during the short coffee harvest season.
Direct firing of fuel, chosen to have no combustion odours, is used. The
Shivers dryer was claimed by Sivetz and Desrosier, (1979) to be the fastest
and most efficient dryer.
The conventional method of drying coffee beans by sun drying, to

produce best flavour, is now supplemented by mechanical dryers. In 1976, El
Salvador Socafe abandoned patio drying for large scale mechanized grain
drying. One of the most important benefits of the Shivers dryer is that it allows
the washed coffee, or cherry to be fully dried. This eliminates all sorts of
harmful steps such as intermittent drying, storage and re-handling which can
cause contamination and lack of uniformity of the coffee beans. The sweep,
which was designed in the form of a helix, does not damage the coffee beans
as screw conveyors and elevators do when recycling dried coffee beans.
48
Figure 2.11 : Shivers Dryer (Technologies, 2011)
2.3.10 Fluidized Bed Drying
The Fluidized bed dryer (shown in Figure 2.12) was proposed by the
Central American Technology and Industrial Investigations Institute (ICAITI) in
Guatemala as a commercialized and practical option for drying to farmers.
ICAITI have sponsored research on fluidized bed roasting of coffee beans and
fluidized bed drying of parchment-covered coffee beans. In the ICAITI report,
many dried coffee beans were said to be poor and unacceptable to
consumers in terms of flavor. As the fluidized bed dryer worked so well in
roasting, then this application was applied to the drying of coffee beans (since
roasting is 90% drying). This dryer uses a partial bed fluidization with the
balance allowing progression by gravity movement of the beans. All the beans
receive uniform exposure to heated air and equilibration of temperature. Fluid
bed drying of parchment coffee beans can be carried out for two to four hours
with inlet air temperatures from 70°C to 127°C, beans bed temperatures of
46°C to 88°C, exit air temperatures less about 12°C from beans bed
temperatures.
49
Figure 2.12 : Fluidized Bed Dryer (Barr-Rosin, 2012)
Coffee drying may be achieved in many different ways; some beans

are sun dried initially; some are dried with direct diesel-fired heated air at the
initial drying stages; some by indirect steam-heated air in the final stages of
drying. Coffee beans are processed in many ways, which gives differences in
quality. Coffee cherries may be delivered day by day, lot by lot or week by
week. There are variations in pulping and hulling, fermentation, washing and
process times. There can also be variations in parchment stripping, which
gives the beans a harsh taste. There may be mechanical breakdowns, or
changes altering the routine drying operation. The final moisture content for
the dried coffee beans are usually 10, 11 or 12 percent. Usually, the lower the
moisture content, the more flavour is lost.
The nature of the crop itself also contributes to different flavour, for
example the range of large and small beans, defective beans, the level of final
classification and grades of beans produce unpredictable variance. Different
degrees of treatment of coffee beans, for example overheating or parchment
removal, gives a heavy and ripened taste. The coffee beans usually exhibit a
definite bluegreen colour which is an aspect characteristic of high quality of
Arabica coffee beans.
50
2.4 Solar Drying
Solar drying was originally seen as offering a cheaper drying process

to make drying a cheaper process while producing the same quality of dried
product as mechanical drying.. The material used to construct the dryers are
usually found from local material such as timber and plastics compared to
mechanical dryers which uses mostly stainless steel as the main building
material. Most of the solar dryers also need not uses electricity to run and so
are an almost perfect choice for rural areas. Rising fuel costs have tended to
improve this case.
The solar dryer constructability design makes it comparable with

mechanical dryers as it offers a simpler design. It also need less manpower
and time for the completion of the construction. As the availability of the
building material is easy to find, the solar dryer stands a better option
compared to mechanical dryers.
As the world are moving towards being environmental friendly and

sustainable, a solar dryer has an advantage as it produces zero emission, as
it needs no fuel to run, but instead uses direct energy from the sun as the
energy source. Disposal of the dryer is also easier compared to a mechanical
dryer as most of the construction material is biodegradable and not known to
be harmful to the environment.
The solar dryer, as it is mostly used in a smaller scale, is potable

feature which makes it movable and easier to handle. This also allows the
solar dryer to be recycled and be re-used for other food commodities in other
places. The solar dryer on the other hand has significant weaknesses which
are; (i) it is consumes more time for drying and (ii) it is totally dependent on
weather conditions for good drying effect. But this can still be bearable as
drying in a solar dryer can always be aided with having fan and other auxiliary
heating installed in the dryer for better drying.
51
Basically, solar drying can be classified into three main types, which
are direct, indirect and specialized solar dryers (Sharma et al., 2009). Direct
solar dryers means that the product to be dried is exposed directly to solar
radiation, by placing it in an enclosed dryer that has transparent material
covering it. Solar radiation is absorbed by the product itself as well as by the
internal surfaces of the drying chamber. For the indirect solar dryers, solar
radiation is not directly incident on the material to be dried, but instead solar-
heated air in the collector is channeled to the drying chamber. Specialized
dryers, also known as hybrid solar dryers are normally designed specifically to
a product and are distinguished by extra features installed in the dryer, for
example solar drying with photovoltaic cells, solar assisted dehumidification
system and many more (Fudholi et al., 2010).
2.4.1 Open Sun Drying
Figure 2.13 illustrates the theoretical principle for open sun drying. The
short wavelength solar radiation falls on the crop surface and some part of the
energy is reflected back to the surrounding. The energy that is absorbed by
the surface of the crops is converted into thermal energy and increases the
crop temperature. There is a significant loss with open sun drying due to
exposure to rodents, birds, insects, microorganisms and weather. Some of the
problems characteristic of open sun drying are over-drying, insufficient drying,
contamination from foreign material like dust, dirt, insects, and
microorganisms, as well as discolouration bv UV radiation. In conclusion, the
quality of the open sun dried material does not always fulfill international
quality standard markets and therefore contributes to the awareness of a
need for more development and designs of solar dryers which implement the
same concept of solar energy utilization.
52
Figure 2.13 : Open sun drying principle
2.4.2 Direct Solar Drying
Direct solar drying involves a form of cabinet dryer. The theoretical

concepts of direct solar drying are shown in Figure 2.14. Some of the solar
radiation incident on the glass cover is reflected back to atmosphere, and the
remaining is transmitted inside the cabinet dryer. A part of the transmitted
radiation is reflected from the surface of the crop and the remaining part is
absorbed by the surface of the crop. The temperature of the crop rises due to
the absorption of solar radiation, which will then emit long wavelength
radiation, which is trapped in the dryer due to the presence of the glass
(unlike open sun drying). The temperature in the dryer will start to increase
until a balance is achieved with the loss of heat to the environment due to air
convection. A direct solar dryer has a few limitations:-
(1) It is usually designed for a small capacity.
(2) Discolouration of the crop due to direct exposure to solar radiation.
(3) Reduced transmissivity through the glass due to moisture

condensation.
(4) Inadequate drying if insufficient solar energy.

53
Figure 2.14 : Direct solar drying principle
2.4.3 Indirect Solar Drying
The working principles of an indirect solar dryer system are shown in

Figure 2.15 and 2.16. The crop is placed in the drying chamber, but not
exposed directly to the solar radiation, in order to minimize discolouration and
cracking of the surface. Many designs have been tested to obtain maximum
radiation to heat up the crop in the drying chamber. Some designers
incorporate a reflector in the dryer and others concentrate on designing the
collector to absorb more solar radiation. Both have the same purpose, to
collect as much solar radiation as possible. In order to design a reflector, one
has to take into account the angle of the sun as well as the position of the
crop located in the dryer. The heated air passes through the collector, and will
then flow through the wet crop and allow convective heat transfer between the
hot air and the crop. Therefore, a better control of the quality of the crop can
be achieved by using an indirect type solar dryer. A picture of an indirect type
solar collector using both a reflector and a collector is shown both in Figure
2.15 and 2.16.
54
(a) without glass
(b) with glass
Figure 2.15 : Single tray reverse absorber cabinet dryer
Figure 2.16 : Indirect solar drying system principle.

55
2.4.4 Types of solar dryer
Solar dryers may also be classified into passive or active solar dryers.
Passive dryers are also known as natural convection solar dryers. Passive
solar dryers are based on the principle that heated air moves due to the
buoyancy effect caused by density changes. Usually, normal and reverse
absorber cabinet dryers (as shown in Figure 2.15) and greenhouse dryers
operate in passive mode. Active solar dryers, also known as forced
convection solar dryers, force the heated air to move by incorporating
motorized fans or pumps in the dryer.
Integral type active dryers have the solar collector forming an

integrated part of the roof or wall of the drying chamber. A distributed active
type dryer is one in which the solar collector and drying chamber are in
separate units. Mixed mode designs combine some features of the integral
and distributed type of solar dryers.
Combining the classifications direct or indirect, and passive or active,

gives four possible combinations. So for example a solar dryer with no forced
air flow, which has the food directly exposed to the solar radiation, is called a
direct passive dryer. This type of dryer is best suited for small batches of food
crops. Generally, a direct passive solar dryer consists of a small drying
chamber covered with plastic. The cover of the dryer is usually inclined to
collect more solar radiation and the food products are placed in a wire mesh
tray. Most solar dryers have air circulation coming from the bottom of the
dryer which then flows through the wire mesh trays and exits at the upper part
of the dryer. The dry air coming from the bottom of the tray becomes moister
as it absorbs water from the food crops as it moves through the perforated
tray. The solar radiation coming through the inclined wall also heats up the
food tray. Radiation heat is trapped in the dryer by what is known as the
“greenhouse effect”. A picture of a direct passive solar dryer is shown in
Figure 2.17.
56
Figure 2.17: Picture of a passive cabinet solar dryer
Active solar dryers are more suitable for highly moisture food products.
A picture of an active solar dryer is shown in Figure 2.18. The concept for the
active solar dryer is similar to the passive solar dryer apart from the fan. For
both active and passive dryers, the roof needs to be tilted as more sun
radiation can be collected when the collector surface is nearly perpendicular
to the sun’s rays. The tilted roof also helps the circulation of air by having
denser air flowing down along the tilted roof towards the bottom part of the
dryer. There are a few differences between these two type of dryer. An active
solar dryer usually incorporates a collector in the roof to promote a better
drying effect. More food mesh trays may be incorporated in the active solar
dryers as compared to the passive solar dryers, and in general the active
solar dryer can dry larger amounts of food crops, and is more efficient with
high moisture food products such as cabbage, kiwi, papaya and other fruits or
vegetables.
57
Figure 2.18 : Picture of an active solar convective dryer
2.5 A review of solar-energy drying system
2.5.1 Passive mode (natural convection) solar dryer
Koyuncu (2005) designed and tested two different types of natural-

circulation greenhouse crop dryers. Each dryer used the same fabrication
material (black coated metal bars, corrosion resistant plastic mesh, a black
coated solar radiation absorber surface, styrofoam insulation, a polyethylene
cover sheet, product door, air inlet and outlet channels and chimney).
However they had different configurations (Figure 2.19). The first had three
trays with the same length but different width and a 65° tilt angle. The second
dryer was designed like the steps of a stair. This dryer has seven steps in
which three steps were on the right and left, and one on the top. Both of the
greenhouse type dryers were used with crops (pepper) and without crops (no
product loaded). Both dryers increased the ambient air temperature by 5-9°C
and give better air mass flow than ambient. Both of the dryers performance
58
were also compared with open sun drying and shown to have 30% greater
efficiency. This dryer was found to be suitable for areas that have rainy type
climate and high relative humidity.
Figure 2.19 : Picture of natural-circulation greenhouse dryers (Koyuncu, 2005)
Another type of natural convection solar dryer was constructed in

Matsuyama Japan, shown in Figure 2.20. This type of dryer is a mixed mode
type, which consists of a rock collector system, drying chamber and chimney.
They were constructed using local materials of wood, scrap metal and glass
sheets. Granite was used as the absorber medium since it has a high thermal
diffusivity, and 30mm polystyrene was used for insulation since it has a low
thermal conductivity. Well-seasoned boards were used to build the structural
frame and panels to withstand termite attack. The chimney was constructed
from galvanized iron sheets to minimize atmospheric corrosion, and a
galvanized wire mesh was placed at the entrance of the air duct to keep
rodents out. The drying data were fitted into the Page model which gave a
good fit to the experimental data. The drying parameters of K and n from the
59
Page equations were determined and could be used for the simulation of
deep bed drying of rough rice in a mixed mode natural convection solar dryer.
The average range of drying air temperature was 22.3-34.9ºC, and the
relative humidity were between 34.5% and 57.9%. The rough rice were dried
from initial moisture content ranged 37.07-37.69% dry basis to about 15-18%
dry basis (Basunia and Abe, 2001)
Figure 2.20 : Experimented mixed-mode natural convection solar dryer

(Basunia and Abe, 2001)
Cabinet dryers, as reported by Lawand (1966), Datta et al. (1988) and

Zaman and Bala (1989) have a similar framework and function shown in
Figure 2.21, 2.22 and 2.23. They consist of a rectangular container insulated
at its base and covered with a double layered transparent roof which can be
plastic or glass sheets. The framework panels can be made of wood or metal
for portable models, or adobe, brick, rock or concrete for permanent
structures and insulated by wood shavings, bagasse, coconut fibre, wool or
goat hair Lawand (1966) and sawdust Datta et al. (1988). This type of dryer
has holes in the bottom and on the roof to allow a flow of air drying the
product. A series of evaluation tests on these dryers was undertaken to
determine heat losses and efficiencies of the dryer. The cabinet dryer
designed by Lawand (1966) as shown in Figure 2.21 was tested in
Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic and tested with herbs, parsley, garlic,
60
apricots, peaches, onions, okra and grapes. Zaman and Bala (1989) derived
simple empirical equations for thin layer natural air flow solar drying of rough
rice for a mixed-mode dryer, box dryer, and open floor drying system. They
showed that mixed mode was the best for drying rice in Bangladesh, followed
by the box type and open floor since there was some natural convection of air
flow through the grains. However detailed mathematical modeling of these
cabinet type was not shown. The cabinet dryer designed by Datta et al. (1988)
shown in Figure 2.22 was tested with wheat in India, where a transient
analysis was carried out to model the instantaneous temperatures inside the
dryer and the moisture content and drying rates of the product.
Figure 2.21 : Picture of a passive solar cabinet dryer (Lawand, 1966)
Figure 2.22 : Schematic diagram of a cabinet-type solar dryer (Datta et al.,

1988)
61
Figure 2.23 : Picture of box-type solar dryer (left) and mixed-mode type solar
dryer (right) (Zaman and Bala, 1989)
Jain (2007) designed a natural convection solar crop dryer which has a
reversed absorber with packed bed thermal storage, in Delhi, India. Low
temperatures were used for drying the products, between 15-20°C. A
schematic diagram of the reversed flat plate absorber is shown in Figure 2.24.
The inclined absorber plate II and flat absorber plate I absorb solar radiation
and transfer the energy to the storage material and packed bed. During
sunshine hours, the packed bed is charged by hot air and is discharged
during off-sunshine hours. A hot air flow is maintained throughout the drying
process.
A computer program was written to solve the energy balance for

different components of the drying system. The dryer chamber outlet and inlet
air temperatures, air mass flow and incident solar energy measurements,
made it possible to determine the dryer thermal effectiveness. In 24 hours
drying period, a reversed absorber plate with 1m length and 1m breadth with
0.15m packed bed could dry 95kg of onion. A simple, moderate cost and easy
to use system was designed by Gbaha et al. (2007) to be tested
experimentally for drying foods such as cassava, bananas and mango. It
consisted of a drying chamber topped with a chimney, a box, a tray and all
instrumentations needed as shown in Figure 2.25. It has a velocity regulator
to help with the airflow and matt black paint to absorb solar radiation. The
drying process reduced moisture content of cassava and sweet banana
62
approximately to 80% in 19 and 22 hours respectively to reach its safe

moisture content of 13%. Most of the calculations carried out for this study
delt with finding the temperature in the dryer, which varies with time, and also
calculating efficiency as air mass flow varies. Efficiency for most of the solar
dryer designs fell between 15% to 45%. The Henderson and Pabis drying
model was found to be better in predicting drying kinetics compared with other
models (Koua et al., 2009).
Figure 2.24 : Reversed absorber with thermal storage (Jain, 2007)
Figure 2.25: Picture of direct solar dryer (Gbaha et al., 2007)

63
A mixed-mode and an indirect-mode solar dryer for maize have been

optimized and their performance compared (Simate, 2003). Among the
different types of natural convection dryer, the mix-mode model was thought
to be superior as it combines more than one method to dry products. Grain is
dried on a perforated surface and is subjected to direct radiation on its top
surface through a transparent drying chamber cover, and an air current
passing through the grain bed from a solar air heater as shown in Figure 2.26.
Grain is dried by a combination of both direct radiation (with conduction of
heat from the top layer of grains to the bottom) and convection of hot air from
the solar air heater, entering from below the grains and moving to the top.
Simulation models on energy and mass balances, and an economic model of
both the indirect and mixed mode dryers were carried out, and optimization of
these models gave a shorter collector length for the mixed-mode solar dryer
(1.8 m) than for the indirect-mode dryer (3.34 m) for the same capacity (90
kg). The drying cost of the mix-mode dryer was 26% less than the indirect-
mode and it was thought to offer more uniform drying than the indirect-mode.
Mixed mode natural

convection solar dryer.
Energy comes through
collector and glass cover
over bed
Indirect convection solar

dryer.
Energy comes through
collector only
Photograph of mixed-
mode natural convection
Figure 2.26 : Comparison of collector and mixed mode design (Simate, 2003)
64
Singh et al. (2006) developed a multi-shelf domestic solar dryer for

drying various products that are used in powder form in a domestic kitchen,
such as chillies, garlic, ginger, mango powder, coriander, onion and fenugreek
leaves, under hygienic conditions. This multi-shelf dryer consisted of three
perforated trays arranged in three different levels, one above the other inside
the hot box. One of its novel features was the variable inclination of this dryer
to capture more solar energy in different seasons, and also to carry out drying
under shade or without shade depending on the suitability of the product. A
picture of the multi-shelf domestic solar dryer is shown in Figure 2.27. A
semi-continuous mode of loading was introduced for better efficiency and the
quality of the product was found to be acceptable. The shelf life of the product
dried in the domestic solar dryer was found to be more than a year. The rate
of drying fenugreek leaves was found to be 0.23, 0.18 and 0.038 kg/m 2.h on
the 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. The drying rate in the dryer was twice faster
than in open shade drying.
Figure 2.27 A multi-shelf domestic solar dryer (Singh et al., 2006)
Another convective solar dryer was designed by Ayensu (1997) in

Cape Coast, Ghana, and constructed from local materials such as wood,
metals and glass sheet. This was used to dry cassava, pepper, okra and
groundnuts. A picture of the dryer is shown in Figure 2.28. The solar dryer has
a rock system with granite as an absorbing medium, as it has a high thermal
diffusivity. The chimney, which was constructed from galvanized iron sheets
to minimize atmospheric corrosion, was designed to improve air flow and
65
increase buoyancy of air in the dryer than the open sun drying. The ambient
air at 32ºC with 80% relative humidity could be heated to 45ºC at 40% relative
humidity. The food product were dried to safe moisture content of <14%. An
empirical equation was used to describe the drying process.
Another similar design of an indirect natural convection solar dryer

(shown in Figure 2.29) was made by Bala and Woods (1994). This dryer was
tested in India for drying rough rice. The mathematical model for this dryer
showed that the chimney height does not contribute to the air flow in the dryer
and the air flow generated in the dryer was actually coming from the collector.
Figure 2.28: Schematic diagram of a fixed bed dryer (Ayensu, 1997)
Figure 2.29: Picture of indirect natural convection solar dryer (Bala and
Woods, 1994)
66
A thin layer indirect solar dryer (shown in Figure 2.30) was simulated
and tested in Burkina Paso, France for drying mango slices of 8mm thickness
(Dissa et al., 2009). This dryer was an absorber of a mixed type which
consisted of a couple of corrugated iron absorbers and a porous absorber
made from mesh aluminium. The dryer chimney was made of PVC tube with
the base of an air extractor and insulation covering the bottom side of the
dryer with glass wool. The dryer can dry the mangoes for about 3 days where
50%, 40% and 5% of unbound water were eliminated respectively on the first,
second, and the third day. The final moisture content was about 13.79%wb.
The simulation model gave a reasonable profile of drying kinetics.
Figure 2.30: Picture of an indirect solar dryer (Dissa et al., 2009)
Another unique small solar dryer with limited sun tracking capabilities
was designed and tested by Mwithiga and Kigo (2006). A picture of the dryer
is shown in Figure 2.31. It had a mild steel absorber plate and a polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) cover that could be adjusted to track the sun with increments
of 15º. The dryer was tested for coffee beans, where the performance was
tested by changing the angle if the dryer with the horizontal either once, three,
five or nine times a day with loaded or unloaded conditions. The
mathematical modeling showed that tracking of the sun did not offer a
significant advantage in terms of drying duration although it allowed a faster
rate of drying initially.
67
Figure 2.31: Solar dryer (a) Pictorial view (b) Cross section view (Mwithiga
and Kigo, 2006)
A solar dryer was constructed by Senadeera and Kalugalage (2003) in

Sri Lanka to dry chillies. The dryer consisted of four main separate parts, the
collector, drying chamber, metal duct and chimney. A picture of this dryer is
shown in Figure 2.32. The top surfaces of the collector and the drying
chamber were designed to have a curved shape to collect more solar
radiation in the dryer. In order to reduce heat loss, Rigifoam insulation was
installed in the dryer. A black painted absorber plate was also installed to
increase heat intake in the dryer. The dryer was also designed to be easily
accessible for opening and closing for cleaning purposes. A metal duct
located at the transition between the drying chamber and the chimney was
used to increase ventilation together with the chimney installation. The dryer
could dry a maximum of 15kg of food crops. The dryer performance was
evaluated with two chimneys and it was found that adding the second
chimney gave better performances.
68
Figure 2.32: Solar tunnel dryer (Senadeera and Kalugalage, 2003)
Tripathy and Kumar (2008) designed a natural mixed mode solar dryer
which was used to dry potato samples in India. A picture of the dryer is shown
in Figure 2.33. The dryer consisted of an inclined flat-plate solar collector
which was connected to a drying chamber in series. The food product were
placed on the wire mesh tray covered with glass and was exposed directly to
the sun radiation. The glass cover were sealed with a rubber gasket to avoid
air leaking. The collector was made from an aluminium sheet painted in black
with 3mm thick transparent glass cover on the top and was used as a solar
radiation absorber. To protect the dryer from harsh climate conditions, the
thick wooden frame assembled were covered with aluminium foil. 50mm thick
fibre glass were also used on the sides and on the bottoms as insulation. Two
rectangular openings at the collector outlet and inlet were made for natural
convection of air flow. From the analysis, the thin layer drying equation
revealed that both drying constant and lag factor increased with sample
temperature. Results of statistical error analysis indicated that the
experimental drying kinetic for both cylinders and slices of the potato were
best represented with the proposed linear correlation.
69
Figure 2.33: Natural convection and mixed mode solar dryer (Tripathy and
Kumar, 2008)
2.5.2 Active mode (forced convection) solar dryer
Al-Juamily et al. (2007) developed a forced convection solar cabinet

dryer, shown in Figure 2.34, consisted of a solar collector, connecting pipes,
air valve, air blower and a solar cabinet. Two similar flat plate collectors with
total area of 2.4m2 are used to collect solar radiation energy. The plates used
were corrugated type and inclined at 60° to increase the heat transfer area
and hence the heat transfer rate to the flowing fluid. It was made of
galvanized steel with black paint containing 5% black chromium powder to
increase its absorptivity capability. The cabinet was divided into six divisions
separated by five shelves. Two types of fruit and one type of vegetable were
dried. These were grapes, apricots and beans. The moisture content of the
apricot was reduced within one and a half day from 80% to 13%. Drying of
grapes was reduced from 80% to 18% in two and a half days and the drying
of beans was reduced within one day only from 65% to 18%. Tests indicated
that the most effective factor on the drying rate was the temperature of the air
inside the cabinet. The effect of variation of speed in the dryer was small and
70
can be neglected as the relative humidity of the air exit was small and
therefore there was no need for high velocity air inside the cabinet.
Figure 2.34 : Forced convection solar dryer (Al-Juamily et al., 2007)
An experimental study was performed to determine the thin layer

drying characteristics in a solar dryer with forced convection, compared with
under open sun (natural convection) for long green pepper by Akpinar and
Bicer (2008). The indirect forced convection solar dryer consisted of a solar
air collector, a circulation fan and a drying cabinet, as shown in Figure 2.35. It
was constructed from stainless steel sheets of thickness 0.5mm and its’ outer
surface was painted black. The solar air heater was covered with a copper
sheet which is also painted in black. Glass was used as a transparent cover
for the air heater to prevent top heat losses. The drying data (which exhibit a
falling rate period only) were fitted to 13 different mathematical models.
Among those models, the logarithmic model for forced solar drying, the Midilli
and the Kucuk model for sun drying were best for explaining the thin layer
drying behaviour of long green peppers. To investigate its performance, the
coefficient of determination (R), reduced chi square (X2) and root mean
square error (RMSE) were compared between the observed and predicted
moisture ratios.
71
1-solar collector
2-frame
3-foot
4-connection pipe
5-circulation fan
6-drying cabinet
7-channel selector
8-digital thermometer
9- anemometer
10-pyrometer
11-digital solar
integrator
12-hygrometer
Figure 2.35 : Forced circulation experimental design (Akpinar and Bicer,

2008)
Dissa et al. (2009) conducted modeling and experimental validation of

thin layer indirect solar drying of mango slices of 8mm thick. The solar dryer
was designed as a mixed type absorber, which consisted of coupling of a
corrugated iron absorber and a porous absorber made of a mesh of
aluminium. The drying unit was a wooden enclosure with its upper part
surmounted by a cone shaped roofing which supported an air extractor at its
base. The schematic diagram of this dryer is shown in Figure 2.36. The
products were laid inside the dryer on four rectangular mesh trays constructed
with wooden frames. The solar drying time of mango and the establishment of
solar drying rates curves of this fruits was determined. The drying rates with
correction for shrinkage and critical water content were experimentally
determined. The critical water content was almost 70% of the initial water
content of the food product ad the drying rates were reduced to nearly 6% of
the maximum value at night. A similar solar air heater was developed by Tiris
et al. (1995). A schematic diagram is shown in Figure 2.37. The dimensions
of the solar air-heater were 57cm X 203cm with helical type aluminium wires
(1-1.5mm in diameter) painted in black to used as an absorbent surface to
increase the area of heat transfer. The collector (angle of 30º) together with
the solar air heater were oriented to the southern direction. Polyester plate
containing glass wool was used as a transparent cover for the collector and
72
the remaining sides of the solar air-heater were covered with the aluminium
and stainless steel sheets. The dryer was tested for several agricultural
products; sultana grapes, green beans, sweet peppers and chilli peppers.
This is a natural circulation dryer in drying results were compared with the
results from natural sun drying of products, showing that a higher efficiency
and shorter time was achieved using this dryer compared to sun drying.
(a) solar collector

(b) drying unit
(c) PVC chimney
(d) air extractor
(e) air entrance
(k) drying unit bottom side
(x) drying unit small side
(y) drying unit large side
(m) air recycling pipe.
Figure 2.36 : Prototype of indirect solar dryer. (Dissa et al., 2009)
1- air inlet
2-fan
3-valve
4-electrical heater
5-flowmeter
6-solar air heater
7-pressure
transducer
8- pyranometer
9-drying chamber
10-rack
11- products
12-air outlet.
Figure 2.37 : Schematic diagram of the drying system; (Tiris et al., 1995)
73
A similar forced convection solar cabinet dryer was used by

Chirarattananon et al. (1988) to develop a reduced mathematical model which
used only the variables directly involved in the energy and mass balance
relationships for the drying process. This experiment used small pieces of
sponge as product models. The dryer is shown in Figure 2.38 below. From
the picture, a solar air heater was attached to the dryer at the base of the
cabinet to provide forced convection. The cabinet consisted of a number of
product shelves and the side covers and roof were both transparent to allow
penetration of solar radiation into the dryer. In the usual operation, the
ambient air was heated by the heater before passing through the cabinet,
subsequently leaving the dryer through an exhaust outlet at the top of the
cabinet near the roof. The heated air loses its sensible heat as it passes the
shelf from the bottom of the cabinet to the top. In most cases, the lower
shelves receive more heat than the upper shelves but shaded due to inlet hot
air coming from the heater. Therefore, the temperature of the heated air drops
initially as it passes through the bottom of the shelves but later increased as it
passes through the upper shelves. The air heater consisted of flat metal which
acted as an absorber, placed at the center between the glazing and the
backplane. The mathematical model used identifies and quantifies the
important mechanisms occurring in the solar drying by comprises only the
variables directly involved in the energy and mass balance relationships for
the drying process.
Figure 2.38: A solar cabinet dryer (Chirarattananon et al., 1988)

74
A direct flat plate forced convective solar dryer incorporated with an

adsorption unit of silica gel was designed by Hodali and Bougard (2000). This
solar dryer was called a Hohenheim tunnel-type solar dryer. The drying
installation consisted of a forced convection solar dryer connected to a solar
collector as shown in Figure 2.39. The transparent cover of the dryer was
made of glass and the adsorbant plate was made of concrete. A fan was
installed to draw water from the drying air during the day to avoid
rehumidification of crop during night due to the fall of temperature in the dryer.
A solar energy storage or a solar collector was stored in the dryer to absorb
more heat, as the main disadvantage of a solar dryer is the limited time of
solar insolation during the day. The moisture from the drying air during the
night was removed by adsorption in a desiccant unit regenerated by solar
energy. This is also important in the final stage where drying becomes very
slow. The changing of normal solar drying operation during day time to night
time offers a more continuous mode of drying. The drying period was
reduced to 44hours and the daily productivity of the dryer was about 33kg of
highly homogenous dried apricot.
Figure 2.39: Hohenheim tunnel type dryer (Hodali and Bougard, 2000)
A multi-shelf type solar dryer was developed by Selçuk et al. (1974).

The dryer was built from wood frame and polyethylene film for glazing. A
matrix of fine metal chip was packed between two layers of chicken wire to
absorb solar radiation. A picture of this dryer is shown in Figure 2.40.
Mathematical formulation of heat and mass transfer relations of the shelf type
75
dryer were developed and tested against the experimental data. This
experiment observed that the highest drying rates were obtained at the third
shelf and the lowest were at the second shelf. This is because the top shelf
receives the largest flux of the incoming solar radiation while the bottom shelf
is subjected to the hottest air with lowest relative humidity, resulting in the
middle shelf having the lowest drying rate.
Figure 2.40: The multishelf solar dryer (Selçuk et al., 1974)
A prototype greenhouse solar dryer was designed by Abdullah et al.

(2001) to test its capability for drying of tropical products in Indonesia. The
dryer was tested for cocoa and coffee beans and results showed that the
design could be used in helping farmers and fishermen to dry food products.
A picture of the dryer is shown in Figure 2.41. The main purpose for building
the greenhouse dryer was to reduce the cost of installing a collector as the
cost would be 78% of the total cost. Black steel sheet was installed within the
transparent chamber to increase the solar radiation absorbed by the
greenhouse dryer. A simple test with 70kg seaweed showed that the product
could be dried within 2 days to a final weight of 12kg and small fish could be
dried within 7 hours with initial weight of 65kg under drying temperature of
51ºC. The drying performance of the food crops were improved with the aid of
several other types of drying methods such as by using the stationery
rectangular bin, vibrating racks, stationary racks and cylindrical bins with
mechanical stirrer.
76
(1)radiation absorber
(2)heat exchanger
(3)hot water tank
(4)blowers
(5)draw tubes
Figure 2.41: Greenhouse solar dryer (Abdullah et al., 2001)
A multi purpose solar tunnel dryer was originally developed for arid
zones, was modified to enable its operation in tropical weather conditions. A
picture of the dryer is shown in Figure 2.42. This dryer was tested for cocoa,
coffee and coconut drying in Indonesia (Amir et al., 1991). The dryer was built
from locally available materials to allow production by farmers using simple
tools and relatively cheap materials. The dried crops were tested for quality,
colour, appearance, taste and texture. The dryer consisted of a small
centrifugal blower, a collector and a tunnel drying chamber. The solar dryer
was installed on a wooden platform to avoid flooding during raining. The dryer
was aid by a biomass furnace with heat exchanger to heat the drying air for
better performance of drying. In order to reduce heat losses at the bottom of
the collector, palm coir (fiber from the husk) was placed underneath the
absorber and plastic film installed under the palm coir to prevent leakage of
drying air. The loading capacity of the solar dryer was about 500-600 kg
fermented coffee beans. The coffee beans required 50 hours to reach the
desired moisture content of below 12% from initial moisture content of 45%.
The sun dry requires 75 hours to dry.
77
Figure 2.42: Solar tunnel dryer with integrated collector and biomass furnace
(Amir et al., 1991).
A hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) greenhouse dryer was

constructed at the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India to dry
seedless grapes in a forced convection drying mode (Barnwal and Tiwari,
2008). The dryer has two PV modules which produce direct current electrical
power to operate a fan for a better thermal heating environment in the
greenhouse. A picture of the dryer is shown in Figure 2.43. The cover of the
greenhouse dryer was made of UV polyethylene film to help trap solar
radiation. The food crops were placed in a series of trays of wire mesh in the
greenhouse drying chamber. The dryer has been used to dry Thompson
seedless grapes performed in open as well as in shade for comparison. To
evaluate the heat and mass transfer for the system, various hourly
experimental data namely moisture evaporated, grape surface temperatures,
ambient air temperature and humidity, greenhouse air temperature and
humidity were recorded.
78
Figure 2.43: Hybrid photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) integrated greenhouse dyer

(Barnwal and Tiwari, 2008)
A tray dryer designed by Bennamoun and Belhamri (2002) shown in

Figure 2.44 was used in Algeria to dry agricultural products such as onion.
The dryer has some advantages like low space requirements, easy cleaning
and maintenance. The food products were placed in 10 trays which were
supported by brick walls and had polystyrene plates used as insulation. The
collector design consisted of a Pyrex glass plate used as a cover and thick
painted black aluminium as an absorber. A vacuum was created between the
glass Pyrex and the polystyrene plate to reduce heat losses. A heater was
also installed in case of bad weather conditions. Onion was used as the dried
product. From the heat and mass balances analysis, two sets of differential
equations were completed by an empirical model where the shrinkage effects
were taken into consideration. The results showed that the drying of the onion
were affected by the surface of the collector, the air temperature and the
product characteristics.
79
Figure 2.44: Diagram of a solar batch dryer (a), the collector (b), and internal
diagram of the dryer chamber (c).(Bennamoun and Belhamri, 2002)
Condorí et al. (2001) designed a low cost forced convection

greenhouse dryer which was called the Tunnel Greenhouse Dryer. The dryer
can be used as a dryer with a heater installed and also as a greenhouse
without using a heater for small production. The dryer consisted of a plastic
greenhouse cover containing a drying tunnel made with transparent plastic
walls, a line of carts with several stacked trays containing the food product
which moves in and out of the tunnel continuously and an electrical fan which
helps to move the hot air from the greenhouse into the tunnel. The dryer was
built in the North of Argentina to dry red sweet pepper and garlic. A picture of
the dryer is shown in Figure 2.45. The thermal efficiency of the dryer was
80
calculated using measured experimental data, and a linear relation between

the dryer temperature and the solar radiation was found.
Figure 2.45 : Tunnel greenhouse dryer (a), and operation scheme of the
tunnel greenhouse dryer (b) (Condorí et al., 2001)
A small scale dryer using a forced convection mode was built by Das
and Tiwari (2008) in New Delhi, India to dry prawns. A picture of the dryer is
shown in Figure 2.46. The dryer structure was built from bamboo sticks and
the cover of the dryer was plastic. The orientation of the greenhouse dryer
was fixed in an east-west direction and the inclination of the roof was about
26º. To generate forced convection, a fan generating an air velocity of 5ms-1
was provided on the sidewall of the greenhouse during the experiments.
There were two vents incorporated in the south and north roof for natural
ventilation purposes to prevent overheating inside the greenhouse. The hourly
data of the rate of moisture evaporation, wind velocity, fish temperature and
relative humidity were recorded for the determination of the coefficients of
convective heat transfer. It was found that convective heat transfer for forced
convection was higher than natural convection. The curve fitting for different
available model were carried out and a quadratic curve was found to be the
best relation between convective heat transfer coefficient and the drying time.
81
Figure 2.46: Forced convection mode greenhouse dryer for prawns (Das and
Tiwari, 2008)
A forced convection solar tunnel dryer was designed by Hossain et al.

(2005b) for drying chilli in Bangladesh. The dryer consisted of a plastic
covered flat plate solar collector and a drying tunnel. Hot air was supplied to
the drying tunnel using two small fans by a photovoltaic module. The product
was dried in a single layer in the drying chamber. A picture of the dryer is
shown in Figure 2.47. Two sets of equations were developed where the first
set was to predict the cover temperature, absorber temperature, and air
temperature in the collector. The second set of equations were developed to
predict the air and chilli temperatures and moisture content of the drying
green chilli in the solar tunnel dryer. These equations were solved iteratively
and numerically. The experimental and simulated results were found to be in
good agreement. An optimization study, which involved an economic study of
the dryer, was presented by Hossain et al. (2005a).
1-air inlet
2-fan
3-solar module
4-solar collector
5-side metal frame
6-outlet of the collector 7-
wooden support
8-plastic net
9-roof structure for
supporting polyethylene
cover
10-base structure for
supporting the dryer
11-rolling bar
12-and outlet of the drying
tunnel
Figure 2.47: Solar tunnel dryer (Hossain et al., 2005b)
82
A forced convection solar dryer was developed by Kadam and Samuel

(2006) for drying cauliflower in India. A picture of the dryer is shown in Figure
2.48 (a) and (b). The dryer consist of a galvanized iron sheet painted in black,
transparent glass as the cover and a closed duct. The hot air was then
produced by blower to the drying chamber. The solar heat collecting panels
were made of galvanized iron (GI) sheet corrugated to increase the surface
area of the solar panel and also help to direct the air to flow over the heat
absorber plates. An insulation layer of flat thermocol sheet was placed below
the GI sheet to reduce heat losses. A casing of GI sheet was also used to
hold the system. Four trapping panels arranged in parallel were connected to
a closed duct. The bottom sides of these panels were provided with air inlet
holes which sucked ambient air into the collector, which heated up in the
collector before being supplied to the drying chamber. A linear correlation
between the temperature difference from ambient and radiation, as well as the
inlet and outlet air temperature and relative humidity were obtained. The
drying constant K was calculated and the relation between the moisture ratio
and drying time was found.
Figure 2.48: Cross section of solar heat collector (a) GI, galvanized iron, all
dimensions in mm (Kadam and Samuel, 2006)
83
Figure 2.48 (b): Side view of solar dehydrator and front view of the flat-plate
solar heat collecting panels; all dimensions in mm (Kadam and Samuel, 2006)
A coffee drying shed was built by Phillips (1965) in Puerto Rico as an

alternative to coffee open sun drying. A flow diagram of the dryer is shown in
Figure 2.49. A building with dimensions of 20 by 30 feet was constructed
which incorporated the roof as the solar collector. The parchment coffee was
dried in two stages. The first stage was the predryer where the coffee was
stored in a shallow bin with the bottom made of wire mesh supported by
expanded metal on steel rods. Attached to the air chamber was a fan to help
the drying of the parchment in the bin. The air used in the predryer was not
heated. The predryer can also serve as a temporary storage, where the wet
parchment can be maintained with intermittent ventilation until it is ready for
further drying. The coffee is then pumped into the second bin to allow for a
second stage of drying. A low powered fan is used to force heated air up
through the layers of the parchment coffee in the bin. The heated air supplied
from the solar collector needed to be heated up by the electrical elements in
the fans in order to reach 48.9ºC for drying coffee beans.
84
Figure 2.49: Floor plan of the coffee processing which includes drying building
(Phillips, 1965)
A conventional greenhouse solar dryer was modified by incorporating

an inclined north wall reflection (INWR) by Sethi and Arora (2009) in India.
The inclined wall was used to increase the solar radiation availability onto the
product during extreme summer months. A diagram and a picture of the dryer
are shown in Figures 2.50 and 2.51. The dryer was used to dry bitter gourd
slices. The greenhouse cover was made of UV polyethylene film, which
covered all of the four vertical walls. The product to be dried was placed on a
wire mesh tray positioned adjacent to the inclined wall to absorb more solar
radiation. The greenhouse dryer incorporated a fan for air ventilation during
drying. The air temperature in the greenhouse and the crop temperature were
increased by 1-6.7°C and 1-4°C respectively by adding INWR for natural
convection, and by1-4.5°C and 1-3°C respectively for forced convection mode
of drying.
85
Figure 2.50: Front and top view of the solar dryer, showing northern inclined
wall reflection for thin layer drying (Sethi and Arora, 2009)
Figure 2.51: (a)View of the improved greenhouse dryer, (b)& (c) Inside view of
the food product on the tray with inclined wall (Sethi and Arora, 2009)
A solar cabinet dryer was designed by Sreekumar et al. (2008) in India

to test its efficiency for drying vegetables and fruits. The dryer consisted of
two main compartments, where the first segment was for collecting solar
radiation and producing thermal energy and the second was for spreading the
product to be dried. This is to avoid the product having direct contact with
solar radiation to prevent discolouration due to direct sunlight. The product
was put under the absorber in the dryer and two fans were installed to provide
air circulation in the dryer which can also accelerate the rate of drying. A
collector glaze was also incorporated in the dryer at the inner wall and was
inclined at a particular angle, suitable for absorption of maximum solar
86
radiation. A picture of the dryer is shown in Figure 2.52. The dryer was used
to dry 4kg of bitter gourd with initial moisture content of 95% and the final
moisture content of 5% was achieved without losing the product colour while it
took 11 hours to dry under open sun drying. The payback period was
calculated to be 3.26 years from the economic analysis calculation.
Figure 2.52: Schematic diagram of the solar dryer (Sreekumar et al., 2008)
A roof type even-span greenhouse dryer was built in India for drying
jaggery was designed by Tiwari et al. (2004). The dryer was constructed from
PVC pipe and had a UV film as a cover. To promote natural ventilation in the
dryer, an air vent was provided at the roof level and a fan was provided at the
sidewall to increase the drying rate. The food product was placed on the wire
mesh trays in the middle of the dryer with floor area of ½ X 0.8m2 in natural
and forced convection mode at atmospheric pressure until no changed of
weight is achieved. The convective mass transfer coefficient was evaluated
by regression analysis from the measured data of mass evaporated,
temperatures of jiggery, greenhouse room air and relative humidity. Results
showed that the dryer operates better in forced convection than under natural
convection mode. A picture of the dryer is shown in Figure 2.53.
87
Figure 2.53: Greenhouse dryer under natural convection mode (a) and forced
convection mode (b) for drying of the jaggery (Tiwari et al., 2004)
Janjai and Tung (2005) developed a solar dryer as shown in Figure

2.54 for drying herbs and spices using hot air from roof-integrated solar
collectors. The dryer which consists of a bin type with a rectangular perforated
floor has a dimension of 1.0m X 2.0m X 0.7m. The solar dryer consists of the
roof-integrated solar collector covered with polycarbonate plate and a drying
bin operated with an electric motor fan providing air flow to the system. The
roof integrated collector consists of two arrays of collector of which, one is
facing to the south and the other is facing to the north which also serves as
the roof to the building. The roof with a total area of 180m 2 is painted in black
insulated with a polycarbonate cover serves as an absorber. The dryer was
tested against four batches of rosella flowers and three batches of lemon
grasses during 2002-2003. The dryer can be used to dry 200kg of rosella
flowers and lemon grasses within 4 and 3 days, respectively. The solar air
heater has a daily average efficiency of 35% and effects both as a collector as
well as a roof of the farmhouse.
88
Figure 2.54: Roof Integrated Solar Dryer (Janjai and Tung, 2005)
A photovoltaic (PV) ventilated solar greenhouse shown in Figure 2.55

was designed by Janjai et al. (2009) to dry peeled longan and banana. The
roof had a parabolic structure made from polycarbonate plate help to reduce
wind load during tropical rain storm. The dryer consisted of two arrays of
trays, placed on a single level raised platforms with a passage at the middle
for loading and unloading of the food product. The dryer was structured by
galvanized iron bars supplied with 3 DC fans operated by a 50-W PV-module
installed in the wall opposite to the inlet air for ventilation. 10 number of full
scale experimental were carried out of which 5 were conducted for drying
peeled longan and another 5 for drying banana. Both of the drying showed
significant reduced time as compared to open sun drying. A finite difference
method was developed based on partial differential equations using heat and
moisture transfer during drying of peeled longan and banana. The
experimental data for solar drying for both peeled longan and banana agrees
reasonably well with the simulated data.
89
Figure 2.55 : Pictorial View of The Greenhouse Dryer (Janjai et al., 2009)
A comprehensive review of diverse designs, operational principles and

detailed construction of solar dryers is presented. Basically, two main group of
solar dryers, natural and forced convection solar dryers, were listed. The
principles and manufacture of these dryers were presented in a simplified
manner so as to promote better understanding among rural farmers in
implementing the basic concepts to design low cost dryers. The need to
increase awareness among rural areas is important as preservation has to be
done first before transporting it elsewhere for further processing. The quality
of the dried product can also be retained by minimizing spoilage by applying
good drying practice.
2.5.3 Economics Aspect for Solar Dryers
Solar dryers produce products which have higher quality than the
products dried by conventional drying like open sun drying. The products sell
from solar drying usually have higher price about 2-3 times than the price of
sun-dried products. Since solar dryers produces higher quality with higher
selling prices, the demand for solar dried products are increasing in the
international markets. The pay back period of these dryers is 1-3 years
depending on the location, product, and the duration of operation of the dryer.
90
2.5.4 Future Prospective and Impediment of Solar Dryers
In Australia, solar timber drying kilns is the only solar dryer widely used
in the industry to dry timber kilns manufactured and operated by the Solar
Dryers Australia Ltd. Most of the food products such as macadamia nuts,
coffee and corns are dried using mechanical dryers in Australia (Solar Dryers
Australia Pty Ltd, 2008). In Malaysia, solar dryers are not that popular, the
only leading technology used is the solar assisted drying systems used to dry
agricultural and marine products. Solar tunnel dryer, greenhouse-type solar
dryer and roof-integrated solar dryer on the other hand are widely used in
Bangladesh and Thailand for drying fruits, vegetables, spices, medicinal
plants and fish.
To dry a certain food products, one has to make sure that the air drying
temperature does not exceed the maximum permissible temperature of the
product as different products to be dried have different maximum permissible
drying air temperature. The drying air temperature is usually adjusted in the
solar dryers by changing the number of fans installed and also changing the
heat collector length to achieved optimum air drying temperature as in the
solar tunnel dryer. The solar timber kiln dryer and the solar assisted dryer
used in Australia and Malaysia are not merely solar dryers as both of them
used external gas water system to maintain temperature when solar is not
available. This is one of the major disadvantages of the solar dryers as these
dryers do not have back up heating system during rainy days. The solar
dryers can be useful if it is integrated with either a biomass furnace or oil or
gas burner which was used previously in the solar assisted systems used in
Malaysia and solar timber kiln dryers used in Australia. In cloudy days, the
solar dryers can also be used as it operates on diffuse solar radiation but
drying rate is significantly reduced.
91
Solar dryer installed with photovoltaic system is preferable as the

drying air in the dryer is controlled by solar radiation. The photovoltaic system
can be used in the area where no electric grid connection is available. The
plastic covering the dryer needs constant replacement to avoid mold and
opaque problem. However, this problem may be solved if the cover is
replaced with polycarbonate cover for solar tunnel dryer. Solar dryer when
operated fully in a year, drying different food products would reduce the
payback period and therefore would justify the alternative choice of choosing
solar dryer as an alternative dryer.
2.6 Drying and Modeling Concepts
2.6.1 Drying Fundamentals
Drying is a process of removal of water or another solute and is often

related to the operation of evaporation, filtration or crystallization. It is a
method of food preservation which inhibits the growth of microorganisms in
the food product. It is also the final operation in a manufacturing process
which carried out immediately before being packaged and transported
elsewhere. Drying is carried out mainly for the following reasons (Richardson
et al., 2002):
1. To save the cost of transport.
2. More convenient handling of a substance, for example soap powders
and fertilizers.
3. To remove moisture which will lead to corrosion, for example the drying
of benzene (which also prevents chlorination)?
4. Maintain a definite properties of a substance, for example, maintaining
the free flowing characteristic of salt.
92
The drying process can be applied using various methods to various

substances from solids, liquids to gases. Freeze drying can be used for water
removal in liquids and also for solids. For gases, water is often removed by
absorption. Water is removed by capillary action as in the withdrawal of water
in solids.
It is also essential to avoid crystals in a crystalline product from getting

damaged during the drying process, for example cracking as for wood,
shrinkage as for paper and loss of flavour as with fruits. In conclusion, all of
the drying processes require heat to remove moisture from a product, and
therefore, the effectiveness of utilization of heat in a process is essential.
Drying can also be accomplished by using chemical desiccants or by
chemical decomposition of water in a substance. Drying involves
simultaneously heat and mass transfer mechanisms. Drying is necessary to
remove moisture from within the product to the vaporization of water at the
surface of the product. The sensible heat of air decreases as it is used for
moisture evaporation of the product but then the heat is regained as the air
receives latent heat of evaporation from the product while the total heat
content in the product remains constant. The moisture transported from within
the product is in vapour or liquid form, depending on the pressure gradient,
but moves as vapour from the surfaces (Ekechukwu, 1999)
2.6.2 Basic Principles
2.6.2.1 Water Activity
One of the important parameters in food drying is the water activity of

the food product, or in other words the equilibrium condition that establishes a
limit to the process of dehydration. This represents the gradient movement of
moisture in the food product in the analysis of storage stability after drying.
The potential of a food material to the growth of microorganisms, germination
of spores, and several reactions depends on its water activity. Water activity,
93
aw, is defined as the ratio of partial pressure, p, of the water over the wet food
system to the equilibrium vapour pressure, pw, of the water at the same
temperature. Thus, aw, is also equal to the relative humidity of the surrounding
air given as
(2.1)
One of the most widely used models in describing the equilibrium

moisture isotherms is the GAB model (Guggenheim-Anderson-Deboer). The
model is used for drawing sorption data of a food product. The GAB model is
given as below (Singh and R.Heldman, 2009)
(2.2)
( (
Where
w= the equilibrium moisture content in dry basis
wm= the monolayer moisture content in dry basis
C = the Guggenheim constant = (
H1= heat of condensation of pure water vapor
Hm= total heat of sorption of the first layer on primary sites
k= a factor correcting properties of multilayer with respect to the bulk
liquid
= (
Hq= total heat of sorption of the multilayers
Water activity can be reduced by drying or by adding water binding

agents such as sugars, glycerol, or salt to prevent from the growth of
microorganism. The addition of these binding agents should not affect the
taste, flavour and the quality criteria of the food product. Figure 2.56 shows
the deterioration rate as a function of aw for food systems. From the graph, it
can be seen that food product contain water activity >0.7 are more susceptible
to the growth of microorganisms and therefore its quality deteriorates.
94
Figure 2.56: Influence of water activity on various reactions in foods (Chen

and Mujumdar, 2008)
2.6.2.2 Equilibrium Moisture Content
The moisture content of a food product is usually expressed either in a

dry basis or wet basis, and can be expressed either in decimal or percentage
form. When the food product is exposed to air at a certain temperature and
relative humidity, the food product will either absorb or desorb moisture until
an equilibrium condition is reached. The equilibrium moisture content of a
product can be determined after it has been exposed to a particular
environment for a long period of time. In other words, the vapour pressure of
the food product equals its immediate surrounding air. This is an equilibrium
condition where the rate of moisture desorption of the food product equals to
the rate of moisture absorption of the surrounding air. At this condition, the
relative humidity of the surrounding air (immediate and ambient surrounding)
is equal to the relative humidity of the food product.
By holding temperature constant, an isotherm is obtained (shown in

Figure 2.57) by exposing the food product to the surrounding air until
equilibrium is obtained. An adsorption isotherm is obtained if the food product
is exposed to the increasing humidity of air, and a desorption isotherm is
obtained when the food product is exposed to air of decreasing humidity. Most
food materials display ‘hysteresis’ in which the two isotherms are not identical.
95
From Figure 2.55, the sorption isotherms can be characterized by three

different zones, A, B and C. It zones indicates different water binding
mechanisms at individual sites on the food solid matrix. The water is tightly
bound to the sites and is unavailable for any reaction in region A. It is shown
in the figure that no distinction exists between adsorption and desorption
isotherms. In region B, the water is more loosely bound and water in region C
is more loosely held in larger capillaries. At this stage, it is available for
participation in reactions and solvents.
Figure 2.57: Sorption isotherms (Baker, 1997)
Figure 2.58 shows the sorption isotherms data for coffee produced in
Costa Rica, ranging from 30ºC-60ºC, filled using the GAB model (Burmester
and Eggers, 2010). The data were in good agreement with green beans
sorption isotherms published by Samaniego-Esguerra et al. (1991). Papers
were published on the isotherms of coffee beans by Gough (1975) for Arabica
green coffee grown in Kenya and Nilnont et al. (2012) for Arabica coffee.
Sivetz and Desrosier (1979) quoted data for green coffee suggesting that at
25ºC green coffee at 12%wb is in equilibrium with air at a relative humidity of
60%. Stirling (1980), cited by Clarke and Macrae (1985) published data on the
isotherms of Kenya Arabica coffee (combining both desorption-adsorption) at
28ºC.
96
Figure 2.58: Sorption isotherms for coffee produced in Costa Rica (Burmester
and Eggers, 2010)
A number of studies have been carried out by many researchers in

order to predict the best conditions for moisture absorption during achieving
equilibrium conditions. Equations on theoretical, semi-theoretical and
empirical modeling of the equilibrium moisture content equations have been
derived over wide ranges of temperatures and relative humidities for food
crops. The equilibrium sorption isotherms are important for evaluating the
driving force of a drying process and to define the end point of the process.
The sorption isotherms can be used to predict potential changes in the
stability of biological characteristics of the food product.
Many equations have been suggested to relate the equilibrium

moisture content, Meq, of agricultural and food products, with the relative
humidity of air and the temperature of the solid material. Listed below are
some of the well-known theoretical equations for sorption kinetics, such as the
Kelvin, Langmuir and BET equations. Nevertheless, these theoretical
equations cannot accurately predict the equilibrium moisture content of
biological materials, which has led to researchers developing empirical or
semi-empirical models to improve predictability for food products.
97
The equation below is a theoretical model which examines moisture

absorption in a solid based on capillary condensation within the pores of the
material Kelvin WT (1871). The Kelvin equation describes the relationship
between the vapor pressure over a liquid in a capillary with the saturated
vapour pressure at the same temperature. The limitation of this equation is it
does not correspond well to the relative humidity range >95%, where capillary
condensation occurs.
(2.3)
The theoretical equations developed by Langmuir (1918) on the

isothermal moisture equilibrium is based on the classical kinetic model of
balancing evaporation and condensation rates of vapour for a monolayer of
water vapour on the internal surfaces of materials (Ekechukwu, 1999). The
Langmuir equation below shows the relationship between the volume of water
absorbed by a product isothermally and the vapour pressure P v.
[( ] (2.4)
Brunnauer S et al. (1938) however modified Langmuir’s model,

developing the BET model which takes into account the absorption of water in
multilayer surfaces. The Langmuir model is limited, as it does not account for
multilayer absorption and the interaction between the absorbed water
molecules. The BET model assumed the internal surfaces of the material are
consisted of an array of absorption sites adequate of absorbing more than
one molecule of water which counter to Langmuir’s assumption of a
monolayer of moisture absorption.
(
( )( ) (2.5)
The equation given below was developed by Harkins and Jura (1944),
and was based on the theoretical presence of a potential field above the
material surfaces which takes into account the balance between the work
required to absorb or desorb a molecule of water and the accumulation of
98
work against the potential field in transporting vapour molecule to the surface
and the energy of condensation.
( (2.6)
The equation given below was developed by Smith JE (1947), and

assumes that the multilayer concept in Brunauer et al. (1938) for condensed
moisture, then applies Langmuir’s model for the relationship theory between
bound moisture and relative humidity.
( ) (2.7)
Henderson SM (1952)’s semi-theoretical model is considered to be one

of the most flexible moisture equilibrium model, and describes the relationship
between the equilibrium moisture content and equilibrium relative humidity at
a given temperature:
(
[ ] (2.8)
Thompson (1967) modified Henderson’s equation by developing an empirical

equation for corn, given below:
(
[ (
] (2.9)
Haynes (1961) developed a purely empirical equation for seeds, given below:
(2.10)
Where p1 to p5 are product constants.
Chung and Pfost (1967) developed the equation for equilibrium moisture
given below.
( (
( ) (2.11)
Clayton (2002) developed the equilibrium moisture for sweet potato;

(
( ) (2.12)
99
A very successful empirical equation Halsey (1985) was modified to include

temperature dependence:
(
[ (
] (2.13)
In the same way, Oswin (1946) modified his empirical equation for
temperature dependence to give:
( ( ) (2.14)
2.6.2.3 Drying Rate Curves
Drying of a food product resulted from a vapour pressure difference

between the material to be dried and its environment condition. Evaporation is
limited by to resistance to moisture flow, requiring a driving force of a vapour
pressure gradient in order for the moisture to flow within the material to its
surface and to the surrounding. When the food product is heated, its vapour
pressure increases, allowing moisture to move to a lower vapor pressure in
the adjacent air. Drying of a food product differs from other materials such as
drying of a stone or sand. These materials are nonhygroscopic, so the
moisture in these materials are held ‘loosely’, often called ‘unbound moisture’
(Howe, 1980). On the other hand, food products contain moisture which is
held ‘tightly’ and the moisture within this material is called ‘bound moisture’.
The ‘bound moisture’ is trapped in closed capillaries where water is held by
surface forces as well as unbound water held within the material by surface
tension of the water itself. Drying can proceed until the material reaches zero
moisture content for non-hygroscopic material, whereas for hygroscopic
material such as food products, there will be some residual moisture, it even
after drying for a long period of time.
In drying, one of the theories for the thin layer drying analysis is that
the ratio of volume of air to product is large, so that the air is in vapour
equilibrium with the moisture of the material or food crop to be dried. it is
important to remove the free moisture from the surface as well as the
100
moisture from within the material. There are two main region in the drying rate
which are the constant rate period and the falling rate period. This can be
illustrated in Figure 2.59. In curve 1, there are two zones, AB which indicates
drying is constant and BC which indicates a steady fall in the rate of drying as
moisture content is reduced. The point B represents a critical moisture content
and is also the end point for the constant rate period. Curve 2 shows three
stages of drying, where the stage DE represents a constant rate period, and
EF and FC are the falling rate periods. EF is known as the first falling rate
period, and FC is the second falling rate period. Drying of agricultural or food
products often shows a falling rate period curve.
Figure 2.59: Typical drying rate curve (Richardson et al., 2002)
Constant Rate Period
During the constant rate period, it is assumed that drying takes place
from the surface of the product. At this stage, the evaporation of water from
the free water surface takes place by diffusion of the water vapour through a
stationary air film into the surrounding air stream. Under these conditions, the
product surface temperature is equals to the wet bulb temperature as the
surface is saturated with moisture. The rate of drying in the constant rate
period is given as
( (2.15)
101
where,
W = loss rate of water ( )
h = heat transfer coefficient from air to the wet surface ( )
ΔT = temperature difference between the air and the surface (K)
λ = latent heat of vaporization per unit mass ( )
= mass transfer coefficient for diffusion from the wet surface through
the gas film ( )
A = interface area for heat and mass transfer (m2)

( = difference between vapour pressure of water at the surface
and the partial pressure in the air (kPa)
Falling Rate Period
From Figure 2.59, points B and E represent the state where there is in
sufficient free moisture. At this stage, the drying rate depends totally on the
mechanism by which the moisture is transferred from within the product to the
surface. In general, the first falling rate period indicates drying which involves
unsaturated surface drying, and the second falling rate period indicates the
rate of molecular diffusion from within the product to the surface. The second
falling rate period is usually a slow process and largely independent of the
conditions outside the product.
2.6.2.4 Thin Layer Drying Analysis
Generally the drying rate characteristics are dependent on the seed type and
size, moisture content and drying air temperature. The constant rate equation
can be rewritten and represented as a combination of the driving force of
moisture motion and the internal factor of crop resistance, as below
(
(2.16)
( )
102
Where ( represents external driving force and is the crop
resistance parameter. The equation above is similar to the equation derived

by Hukill (1955), which describe the relationship between the drying rate with
the material to be dried and its surrounding air. The equation is given as
below:
( (2.17)
The equation above can be rewritten by assuming that is linear with

moisture content of the material and also is proportional to equilibrium
relative humidity which is linear with equilibrium moisture content. However, it
might work over a limited range.
( (2.18)
Integrating this equation between limits time of 0 and t, and moisture content
limits Mo and Me, gives:
(
(
(2.19)
Incorporating shape factor for the material to be dried,

(
(
(2.20)
Listed below are some of the drying equations arranged in order of

complexity. The complexity was described by looking at the number of
coefficients, number of terms and power of time where MR is defined as
moisture ratio. Both the model coefficients k and n can be correlated as
functions of the drying conditions for example drying gas velocity,
environment temperature and the like. The constants a, b and c are the fitting
parameters.
103
Table 2.1: Thin layer equations derived and tested by various researchers
No Model Name Model Equation Coeffici Reference
ents
1 Newton ( 1 (O’Callaghan et al.,

1971)
2 Henderson and ( 2 (Henderson and Pabis,
Pabis 1961)
3 Simplified Fick’s 2 (Diamante and Munro,
( )
Diffusion Equation 1991)
4 Two-term ( ( ( 2 (Henderson, 1974),
Exponential (Yaldiz and Ertekin,
2001)
5 Wang and Singh 2 (Wang and Singh,
1978)
6 Page ( 2 (Page, 1949)
6a Page modified 1 ( 2 (Overhults et al.,
1973),(White et al.,
1981)
6b Page modified 2 ( 2 (Diamante and Munro,
1993)
7 Yagcioglu et al. ( 3 (Yagcioglu et al.,
1999)
8 Diffusion approach ( ( ( 3 (Kassem, 1998),
(Ertekin and Yaldiz,
2004)
8a Verma et al. ( ( ( 3 (Verma et al., 1985)
9 Midilli and Kucuk ( 3 (Midilli et al., 2002)
10 Two-term ( ( 4 (Henderson,
1974),(Yaldiz and
Ertekin, 2001)
11 Mod. Henderson ( ( 6 (Karathanos, 1999)
and Pabis (
104
2.6.2.5 Heat Recovery Concept
The heat recovery concept which will be presented here is the key
design principle of this study. It was assumed that a single circulation cell is
generated above the coffee bed during the day, which carries moisture away
from the product and is driven by the temperature difference between the top
and bottom of the dryer. The cell was assumed to be a single cell because the
roof sloped and inclined. The single cell which is the air arises naturally from
the effect of a density difference resulting from a temperature or concentration
difference in a body force field such as gravity, and this process is termed
‘natural convection’.
The main differences between natural and forced convection consists

in the mechanism by which flow is generated. For forced convection, an
external flow is imposed, whereas in natural convection it results from an
interaction of the density difference with the gravitational field and is therefore
dependent on the temperature or concentration fields. This motion has to be
determined from a consideration of the heat and mass transfer process
coupled with fluid flow mechanisms and the velocities and pressure
differences in natural convection are usually much smaller than those in
forced convection.
Heat recovery in the dryer happens when condensation occurs on the

inner walls of the dryer considering a vertical flat plate subjected to saturated
air. Film condensation occurred when condensation forms on the surface and
a smooth film is formed. Dropwise condensation occurs if the wall surface is
not wet, and droplets are formed and fall down the surface. Dropwise
condensation has a higher heat transfer coefficient and better heat transfer
than film condensation. Many attempts have been made to maintain dropwise
condensation by having various coatings and vapor additives. The picture
(Figure 2.60) below demonstrates the phenomena. The picture on the left
shows dropwise condensation occurring on the wall, as it has a thin coating of
cupric oleate which contributes to dropwise condensation. The picture on the
right shows laminar film condensation. The heat transfer coefficient for
105
dropwise condensation is about seven times the value for filmwise

condensation.
Figure 2.60: Dropwise and filmwise condensation of steam on copper plate

(Westwater, 1981)
For this study, filmwise condensation is taken into consideration where

film condensation on a vertical plate is examined by considering the
coordinate system shown in Figure 2.61. A linear temperature distribution is
considered to exist between the wall and vapour. Viscous shear of the vapour
on the film is assumed to be negligible at y = δ. The mass flow of condensate
at any position of x of the film is given below:
(
̇ ∫ [ ( )]
(
(2.21)
Figure 2.61: Film condensation on a vertical plate (Holman, 1992)

106
The amount of condensate added between x and x+dx is calculate as below,

as the flow proceeds from x to x+dx and the film grows from δ to δ+dδ:
( (
[ ] [ ]
(
(2.22)
Thus, the incremental mass flow times the latent heat of condensation is
equal to the heat removed by the wall.
(
(2.23)
The equation above can be integrated with a boundary condition of δ=0 at x=0
given below:
( )
[ (
] (2.25)
Solving for the heat transfer coefficient:

(
[ ( )
] (2.26)
where
(2.27)
By integrating over the length of the plate, the average value of the heat
transfer coefficient can be written as below
(
̅ [ ] (2.28)
( )
107
The single air circulation cell rising up from the coffee bed through the
wall is affected by the temperature of bed and external air. The finite
difference carried out at the wall from the coffee bed through the roof is
characterized by values set at the central nodes which includes; (i) convection
of heat transfer to the external air, (ii) sensible heat of walls, (iii) absorbed
solar energy, (iv) non saturated boundary layer and (v) saturated boundary
layer which will be explained in detail in chapter 5.
The mass balances for this rising cell considers air below the central
nodes, the rising internal air in the dryer and the air at the nodes. The heat
transfers may be expressed as the heat accumulates in the rising cell which
gives the relationship between the heat loss from the rising air to the external
and internal air and the absorbed incoming solar radiation. Saturation of the
boundary layer of the rising cell occurs when it hits the roof which gives the
relationship between the mixing of air in the circulation cell and incoming wall
heat. Detailed analysis is shown in section 5.7.
The concept of the heat recovery describes as moisture condenses, it

releases latent heat which will be absorbed by the air moisture while still in the
product bed. This latent heat then becomes sensible heat near the wall,
increasing the air temperature and the wall temperature simultaneously.
Some of this heat will therefore increase the rate of heat removal from the
system by convection and is not recovered. The heat regained by the internal
air in the dryer or in other words, the heat recovered was reused in the next
cycle of air over the product bed.
The shape of the dryer is designed in a way that heat recovery would
occur in the dryer. The product platform design has half of the total cross
sectional floor area to promote buoyancy of air rising from the coffee bed
which involves half of the volume of the dryer being considered. The designed
roof was inclined to increase surface area and also to encourage
condensation occurred to flow down to the floor. The solar dryer is also
designed to be fully enclosed as to collect more heat recovery due to heavy
108
condensation occurring in the inner surfaces of the dryer. Detailed description

of the dryer can be seen in Chapter 5.
2.7 Thermo physical Properties of Coffee
2.7.1 Structure
Coffee is basically divided into two important species which are Coffea
arabica and Coffea canephora. The coffee trees belong to the Rubiaceae
family. Coffee genus is subdivided into four groups, of which one of them is
Eucoffea. Of the five subdivisions of Eucoffea, the first Erythrocoffea contains
both the arabica and the canephora species. Coffea canephora also includes
other important species commonly known in the trade as Coffea robusta, but
nowadays coffea robusta is remarked as synonym to Coffea canephora.
The shrub of coffee trees can reached up to 10m in the wild, but for
plantation and harvesting, the shrub is usually about 3m which is the optimum
tree height for easy harvesting. The leaves grows in pairs on short stalks and
are about 15cm in length for C.arabica and longer for C. canephora. The first
flowers are usually produced about 3-4 years of age. C. canephora depends
on cross-pollination for fertilization whereas self-pollination occurs for
C.arabica. The flowers will fade and allow ovaries to be slowly develop into
oval drupes up to 18mm in length, starts with green colour then ripening to a
radiant red known as coffee cherries. The seeds of a cherry are called coffee
beans, of which two are usually found in each fruit, arranged with their flat
sides facing each other. Figure 2.62 shows the cross sectional view of a
coffee cherry. The bean is covered with a thin closely fitting teguments called
the silverskin. The silverskin is covered with yellowish skin called the
parchment, the whole beans are enveloped in a mucilaginous pulp which
forms the flesh of the coffee cherry. The cherries known as ‘peaberry’ are
those found to contain only one seed, due to the failure of the other seed to
develop, giving a fuller more spherical bean.
109
Figure 2.62: Cross section view of a coffee cherry (Clarke and Macrae, 1985)
2.7.2 Density
The density of a food material can be defined in three different types,

solid density, particle or true density and bulk density. Density is determined
as mass per unit volume, with dimensions (mass/length3). Density is higher in
more compact molecular arrangements of a material. Values of the density
can be different depend on how the pore spaces present in a food material
are contemplated. If the pore spaces are neglected, the solid density of most
food material is 1400-1600kg/m3, excluded for high-fat or high-salt foods
(Peleg, 1983). True or particle density includes the internal pores present in
the food material and is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of a food
particle to its actual volume. Bulk density is defined as the mass of particles
per unit volume of bed.
The bulk density of robusta coffee berries range between 645kgm-3 to

440kgm-3. The bulk density of the green coffee can be measure either by free-
flow or vibrational methods (Clarke and Macrae, 1987). The bulk density of
coffee berries at various stages of ripeness was determined by filling a
circular container of 1 L volume and weighing contents. A container of volume
125 ×10-6 m3 is filled with parchments and the contents were weighted for the
determination of bulk density (Chandrasekar and Viswanathan, 1999).
The true density of coffee berries was determined by the water

displacement method. Twenty-five berries of each sample were weighed and
dropped into a 1000ml measuring cylinder filled with water up to 500ml. The
water rise showed the true volume of the berries and so the true berry density
110
was calculated. The porosity can be calculated from the experimental values
of bulk density and true density at corresponding moisture content expressed
as the equation below:
(2.29)
Table 2.2: Values of bulk and true density determined from literature.
References Type of coffee Bulk Density (kg/m3)
(Singh and R.Heldman, Green coffee beans 673
2009) Ground coffee 400
Roasted coffee 368
(Sivetz and Desrosier, Red cherry 800.9
1979) Wet green bean (after 800.9
pulping & fermentation)
Dried green beans (12% 400.5
M.C)
Green beans after being 704.8
dried. hulled & polished
(Chandrasekar and Under-ripe berries 916
Viswanathan, 1999) Ripe berries 922
Overripe berries 924
(Clarke and Macrae, Robusta coffee 645-450
1987)
(Mohsenin, 1986) Green coffee beans 512.97-721.36
(Mendonça et al., 2009) Green coffee beans 625.6
(Arabica)
Green coffee beans 626.6
(Robusta)
111
References Type of coffee True Density (kg/m3)

(Mendonça et al., 2009) Green coffee beans 1293
(Arabica)
Green coffee beans 1248
(Robusta)
(Chandrasekar and Under ripe green berries 1049
Viswanathan, 1999) Ripe green berries 1057
Overripe green berries 1060
(Franca et al., 2005) Green beans (soft) 1314.8
Green beans (hard) 1275.7
2.7.3 Specific Heat
Specific heat is the quantity of heat accumulated or loss over mass of product
to attain a change in temperature, without a change in the state (Singh &
Heldman, 2003):
Q
Cp 
m(T ) (2.30)
where
Q is the heat accumulated or loss (kJ);
m is mass of the product(kg);
ΔT is temperature change in the food product (oC)
Cp is specific heat (kJ/ [kg K]).
Specific heat is one of the important parameters in studying the thermal

processing of a food product. A material that has higher moisture content
tends to have a higher specific heat because more heat is required to remove
water in the food product. Specific heat at constant pressure Cp is often used
instead of specific heat at constant volume Cv as pressure is generally kept
constant. Siebel (1892) cited in Mohsenin (1980) generates an empirical
equation for the calculation of specific heat. The equation (i) is for the values
above freezing temperatures and equation (ii) is for values below freezing
112
temperatures. This equation is also suitable for high moisture content material
as it neglect the effect of bound water.
For values above freezing,
( (2.31)
where
is the water content of the material in wet basis;
Cw is the specific heat of water
CD is the specific heat of dry solid
For values below freezing proposed by Fikiin (1974) cited in Rahman (1995),
( ( ) ) (2.32)
where
Xw is the water content of the food material in wet basis
TF is the freezing temperature
T is the temperature of the material
The individual specific heat can also be expressed in terms of the food
constituents using the following equations (Chen and Mujumdar, 2008)
(2.33)
(2.34)
(2.35)
(2.36)
(2.37)
(2.38)
The mixture of the food can be estimated by the following equation:-
(2.39)
113
Raemy and Lambelet (1982) cited by Clarke and Macrae (1987)

reported that the specific heat of a green coffee is variable depending on its
moisture content and temperature. He reported that a dry Arabica green
coffee in Mexico has a specific heat of 1.65kJ/kg.K and a robusta coffee in
Togo has a lower value which is 1.34 kJ/kg.K, both at 30ºC. The value can be
higher for example 1.97 kJ/kg.K for Arabica coffee at normal moisture
contents of around 12%. At temperatures between 20ºC and 95ºC, the value
of the specific heat can be increase at about 30%.
The specific heat of product can also be calculated by the equation

below (Mohsenin, 1980). This equation is used for the method of mixtures
commonly used by researchers. A material of known mass and temperature is
put into a calorimeter containing water at a known temperature, mass and of
specific heat.
Cwmw(Te  Tw)  Ccmc(Ti  Te)
Cp 
ms (Ti  Te) (2.40)
where
Cp is the specific heat of sample, (kJ/kg K)
Cw is the specific heat of water, (kJ/kg K)
mw is the weight of water, (kg)
ms is the weight of sample, (kg)
Teis the equilibrium temperature, (oC)
Tw is the initial water temperature, (oC)
Cc is the specific heat of calorimeter, (kJ/kg.K)
mc is the weight of calorimeter, (kg)
Ti is the initial temperature of sample, (oC)
Singh P.C et al. (1997) determined the specific heat (bulk) of coffee
powders using a Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). Coffee beans that
had been roasted were ground in a blender; as the beans could not be used
directly in the calorimeter. The coffee powders were then sealed in aluminum
pans and were heated at a rate of 10°C/min. The specific heat determination
114
was not made above 150°C because the moisture on the powders might
assert excessive pressure on the aluminum pans and cause ruptured. The
specific heat was found to be correlated with temperature and was given as
below.
For Mexican powders (2.41)
The equation below is for Columbian coffee powders.

(2.42)
Usually, the specific heat of the Mexican coffee powders ranged from 1.19 to
2.22 kJ/kg K; but for the Columbian coffee powders ranged from 1.77 to 2.13
kJ/kg K.
The specific heat of the parchment was also calculated from the values
of the thermal conductivity K (W/m2.K), thermal diffusivity α (m2/s) and their
corresponding bulk density (kg/m3) using the following relationship
(Chandrasekar and Viswanathan, 1999):
(2.43)
2.8 Theory of Solar Radiation
The sun is an effective black body with an outer surface temperature of

5777K. It is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with diameter of about
1.39 X 109 m and has a distance of 1.5 X 1011 m from the earth. The sun has
a temperature of about 8 X 106 to 40 X 106 K in the central interior regions
and its density is estimated to be about 100 times that of water an average.
The sun rotates on its axis once every four weeks. Nevertheless, it does not
rotate as a whole; its equator takes about 27 days and the polar regions take
about 30 days for each rotation (Duffie and Beckman, 1991).
115
Figure 2.63: Annual variation in extraterrestrial radiation (Duffie and Beckman,

1991)
Solar radiation is affected by the atmosphere, the extraterrestrial

radiation is defined as that which is above the atmosphere. The World Trade
Radiation Centre has compiled a standard spectral irradiance curve which
was based on high altitude and space measurements. From the curve, it was
shown that the maximum value of 2074 W/m 2 µm occurs at a wavelength of
0.48µm and that 99% of the sun’s radiation energy is below 4µm wavelength
(Bala, 1998). Variation of extraterrestrial radiation with time of year is shown
in Figure 2.63. This is caused by variation of the earth-sun distance,
nevertheless, of about ±3%. This dependence of extraterrestrial radiation on
time of year can be expressed as:
[ ] (2.44)
where is the extraterrestrial radiation with respect to the plane normal to

the sun’s surface measured on the nth day of the year. To correct for the
angle of incidence at the Earth’s surface:
[ ] (2.45)
The direction of the beam radiation from the sun can be described with
a geometric relationship between a plane of any orientation relative to the
earth at any time based on the following definitions. The location of the sun
relative to the earth (as shown in Figure 2.64) can be described using three
116
specific angles; the solar zenith angle θz ,the solar altitude angle αs and the
solar azimuth angle γs. The zenith angle, θz is the angle between a surface
perpendicular (vertical) and the path of the sun (i.e. the angle of incidence of
beam radiation on a horizontal surface). The solar altitude angle, αs is
between a horizontal line on the surface and the line to the sun. Lastly, the
solar azimuth angle, γs is the angular displacement from south of the
projection of beam radiation on the horizontal plane. The displacement east of
south is counted as negative, and the west of south is positive.
Figure 2.64: Zenith angle, azimuth angle and for a plane inclined at to the
normal (Bala, 1998)
The declination angle as shown in Figure 2.64, and is the angular

position of the sun relative to solar noon. The declination angle can be
calculated from the equation of Cooper (1969):
[ ] (2.46)
Declination angle varies from . (Duffie and Beckman,

1991).
117
In Figure 2.64, the symbol β indicates slope angle of a surface relative

to horizontal; . If , the surface has a downward facing
component. The surface azimuth angle is indicated as which is the deviation
of the projection on a horizontal plane of the normal to the surface from the
local meridian.
Time of day is indicated by the symbol , which is the angular

displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due to rotation of
the earth on its axis (15° per hour). Morning gives negative values and
afternoon gives positive values. The angle of incidence, θ, is the angle
between beam radiation on a surface and the normal to that surface. Latitude
( ) is the angular location north or south of the equator, with positive values
for north and negative values for south; All of these angles
can be combined into a useful equation as below, with the relation of angle of
incidence of beam radiation on a surface, θ to the other angles as :-
(2.47)
By expanding in terms of , the extraterrestrial radiation

equation at any time between sunrise to sunset on a plane parallel to the
earths’ surface is given by the equation below:
( )( (2.48)
This equation does not take into account the earths’ atmosphere. The daily
solar radiation can be found by integrating the daily extraterrestrial radiation
on a horizontal surface, Ho, giving the equation below:
( ) ( ) (2.49)
118
where indicates sunset hour angle in degrees.
Solar radiation at the earths’ surface has two components, beam and
diffuse radiation. Solar radiation is mainly short-wave radiation (radiation with
a wavelength range of 0.3 to 3µm). This is illustrated in Figure 2.65. The
radiation emitted from a substance at near ambient temperatures is, in
contrast, mainly long wave (greater than 3 m) radiation. This long wave
radiation is mainly thermal radiation.
Figure 2.65: Extraterrestrial and terrestrial (Rayleigh attenuation) radiation

(Duffie and Beckman, 1991)
There are two basic types of equipment used for measuring solar
radiation, the pyrheliometer and pyranometer. A pyrheliometer, uses a
collimated detector to measure solar radiation, with only a small portion of
radiation from the sky around the sun. Direct radiation is also called beam
radiation. A pyranometer measures the total hemispherical solar radiation,
which includes beam and diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface. If the
pyranometer has a shade disc, it can be used to measure only the diffuse
radiation component (also called sky radiation). A pyranometer is also called a
solarimeter, and a pyrheliometer is also called an actinometer.
119
Solar radiation at normal incidence is subject to gradual loss of

intensity when received at the surface of the earth. This effect is due to the
atmospheric scattering by air molecules, water, dust and also due to the
atmospheric absorption by O3, H2O and CO2. The scattering of the solar
radiation happens when the solar radiation that comes into the earth comes
into contact with the air molecules, water droplets and dust. The degree of the
scattering depends on the size of the air molecules, dust particles, and the
wavelength of the radiation. The absorption of the solar radiation in the
atmosphere dependent on wavelength; in the ultraviolet it is due to ozone and
to water vapour and carbon dioxide.
2.9 Solar Dryer Modeling
A solar dryer had to be designed correctly to fulfill the entire drying

requirement of a specific food product in order to have optimum drying
conditions. Some of the basic parameters that a designer should take into
considerations were dimensions, temperature, relative humidity, airflow rate
and the characteristics of the product to be dried (Janjai and Bala, 2012). The
performance of a solar drying system can be predicted by having solar dryer
modeling as full scale experiments for different products and system
configurations were sometimes costly and impractical. Mathematical models
were practical in predicting the performance and optimum design of a
designated dryer. The basic mass and heat transfer for mathematical
modeling is discussed as below.
The Drying Rate Equation
The rate of the change of moisture content in a thin layer product inside the
dryer can be expressed from the thin layer drying equation which is as below:-
( (2.50)
120
Analysis on Solar Tunnel Dryer Performance
Analysis on the solar tunnel dryer were used to described the drying of the
food product in the solar tunnel dryer where an element dx, distance of the
solar tunnel dryer from the inlet, x are taken into consideration. Refer to
Figure 2.66 for the basic theory of the analysis.
Figure 2.66: Energy Balances in The Solar Tunnel Dryer of Depth ‘b’ (Janjai
and Bala, 2012)
Energy Balance on the Cover
The temperature of the plastic cover was derived from the heat balance in the
plastic cover.
( )
(2.51)
Energy Balance on the product
Energy balance on the product was given by

121
[ ]
[ ( ] ( )
( ) ( )
(2.52)
Energy Balance on the Air Stream
Change in the enthalpy of air = heat transfer to the product by convection and
heat supplied to air in the evaporated moisture.
( )
( ) ( )
(2.53)
Analysis of the Collector Performance
Analysis of the collector was used to include the heating effect of collector in
the drying of food product by considering an element dx, and the distance of
the collector from the inlet, x. Refer to Figure 2.67 on the basic theory of the
analysis.
Figure 2.67: Heat Balances on the Flat –Plate Collector of Depth ‘b’ (Janjai
and Bala, 2012)
122
The Mass Balance Equation
The balance between the food product and the air inside the dryer was given
by moisture lost by product = moisture gained by the air.
( ) ( ) (2.54)
Energy Balance on the Plastic Cover
Energy balance on the cover was derived as below:
( ( ( ( ) (
) (2.55)
Energy balance on the Absorber Plate
Energy balance on the absorber plate was given as below:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(2.56)
Energy Balance on the air stream
The following equation gave the air inside the collector
( ) ( (2.57)
Many researchers studied particularly solar dryers because it meets

the high quality standards of the end product in order to be marketable for
sale on the world market (Amir et al., 1991). A solar dryer which uses air
heated by an electrical heater and a solar collector is proven through design
and simulation to be more successful in terms of reducing drying time than
natural sun drying (Bennamoun and Belhamri, 2002). The development of a
simulation model is a powerful tool to predict the performance of the dryer and
123
can help researchers to optimize their dryers at various operating conditions

without having to test experimentally at each condition. A mathematical model
based on a deep bed solution procedure was applied to indirect natural
convection solar drying of rough rice (Bala and Woods, 1994). Ayensu and
Asiedu Bondzie (1986) reported that the time required for dehydrating crops
by open air sun drying was nearly two times longer compared to a solar dryer.
They studied moisture removal and relative humidity in determining the
heating efficiency of a convective shelf flow solar drier. Studies on the
simulation of natural and solar heated air hay was also done by (Arinze et al.,
1993).
Abbud et al.(1995) proposed a constant temperature solar dryer which

supplied hot air from a solar collector directly to the material, thus eliminating
the disadvantage of insufficient temperature. A mixed type solar dryer, which
used both convective and radiative heat transfer, was claimed to produce
better quality and total drying time with respect to indirect solar or sun drying
(Roberto Roman, 1984). He reported that a small sun tracking solar dryer can
be used to successfully dry grains and particularly coffee, although it may not
justify the added requirement in terms of labour and construction costs
(Mwithiga and Kigo, 2006).
A simulation of natural and solar heated drying systems for hay was
developed by Arinze et al. (1993). The simulated program produced drying
curves for predicted drying times for hay harvested at various times of the
year of various initial moisture contents. Drying with solar heated air produced
30% faster drying of a crop compared to natural air drying systems under
similar weather conditions. The solar heated air produced a higher quality of
hay and lower nutrient and yield losses.
124
Humidification and dehumidification of air for a water desalination

system using solar energy was reported by Orfi et al. (2007). The study
focused on generating a mathematical model based on heat and mass
transfer balances for each component. The dimensional characteristics of the
model was optimized by adjusting the ratio between the salt water and the air
mass flow rates. Many studies have examined the important role of
condensation in the mathematical modeling as well as in the greenhouse,
such as the study on the onset of condensation on the inner and outer surface
of greenhouse covers during the night (Pieters et al., 1995). This study also
assumed a one-dimensional steady state model to describe heat transfer
through conduction, convection, radiation and phase change. The static one-
dimensional model simulated heat exchange between five layers: vegetation-
soil layer, internal air, greenhouse cover, external air and the sky.
The work of Midilli and Kucuk (2003) calculated coefficients for eight
models used for the modeling of thin layer drying using forced and natural
solar drying of shelled and unshelled pistachio samples. The models used
were semi-theoretical or empirical equations which were applied to
experimental data and compared according to their coefficients of
determination ( which were predicted by non-linear regression analysis.
Among these models, the logarithmic drying model gave the best agreement
with the experimental data.
Hii et al. (2009) developed a new semi-theoretical thin layer model for
modeling air drying of cocoa beans. The model combined the Page and the
two term drying model. The model performed the best of all model tested in
the range 60 to 80ºC but the difference between this and the two
compartment model actually used was not considered to be significant in this
study. The Arrhenius constant and activation energy were also estimated in
this study. The drying kinetics of individual layers of cocoa beans during heat
pump drying were further studied by Hii et al. (2012).
125
In regards to the simulation of deep bed drying, the assumption that

grain in depth to have a uniform drying rate is not valid (Bala and Woods,
1994). The mathematical model used to simulate indirect natural convection
solar drying of rough rice showed that low air flow rates gives serious over
drying to the bottom layer of the grain. The buoyancy effect in the solar dryer
was found to be affected by the collector height, rather than the chimney
height. Hossain and Bala (2002) modelled thin layer drying experiments of
green chilli using the single exponential equation and the Page equation to
determine its drying characteristics. The model, expressed moisture as a
function of drying air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity. The Page
equation was found to describe the best thin layer drying of chilli rather than
the single exponential method. Further work on optimization in this study,
taking into consideration cost, and the dimensions of the dryer was described
by Hossain et al. (2005a). Tripathy and Kumar (2008) determined values of
the temperature dependent drying constants k and ko from experimental
drying curves for food products including potato. The study showed that both
drying constants increased with sample temperature.
Das and Tiwari (2008) studied the convective heat transfer coefficient
during greenhouse prawn drying. The hourly data for the rate of moisture
evaporation, wind velocity, fish temperature and relative humidity inside a
greenhouse dryer were recorded for complete drying of prawns under both
natural and forced convection modes. These data were used to determine
convective heat transfer coefficients. The heat energy supplied to a crop
surface is utilized in two ways, to increase the crop surface temperature in the
form of sensible heat and to vaporize the moisture present in a product
through provision of the latent heat of vaporization. The removal of moisture
from the interior of a crop takes place due to induced vapor pressure
difference between the crop and the surrounding medium (Tiwari et al., 2004).
Tiwari et al., (2004) evaluated the convective mass transfer coefficient

during drying of jaggery in a controlled environment. The experimental data
of mass evaporated, temperatures of jaggery, greenhouse room air and
126
relative humidity were measured and used to evaluate the convective mass
transfer coefficient by regression analysis. This study focused on drying of
jaggery both under natural and forced convection modes, and so is not
directly related to a closed system greenhouse dryer. However, the equations
on heat and mass flowrate of water can be used as a guide to derive the
equations for a closed system greenhouse dryer.
A mathematical model was developed for predicting the performance of

a Photovoltaic ventilated solar greenhouse dryer for drying of peeled longan
and banana by Janjai et al.(2009). The assumptions in developing the
mathematical model were as follows; i) there is no stratification of the air
inside the dryer, ii) drying computation was based on a thin layer drying
model, iii) specific heat of air, cover and product were constant, iv)
absorptivity of air was negligible and v) fraction of solar radiation lost through
the north wall is negligible. Most of the assumptions made are relevant to the
present study, and the theoretical background of deriving these equations was
a good example for developing relevant mathematical equations.
Many mathematical models on the conditions in a greenhouse dryer

have been developed to monitor and control its environment, in order to
produce better product, for example Majdoubi et al. (2009) and Ganguly and
Ghosh (2009). Ganguly and Ghosh (2009) studied the relationship between
solar radiation, ambient air surrounding and ventilation of the air, with the
temperature in the greenhouse. Natural ventilation was an effective method to
maintain a greenhouse microclimate which is conducive to the plants when
the ambient conditions are not extreme. The model was validated against
results from the experimental greenhouse. Parametric analysis was also done
to understand the effects of variations in parameters such as wind speed,
solar radiation intensity and effective greenhouse height. In conclusion, the
study found that the performance of the greenhouse under natural ventilation
was influenced by the intensity of solar radiation, wind speed and the effective
distance between the side and the roof vents. Tahri et al. (2009) developed a
theoretical model to simulate the physical process of condensation of the
127
humid air in the condenser of an existing seawater greenhouse in Muscat,

Oman. A comparison of the predictions and the experimental values were
consistent in agreement. The effect of relative humidity, dry bulb temperature
and solar radiation were also discussed to see their effects on the condensate
values.
A chimney-dependent solar dryer combined with an inclined roof

drying chamber was designed by Afriyie et al. (2011) in order to improve
ventilation in the solar dryer. The addition of a chimney was believed to
improved the ventilation in the dryer and also the drying rate of the crop
although this assumption was proven wrong from the sensitivity analysis of
buoyancy effect by Bala and Woods (1994). The drying chamber roof
inclination and the chimney height were the critical design features in
geographical regions far from the equator. A high drying chamber with a short
chimney gave a good drying at locations close to the equator, whereas a short
drying chamber with a high solar chimney was suitable for regions far away
from the equator.
An integral type natural convection solar dryer was simulated to include

the effects of surrounding conditions for the drying of food products
(Onyegegbu et al., 1994). The simulation was done by including transient
weather conditions and the transmissivity of glazing to diffuse and direct solar
radiation. The theory of equilibrium between the crop and the air was also
applied in this model and shown to be a potential source from which moisture
is transferred from the crop to the drying air. The results from this model
indicated that the integral type natural circulation solar dryer was able to dry a
reasonable quantity of crop to a safe moisture content required for long term
storage. Many large unheated low cost plastic structures greenhouse areas
are located in the coastal lands of the Mediterranean Basin. Studies to
optimize the irrigation practice of greenhouse dryer was carried out by Orgaz
et al. (2005) in order to avoid waste. Seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) and
crop coefficient ( were the main parameters used to minimize percolation
and environmental pollution.
128
A semi-one-dimensional dynamic greenhouse climate model was

improved by incorporating condensation in the greenhouse climate and
energy transfer within the greenhouse and its surroundings (Pieters et al.,
1996). The model was divided into sections to assess heat transfer between
the sky, outside air, cover, inside air, and five layers of soil under the
greenhouse. The model included a detailed description of phase change
phenomena which uses basic physics laws that make model development
easier to be adjusted in any type of greenhouse, cultivation, and climate
conditions. Other research on condensation characteristics of plastic covering
films for a greenhouse was shown by Geoola and Peiper (1994). A
comparison of transmission rates of solar radiation in the dry and wet state for
five types of plastic films showed that a dry state had a higher transmission of
solar radiation than the wet plastic film. A study of the transmission of solar
radiation as affected by condensation, dust and dirt on greenhouse cladding
material was reported by Geoola et al. (1998) and a study on aging of low
density of polyethylene film was conducted by Bualek et al. (1991). A study of
transfer coefficients on polyethylene greenhouse covers reported by Seginer
et al. (1988). A study on the determination of heat transfer coefficient of
greenhouse cladding material in a hot box was also done by Geoola et al.
(2009). All of the above studies showed that the condition of the plastic cover
is important in order to have the optimum condition for the crop in the
greenhouse.
129
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
3.1 Raw Materials
3.1.1 Australian Coffee Cherries
Australian Arabica coffee cherries were hand-harvested in a coffee

plantation located in Byron’s Bay, Queensland. The skin and hull of the coffee
cherries were firstly removed on farm using a small-scale depulper. It was
then packaged, transported and stored in the freezer (-4ºC) in UNSW
laboratory to maintain its texture and chemical properties. The freeze coffee
cherries were thawed at room temperature for about 3 hours before
undergoing fermentation process. In order to remove the mucilage layer, the
coffee cherries were fermented by placing it in a bucket filled with water. The
fermentation process lasted for about three days. After fermentation was
completed, the parchment coffee was washed with tap water to remove the
mucilage layer before spreading it out into a thin layer, to dry for about 1 hour.
The coffee cherry was then stored in the freezer until further use.
Figure 3.1 : Wet freeze coffee beans

130
Figure 3.2 : Freeze coffee beans with skins
Figure 3.3 : Washed wet coffee beans

131
3.2 Equipment and Chemical Used in The Experiments
Table 3.1 Equipment required for thermophysical experiment

Equipment Dimension /Size /Brand /Made
Coffee beans container 16cm X 16cm , 9cm high ,
Used ice cream box
Wired mesh tray supporter 0.4m X 1.0m
Brass metal
Wired mesh trays 0.3m X 0.3m
Chicken wire
Plastic bags 10 Litres
Polyethylene bag
Bucket 20 litre buckets
Polypropylene (PP)
Spatula Stainless steel
Aluminium dish with lid 75 mm diameter, 25 mm high
Desiccators 200 mm diameter, 100 mm high
Glass
Analytical balance Metller PJ 300 made in Switzerland
Stop watch Iphone 4s handphone stopwatch
Vacuum oven Townson & Mercer, Croydon, UK
750 W, SN 77030
Refrigerator Fisher & Paykel, 290 litre
Thermocouples T type thermocouples
Pyranometer Middleton Solar Pyranometer,
SK01-D, Carter-Scott design,
Melbourne
Tinytags Tinytag Ultra 2, Gemini Data Loggers
(UK) Ltd, Chichester, West Sussex
Vernier caliper SMIEC Brand, 200 X 0.02 mm
Shanghai, China
132
3.3 Analytical Methods
3.3.1 Size
The length, width and height of coffee beans from the Australia were
measured using Vernier Calipers (SMIEC Brand, China). Twenty random
coffee beans were chosen and measured for wet parchment coffee beans
samples and dried coffee beans samples.
Figure 3.4 : Vernier calliper with dried coffee bean
Determination of diameter, height and thickness of coffee bean can be

referred to the picture below:-
Figure 3.5: Dimensions of a coffee bean taken into consideration

133
Table 3.2: Determination of dimensions for wet coffee bean
D(mm) H(mm) δ(mm) ( ̅ ( ̅ ( ̅)
1 9.20 11.40 4.84 0.01 0.22 0.01

2 9.00 12.40 4.54 0.01 0.28 0.05
3 9.62 12.86 5.12 0.29 0.98 0.13
4 9.00 10.80 3.44 0.01 1.14 1.74
5 9.52 11.94 2.76 0.19 0.01 4.00
6 8.88 11.80 4.96 0.04 0.00 0.04
7 8.66 12.38 4.72 0.18 0.26 0.00
8 9.90 12.36 5.46 0.67 0.24 0.49
9 8.40 11.62 5.10 0.46 0.06 0.12
10 9.00 12.58 5.42 0.01 0.51 0.44
11 8.94 11.46 4.72 0.02 0.17 0.00
12 9.12 11.26 5.14 0.00 0.37 0.14
13 9.28 11.00 5.28 0.04 0.75 0.27
14 9.26 12.08 5.42 0.03 0.04 0.44
15 9.16 11.72 5.60 0.01 0.02 0.71
16 8.94 11.92 5.06 0.02 0.00 0.09
17 8.80 12.00 5.26 0.08 0.02 0.25
18 8.90 12.26 5.32 0.03 0.15 0.31
19 8.84 11.52 4.54 0.06 0.12 0.05
20 9.20 12.01 2.50 0.01 0.02 5.11
AVG 9.08 11.87 4.76 0.11 0.27 0.72
134
Table 3.3: Determination of dimensions for dried coffee bean
D(mm) H(mm) δ(mm) ( ̅ ( ̅ ( ̅)
1 9.08 12.00 4.82 0.05 0.03 0.04

2 9.70 11.90 4.78 0.16 0.08 0.06
3 9.14 10.46 4.76 0.03 2.97 0.07
4 9.86 12.90 5.26 0.31 0.52 0.05
5 9.16 11.64 4.34 0.02 0.29 0.47
6 9.36 12.00 4.76 0.00 0.03 0.07
7 9.30 12.48 4.82 0.00 0.09 0.04
8 8.92 12.86 5.54 0.15 0.46 0.26
9 9.52 12.80 5.50 0.05 0.38 0.22
10 9.44 13.10 5.32 0.02 0.84 0.09
11 9.38 10.96 4.84 0.01 1.49 0.03
12 9.48 12.52 5.60 0.03 0.11 0.33
13 10.00 12.68 4.52 0.49 0.25 0.26
14 8.06 12.34 4.86 1.55 0.02 0.03
15 9.30 11.84 5.66 0.00 0.12 0.40
16 9.82 12.90 5.44 0.27 0.52 0.17
17 9.28 12.00 4.18 0.00 0.03 0.72
18 9.32 12.32 5.52 0.00 0.02 0.24
19 8.94 12.36 5.30 0.13 0.03 0.07
20 9.00 11.58 4.72 0.09 0.36 0.09
AVG 9.30 12.18 5.03 0.17 0.43 0.19
135
3.3.2 Moisture Content
The moisture content of the Australian parchment coffee beans was

determined at two different stages of processing: after fermentation and after
drying. The moisture content of samples was determined by vacuum oven
method (Helrich, 1990). Around 5g of beans sample was put in a pre-weighed
aluminum dish. The aluminum dish was weighed using an analytical balance
with an accuracy of four decimal places and recorded. The difference
between the weight of the empty dish and the weight after addition of sample
gave the weight of beans added. The aluminum dish was placed in a vacuum
oven for 48 hours at 70oC. The sample was taken out from the oven and
cooled in desiccators for approximately 5 minutes. The final weight of the
aluminum dish and sample was measured using the same analytical balance.
The experiment was conducted in duplicate for Australian coffee samples.
The moisture content (wet basis) of the beans sample was calculated using
the following equation:
(m2  m3)
W  100 (3.1)
(m2  m1)
where
m1= initial weight of empty dish;
m2= weight of dish + beans before drying;
m3= final weight of dish + beans after drying
The moisture content (dry basis) was calculated using following equation:
100 W
M  (3.2)
(100 W )
where
M is the moisture content in dry basis and
W is the moisture content in wet basis.
136
The drying will be stopped when the moisture content of the coffee beans
reached it’s safe moisture content level which is about 11%wb based on
commercial standard.
Figure 3.6 Vacuum oven Figure 3.7 Desiccators
Figure 3.8 : Analytical balance

137
3.4 Equipment Set Up
Moisture content of the wet coffee beans needs to be determined first

before starting the drying experiment. The value of the initial moisture content
is important in order to estimate the final weight of the desired final moisture
content of the dried coffee beans. This calculation is express as below:-
( ( )
(3.3)
Where:-
Wet coffee beans were taken from the freezer and thawed for 2 to 3
hours prior to starting the experiment. About 3 Tinytag loggers, 2 temperature
sensors, a pyranometer and 2 thermocouples were needed for the
experiment. A Tinytag is an instrument (a mini sensor) that can sense both
temperature and relative humidity. To set the Tinytag loggers, they are
connected with a cable to the computer before setting the measurements and
interval time of data collection. After set up, they are unplugged and hung in
the dryer for data collection. All of these sensors were set up to record data
for every 10 minutes. After about four days, the Tinytag loggers and all other
sensors were collected and connected to the computer to retrieve data. Both
of the empty trays were first weighed, and all data loggers checked as being
active before putting on wet coffee beans.
About 200 grams of coffee beans were spread on the mesh tray starting
at 9 am in the morning. The weight of the two trays with coffee was taken for
every hour during the day. This was done by opening the roof and quickly
lifting both trays onto a weighing balance. They were then placed back in the
dryer in the shortest time possible (approximately 1 minute) and the roof of
the dryer will resealed the dryer system before continuing the experiment.
The weight of the coffee beans was not taken during the night. The coffee
138
beans were dried for about 4 days depending on the condition of the weather.
After the experiment was conducted, both trays were weighed again and all
data loggers were taken to School of Chemical Engineering to be analysed.
Figure 3.9 : A picture of the greenhouse dryer
Tray A Tray B
Figure 3.10 : Coffee beans on trays with temperature sensors

139
Figure 3.11 : A view from the back of the greenhouse dryer
Figure 3.12 : Pyranometer data logger (left) and the power supply (right)
Figure 3.13 : A picture of the analytical balance and the computer

140
Figure 3.14 :An upper view of the coffee beans in the greenhouse dryer
Figure 3.15 : A side view showing pyranometer

141
3.5 Data Analysis

The spreadsheet below was used for the data collection :-
Tray 1 Tray 2
Weight of tray+logger =
Weight of tray + logger + coffee beans
at 3cm
Weight of coffee beans
Time Weight of Weight of

bean+tray+logger bean+tray+logger
Tray 1 Tray 2
8:00 am
9:00 am
10:00 am
11:00 am
12:00 pm
1:00 pm
2:00 pm
3:00 pm
4:00 pm
5:00 pm
6:00 pm
142
CHAPTER 4: INITIAL SIMPLE MODEL
4.1 Analysis of Prototype Greenhouse Dryer
In this chapter, an initial mathematical model of the solar heat recovery

dryer was developed, based on analysis of incident radiation and a simple
model of a natural circulation cell interacting with the bed and the dryer roof.
This model was not successful at predicting experimental outcomes, but
served as a starting point for the improved modeling reported in chapter 5.
The model did not include the boundary layer theory on the surfaces of the
dryer and detailed analysis on the condensation effects occurring on the roof.
The solar radiation affecting the dryer was simple and included neither
absorption nor penetration effects on the polyethylene film covering the dryer.
The final more complete analysis including these factors is presented in the
main model development chapter (Chapter 5).
The solar dryer shown in Figure 4.1 was first called a greenhouse dryer
in the initial stages of the study, as it used two important principles of a
greenhouse: radiation trapping and heat recovery (without an air flow). The
theoretical principles of a greenhouse were then applied in a deriving
mathematical model for this dryer. The greenhouse radiation trapping effect is
a process by which solar radiation which is short wave length radiation,
penetrates into the greenhouse cover and is trapped in the greenhouse
system. The absorbed solar radiation is converted into primarily long
wavelength radiation by the reduction in temperature of material relative to the
sun’s source temperature. As the greenhouse cover is opaque to long
wavelength radiation, the reflected radiation will not escape and is trapped in
the greenhouse system. Hence, the temperature in the dryer will increase and
remain hotter than ambient to provide conditions for drying. The equations
listed below were first derived and used as an initial model. However, the
equations were later further refined and modified in order to get more
accurate results between the simulated and the experimental values. Since
the term “greenhouse dryer” was already found in the literature, but applied
only in the limited sense of trapping thermal radiation, the name was
143
subsequently changed to a “heat recovery dryer”. This primary model was

basically built up in four main segments. Listed below are explanations of
each segment.
Figure 4.1 : Actual geometry

144
UPPER SECTION
LOWER
SECTION
̇
BED
Figure 4.2 : Simplified geometry
The picture in Figure 4.1 is a prototype model of what was designed and
constructed. Parameters as labeled in Figure 4.2 are the important ones
considered in the mass and energy balance equations. The assumptions
made for the analysis were:
i) Laminar flow and natural circulation for the buoyancy approximation of air
flow.
ii) Single cell and not Bernard cells, due to the inclined roof of the dryer. Half
of the dryer area was assumed to be uptake of air (above the bed), the
remaining half for downdraft.
iii) Solar energy was absorbed by the bed only, and absorption by the dryer
materials was neglected except for the sun-facing side and roof.
iv) Convection is only significant through the roof and back wall. Convection
on the sides and with the ground is neglected.
v) Conduction is neglected.
vi) The coffee bed and air at section 1 in Figure 4.2 are both in equilibrium
(thermal and mass).
145
Listed below are the state equations needed for the mathematical modeling:-
Psychrometric equations : ( (4.1)
(empirical models) ( (4.2)
Isotherm equations : ( (4.3)
(empirical models) ( (4.4)
Ideal gas equation : (4.5)
Air enthalpy : ( (4.6)
Product enthalpy : (4.7)
4.2 Mass and Energy Balance Equations
4.2.1 First Segment (Dryer Bed)
Figure 4.3 : First segment: product/air interaction

146
To derive the mass and energy balance equations, a few steps were
taken to avoid error. Firstly, the space in the dryer was divided into a
segments. The blue segments (see Figure 4.3) indicate air above the coffee
bed and the brown segments indicate product, in this case the layer of coffee
beans on a mesh to be dried. The relevant variables for the humidity, H (kg
H2O/kg dry air), ambient temperature (Ta in ºC), mv; mass of water vapor (kg
H2O) and relative humidity need to be included in the calculations. For the
product layer, the relevant variables were moisture content of coffee in dry
basis, M (kg H2O/kg dry air), coffee bed temperature (Tb in K) and equilibrium
relative humidity (RHe) is considered. The mass and energy balances were
used over a small time step. The equations below were derived.
Mass Balance Equations
(4.8)
(4.9)
[ ] (4.10)
(4.11)
(4.12)
The subscript ‘o’ and ‘final’ indicates initial condition and conditions at time
response ‘t’.
Energy Balance Equations
Heat energy of coffee in product bed:
(4.13)
(
(4.14)
147
( (
(4.15)
(4.16)
4.2.2 Second Segment (Transport)
Figure 4.4 : Exchange between upper and lower segments
The second step in deriving the mass and energy balance equations
was to include air interchanges between section 1; (coffee bed and air above
coffee layer), and section 2; upper section of dryer. For section 1, variables
were moisture content of air above coffee beds ( ), enthalpy of air above
coffee beds ( ), and relative humidity of air ( ). Variables for the coffee
bed were M; moisture content of coffee bed, ; for temperature of coffee bed
and ; for equilibrium relative humidity of coffee bed. For air entering and
leaving the first section, for mass of air entering ( ), enthalpy of air entering
( ), and enthalpy of air leaving ( ). The solar radiation is assumed to
come into the air above the coffee bed.
148
Mass Balance Equation
[ ] [ ]
(4.17)
[ ] [ ]
(4.18)
( (4.19)
(4.20)
4.2.3 Third Segment (Condensation)
Figure 4.5 : Picture of the third segment

149
The third step in deriving mass and energy balances was to include the
boundary layer air near the roof where condensation will occur. The fraction
P as in the equation below is the ratio of air saturated near to the roof of the
dryer.
Mass Balance Equations
( (4.21)
(4.22)
(4.23)
(4.24)
4.2.4 Fourth Segment (Mixing)
The fourth step in deriving mass and energy balance equations was to
define a section for the mixing of air, water vapor near the roof and water that
is being condensed.. For this mixing segment, variables identified were mass
of water vapor ( ), new temperature of the final segment ( ) and condition
of enthalpy at new segment ( )
150
Figure 4.6 : Fourth segment: mixing
Mass Balance Equation (Moisture balance)
(4.25)
Energy Balance Equation
(4.26)
( (4.27)
151
4.2.5 Buoyancy Equation
A buoyancy equation was used to calculate the air speed of internal

circulation in the dryer cell. It was assumed that (1) velocity, is invariant in
the x-direction, (2) viscous forces are negligible. Then was
assumed. From natural convection theory, a 1-dimensional momentum

balance in the z-direction (vertical) gives :
[ ] (4.28)
Then,
where is a bulk density (average).
From the ideal gas equation, at constant pressure, using the Boussinesq
approximation and ( ) for ideal gases, gives
[ ]
( )
(
√ (4.29)
Where h = effective height between ‘low’ and ‘roof’ in Figure 4.1.

152
Figure 4.7: Buoyancy Diagram
The variables derived in these equations were tested in a software program

written in Pascal. Results of the derivation of mathematical equation derived
above are shown in Chapter 6. Due to the poor result of this set of
mathematical equations, modifications were made on these equations and are
explained in the next section.
153
CHAPTER 5: NEW CONCEPT OF THE HEAT RECOVERY DRYER
5.1 Introduction
The initial model of the greenhouse dryer was inadequate for

describing the experimental data well. Boundary layer modeling was therefore
used in order to generate a better description of heat movement during
condensation. The basic theory is explained in this chapter. Generally, solar
dryer are less effective in cool and humid conditions. The purpose of the
current work was to test a hypothesis that sufficient heat recovery is possible
with a fully-enclosed drying chamber to allow a product to dry even during
poor weather conditions. The model developed here is a finite difference
model based on heat and mass balances, natural circulation, solar radiation,
product thermophysical properties, psychrometric equations of the air, and
material properties. The mass and energy balances were used over a small
time step. Below are some of the assumptions made for the derivation of the
mathematical model.
1) Laminar flow and natural circulation within the dryer.

2) Single circulation cell, which rises above the bed and descends over
the uncovered ground space (which can be seen in Figure 5.2), based
on experimental temperature analysis.
3) Internal radiation transfers are neglected, and re-radiated energy
losses from the dryer are also neglected.
154
Figure 5.1: Isometric view of the concept diagram
Listed below are the equations which are important for the model: (some of
these are identical to those of Chapter 4):
Psychrometric Equations
( known equations, [5.1]
( existing subroutines based in psychrometric properties [5.2]
Equations 5.1 and 5.2 are well known psychrometric equations implemented
in the code by Newton Raphson iterative solving techniques.
Isotherm Equations
( product properties, [5.3]
( existing subroutines [5.4]
Equations 5.3 and 5.4 are the solutions of the Guggenheim-Anderson-deBoer

(GAB) moisture equilibrium equations for coffee, see Chapter 2, Equation 2.2.
Thin Layer Drying Equations

( product property [5.5]
Equation 5.5 is the thin layer drying rate equations, solved over a small time
interval dt.
155
Ideal Gas Equation

[5.6]
Enthalpy Equations
product property [5.7]
( [5.8]
5.2 Overall Analysis of Dryer
Figure 3.24: Main dryer regions Figure 3.25: Side-wall

numbering
Figure 5.2: Side view of the dryer Figure 5.3: Isometric view
Listed below are the major dryer regions which are taken into consideration:
1) Bed (includes the support and the product)

2) Lower air region 1
3) Upper air region 2
4) Front wall, W1
5) Side walls, W2 and W4
6) Back wall
7) Dryer roof
156
8) Boundary regions
- on W1
- on W2 and W4
- on the roof
-
5.3 Overall Analysis Of The Mathematical Modeling
Region 2
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
Region 1
Bed
Figure 5.4 : Overall analysis of the air flows

157
Overall mass balances and energy balances are based on this figure.
Figure 5.5: Main flows for mass and heat balances in the dryer
Each region is assumed to be determined by two variables,

Temperature and Humidity, except for boundary layers. The boundary layer
which is in blue referring to Figure 5.6 starts with negligible thickness and
builds in thickness by incorporating air from the rising buoyancy air flow.
Figure 5.6 : Picture of boundary layer on the lower front wall

158
5.4 Interaction between Bed and Region 1
The drying rate equation is normally determined under excess air flow
conditions. As the air has a maximum capacity to hold moisture, a check
must be made on air saturation. The problem is acute in drying, where a
suitable choice of time step would be too small for drying times of several
days, and is caused by the finite difference (simple method) approximation
that conditions stay at the initial conditions over the time step. The following
logic shown in Figure 5.7 was used to avoid this difficulty.
Secondly, the amount of air circulating from top to bottom in a
reasonable time interval (where drying time is in days, so time interval should
be at least minutes) is large compared with the air volume inside the dryer,
and so for the air-bed interaction, the flowing air should also be considered in
interaction with the bed over a time interval Δt.
Start 𝑑𝑀
𝑀 𝑡
time step 𝑑𝑡
Solve mass and

heat balances:
𝑅𝐻𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝐻𝑒
𝑅𝐻𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝐻𝑒 END

Yes
No
Set 𝑅𝐻𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝐻𝑒 and
solve for 𝑀
Figure 5.7: Flowchart of the basic drying model

159
Physical formulation of the finite difference method to conduction

phenomena is briefly outlined. A one-dimensional slab shown in Figure 5.8 is
divided across the thickness into smaller subslabs. The subslabs are set to
have a thickness of of each except for the two boundaries where the
thickness is ⁄ . The temperature of each slab is assumed to be represented
at the centre of the slab and becomes more accurate when the size of the
slab becomes smaller. According to Figure 5.8, conduction from node i-1 and
from node i+1 as well as any heat generation present is assumed to be the
energy per unit time flowing into the node which is then equated to the time
rate of change of energy within the node.
Figure 5.8: A one-dimensional finite differencing of a slab with interior node

and one surface node detailed (Kreith et al.,1999)
The balance with backward difference on the time derivative being applied
gives the following on per unit area basis:-
̇
[5.9]
where
T = temperature (K)
(
= heat generated (kJ)
Cp = heat capacity (KJ/kg.K)
Δx = distance in the x direction
160
t = time (s)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m2.K)
The thermal conductivities used in this equation varies according to its

properties throughout the solid. Convection will be assumed to be occurring
off of the boundary at node 1 and the balance for this node gives the
following:
̇
̅̅̅̅
[5.10]
where
T = temperature (K)
= heat generated (kJ)
Cp = heat capacity (KJ/kg.K)
Δx = distance in the x direction
t = time (s)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m2.K)
hc = heat transfer coefficient (W/m.K)
The temperatures at all nodes are written for all n unknowns. These
equations can be decrease by one or two if one or both of the boundary
conditions are in terms of a specified temperature. The time step is arbitrarily
set, to determine the temperature as a function of time, and all of the
temperatures are solved simultaneously at . The time is then
advanced by Δt and the temperatures are then calculated again by
simultaneous solution. This backward finite difference approach is termed the
implicit technique in an n×n system of linear simultaneous equation whereas
the forward difference used for time derivative is called an ‘explicit’ solution
where only one unknown is usually exist in each equation. This type of
approach is simpler and easy to solve as it only deals with one equation at a
time with one unknown. Two and three dimensional equations can be handled
in the same conceptual manner.
161
Region 1
Bed
Figure 5.9 : Picture of air-bed interaction
Shown below are the equations for the model:
Mass balance
Dry mass of bed = [5.11]
Dry mass of air = [ ] [5.12]
Dry mass of new downcomer air from circulation cell = ̇ [5.13]
( [5.14]
Enthalpy balance
̇ ( [5.15]
where
( [5.16]
[5.17]
̇ is the solar energy component reaching the bed.

162
Mass Transfer
If at end of calculation, use empirical equation , [5.18]
else calculate equilibrium ,
Heat Transfer
Assume at end of each time interval calculation. [ 5.19]
Solar Input Term

̇ ̇ ( ( [5.20]
The fraction terms account for reflection and absorption on outside surfaces.
5.5 Lower Air Region 1
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
Region 1
Coffee bed
Figure 5.10 : Picture of lower air region interaction

163
Considering air recirculation within the dryer between top and bottom layers
gives:
Mass Balance
( ̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ( ) [5.21]
Energy Balance
( ̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ( ) [5.22]
We add to this the terms describing interaction with the product bed (later
section).
164
Solution Method
Start 𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝑀 Δ𝑀 Δ𝑡
Find 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑀 𝑓 𝑀 𝑖 Δ𝑀
(TLD eqtn)
𝑚𝑓
𝐻𝑖𝑓 𝐻
Δ𝑀 𝑖
𝑚
Solve [12] with 𝑇 𝑓 𝑇𝑝𝑓
Find 𝑅𝐻 𝑓 𝐸𝑅𝐻𝑓
(psychrometric equations)
Y
Y 𝑅𝐻 𝑓 𝐸𝑅𝐻𝑓 END
N
N
Iteration
Set 𝑚𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑝 𝑀𝑜 𝑚𝑎 𝐻 𝑜
𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑝 𝐶𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑝𝑜 𝑚𝑎 𝑜 𝑄̇ 𝑠𝑝 𝑡
Guess 𝐻 𝑓
Find 𝑀𝑖𝑓
Solve for 𝑇 𝑓 𝑇𝑝𝑓 (energy equation)
Find 𝑅𝐻 𝑓 𝐸𝑅𝐻𝑓
Use Newton Raphson iteration to improve estimate of 𝐻 𝑓
Loop until consecutive estimates are within a tolerance.

165
5.6 Upper Air Region 2
̇
̇
Region 2 ̇
̇ ̇ ̇ ̇
Figure 5.11 : Picture of upper air region interaction
This region was used to include convection and condensation in the boundary
near the roof. Listed below are the mathematical equations derived for this
region.
Mass Balance
̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ( ) [5.23]
Energy Balance
Boundary layer affects was assumed to be on W1 and roof only, as these are
the regions where experimentally condensation is observed. Therefore :
Convective losses on these two faces were handled separately So, neglecting
̇ and ̇ , for the moment:
̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ( ̇ ̇ ̇ ) ( ) [5.24]
where:
̇ [ ] ̇ (side walls) [5.25]
̇ ( [5.26]
166
5.7 Condensation Regions
Figure 5.12 : Diagrammatic air and mass interchange in boundary layer
Boundary of significance for condensation was assumed to overlap wall 1

(W1) and roof. This is essential to avoid complex calculations on the
remaining three sides walls. Two bodies of theory are needed for the analysis:
Theory 1 - natural convection flow on heated vertical plate

Theory 2 - film condensation theory
167
Figure 5.13 : Interaction between air and boundary for ith element.
The walls and roof are divided into cells characterized by values set at central
nodes. Modeling on this section includes:-
- Convection of heat transfer to air
- Sensible heat of walls
- Absorbed solar energy
- Non-saturated boundary layer
- Saturated boundary layer
5.8 Analysis of Boundary Element
The theory on the boundary element was based on (Sparrow and Gregg,
1956) standard analysis for laminar Newtonian flow generated by natural
convection on a vertical plate. Mass, momentum and energy balances were
used in the calculation. Two differences were introduced from this analysis: (i)
a flow at speed in the centre of the bed, and (ii) varying temperatures on
the walls. The volumetric expansion coefficient of air is assumed to be
(ideal gas) and pressure drop is . The ‘y’ component of speeds was
assumed to be of the only nonzero term (vertical flow only).

168
Derived below are the heat transfer coefficients needed for the calculation on
this segment.
External heat transfer coefficient

Air density equation:
(
[5.27]
Derivation in (Sparrow and Gregg, 1956) for vertical flow up a heated plate by
natural convection:
(
[5.28]
where:
[5.29]
(
[5.30]
Internal heat transfer coefficient

The internal heat transfer coefficient h is determined by the energy balance:
( ( [5.31]
We need to analyse the development of the boundary layer on the inside of

the wall to find hi
Mass balance over wall element i:

Mass balance on mixing air : (assume constant air density)
̅ ( ̅
(̅ (̅ [5.32]
The bar over the ̅ indicates average speed over the boundary, obtained by
integration of the boundary form of equation which can be seen in the
development of boundary velocity profile shown below. A moisture balance on
mixing air is not needed until saturation.
169
Energy balance over wall element i:

A heat energy balance on the wall element W i:
( ( ( ) (
( ( ( ( ) ( ) [5.33]
A heat energy balance on the mixing air and incoming wall heat:
̅ ( (
̅
Assuming no condensation, the equation above can be simplified using

(ca+Hcv) for the air specific heat:
( (
( ̅ (
( (
̅ [5.34]
Momentum balance:
According to (Holman, 1992): momentum equation with is given as:
[5.35]
Momentum flux Pressure Body Viscous

thru element Gradient force, g forces
With,
[ ] (
[5.36]
[ ] [5.37]
Energy equation on (Holman, 1992) as below will be replaced by a more

complex version of equation:
[5.38]
170
Modify momentum equation for average conditions over boundary (a similar

equation is derived in Holman (1992) for energy):
∫ ( ∫ ( ) [5.39]
Equations in the forms of the ( and ( will be needed in order to

evaluate the integrals. The forms of these equations are ‘guessed’ based on
the number of boundary conditions (as per Holman (1992) analysis).
Form of speed distribution:

Four boundary conditions:
(i) at wall
(ii) at [5.40]
(iii) at
(
(iv)
The last boundary conditions is derived from equation [5.26] at y=0. The
simplest equations to fit these four conditions is:
[5.41]
Applying the boundary conditions:

(i) at wall 
(ii) at 
(iii) at  [5.42]
(
(iv)
Solution to boundary conditions are explained step by step as below:-

(
Define [5.43]
From (iv) ( [5.44]
From (iii) ( [5.45]

171
⁄
From (ii) (  [5.46]
b,c are solved using equations [43]-[46]:

[ ( ) ]
[5.47]
[5.48]
( ) ( )
[ ] ( ) [5.49]
For the temperature distribution over the boundary, boundary conditions are
as below:
(i)
(ii) [5.50]
(iii)
Solving,
[ ] [5.51]
Then, substitute in the integrated momentum equation (equation 5.30):
∫ ( ∫ ( ) [5.52]
The variation of ρ is assumed to vary with the tangent of the coffee bed and
not with the distance from the wall, y.
172
Term [1] :Has two terms, in u2 and u. Squared term first:
∫ [ [ ] ( )]
∫ [ ( ) [ ] ( )
( ) ]
∫ [ ( )
( )
( )]
Integrating:
[ ( )
( )
( )]
Putting in limits and simplifying:
( )
Now, solving the linear term:
∫ [ [ ] ( )]
∫ [ ( ) ( )]
[ ( ) ( )]
173
Putting in limits and simplifying:
( )
Only the first term is significant as the second is invariant with x.
Term [3]:
∫ ( )
∫ ( ∫ [ ( ( ) ]
( ∫ ( )
( [ ]
(
=
Term [2]:
[ ( ) ( )]
[ ( ) ( )]
( )
Substituting into original equation:
( ) ( ) [5.52]
Integrated form of energy equation:
∫ ( [5.54]
Substituting and distributions for velocity and temperature (equations [42] and
[44]):
174
∫ [( [ ] ( )) (( [ ] )]
∫ ( [( [ ] ( )[ ] )]
Doing the integrations, limit substitution and simplifying:
( ( ) [5.55]
Returning to the problem of calculating hi, we now know the form of the
relationship between temperature and distance y, now given by equation [48].
Differentiating this:
( ( ) [5.56]
At y=0, the second term disappears. Substitute into the defining equation [28]
for hi:
( ( ) [5.57]
This agrees with the textbook solution. We have five unknowns (u, T, Twi,
and h) and five equations. Using finite differences, we don’t need an analytic
solution, so can proceed to an algorithm for solving.
175
5.9 Solution Approach to Boundary

The finite difference integration starts from the level of the product bed.
Secondly, the values for x and t is set. With each calculation, numbers on
the right hand side of the equation refer to either the previous time interval
and level for distance differentials, or simply the previous time interval or time
differentials. The order of solution is as below:
1) Find h0 (eqns 1-5)
2) Find Twi (eqns 8,9)
3) Find δi (eqn 55)
4) Find Ti (eqn 53)
5) Find ui (eqn 7)
This is difficult in practice, due to evaluating the differentials.
Simplified Method
The derivation above was based on the assumption that the boundary layer
increases in temperature from bottom to top. In general, this will be true if sun
hits the relevant plastic surfaces. To make the problem tractable, the heated
plate analysis was assumed to give a realistic value of the heat transfer
coefficient hc, and a boundary layer of thickness 2k/hc was estimated following
the (Holman, 1992) analysis.
Assume hci=hco as (airflow over similar surfaces).
This gives the following equations for each cell in a boundary.

[5.58]
(
( [5.59]
̇ ( ( ( (
[5.60]
Average speed over a cooling boundary will be about half the airspeed in the
free cell. An exact value can be found by applying mass conservation.
176
By applying the same idea to the roof area, a roof element was defined and
the same analysis repeated. The external heat transfer coefficient has to be
recalculated taking into account the roof angle in the ho calculations.
Details of Simplified Cell Equations

The external heat transfer coefficient hco is defined in terms of Pr and Gr
numbers (Holman, 1992)
( [5.61]
A choice is made about the number of cells n to calculate in the boundary,
and the cell height calculated:
[5.62]
In the computer program, n= 20 was assumed.
Cross-sectional area for heat transfer in the wall direction is as below,

[5.63]
For the first boundary layer element, the inlet conditions are assumed to be
the same as for Region 1. For the computer program, all cells must be
initialised with starting values for temperature and humidity for ambient
conditions. For each cell, the following equations were applied:
1. Dry air mass balance:

Assume air enters the boundary cell from the preceding cell. There is also
additional air mixing in from Region 1 since the boundary thickness is
increasing with distance up the wall during heating. Air exiting the cell must
balance these inputs (no air accumulation in cell). This gives us equation (31)
which is restated here to allow solving for ui):
̅ (̅ [5.64]
The thickness of the boundary layer is assumed to be given by the free

boundary solution as in equation 59.
177
2. Humidity mass balance:

Seeing that the stationary air conditions are a common situation at night and
cloudy conditions, the accumulation term for each is included in the
conservation equations as below:-
Water vapour entering from previous cell

Water vapour from adjacent air (
Water vapour leaving to next cell
Initial water vapour in cell
Final water vapour in cell
Condensed water in time dt
Overall balance (divided by L1 ):

( [5.65]
Simplifying the equation by defining constant C1:

( (
Gives
3. Heat energy balance:

Heat entering from previous cell
Heat from adjacent air (
Heat leaving to next cell
Initial heat in cell
Final heat in cell
Heat transfer from wall (
Condensed water heat:
Overall balance which was divided by L1 :
( [5.66]
178
Simplifying the equation by defining constant C2 :

( ( (
Then
[5.67]
where mi is the mass of air in the ith element. Equation [67] can be solved for
wall temperature Tw.
5.10 Mixing Conditions In The Top Region 2
Mass of air is calculated by deducting the boundary mass to separate the

boundary conditions.
( )
[5.68]
( )
( )[ ( ( )
( ( ) ( ( ))]
[( ) ] [5.69]
( ) [5.70]
( ( ))
( )
179
Finding thermal equilibrium for HIGH by cooling a portion ‘p’ which is the
energy recovery portion
Set and p=0
Calculate
( )
(
( ( ) ( ) )
[5.71]
( )
( ( ))
[5.72]
(
( ( )
( ( ))
( )
[5.73]
The final conditions calculated for each cell become the intial conditions for
the next time interval. Then, calculate the flow speed using the buoyancy
equation
( )( )
√ [5.74]
To calculate p, we use the equation 68. If the value p is calculated to be less

than 0, set it equal to zero. If the p value is larger than 0, we set it equal to 1.
Then substitute into the next equation as a new value.
180
CHAPTER 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FOR MATHEMATICAL

MODELING DEVELOPMENT
In this chapter, a discussion of the findings for all 8 experimental runs

is provided. Important points that arise from the graphs are also discussed,
especially comparison between the simulated value and the experimental
result.
6.1 Experiment Run 1
Experiment Run 1 was carried out in autumn from the 17th March until
19th March 2010. The initial moisture content for the wet coffee beans was
53.46 (%wb) and the final moisture content of the dried coffee beans was 2.91
(%wb). The amount of coffee beans available was not sufficient for drying,
giving a thickness of the coffee bed of 0.615cm, whereas commercially the
coffee beans should be at least 3cm. The simulated data for this particular run
showed good agreement with the experimental data for the first day. For the
second day, the simulated data did not appear to be in agreement with the
data, as the beans continued to dry at night time whereas the model predicted
no change. The solar radiation data indicated by the purple line was added
to the graph to show the solar radiation intake for the greenhouse dryer. The
flat solar radiation line indicates night (no solar radiation) whereas the peaks
indicate day. The current sun drying benchmark for all experiments is of 3cm
depth of coffee bed by 4 days of open sun drying.
The error between the simulated and the experimental data for
moisture content for the second day during the night was probably due to the
solar radiation being assumed to be zero in the simulation, whereas most
probably, there is heat being applied to the coffee bed to provide continuous
drying and also, the drying effect is too minimal hence, it can be neglected.
This heat is believed to be from the radiation effect from the sky during night
time and heat applied to the coffee from the ambient air through convection.
The heat coming from the floor is also neglected as the heat recovery dryer
181
will be placed on the soil instead of on concrete in Papua New Guinea. The
soil does not contribute to the heat being supplied to the coffee bed and
therefore it is neglected. Other factors which is believed to be of important is
the constantly opening and closing of the roof during drying which gives error
for the calculated simulated data. This gives fluctuation to the temperature
inside the solar dryer as temperature drops a little bit when opening the roof.
To minimize errors, roof were opened at the shortest time possible. The
cloudy effects during the day was also neglected and as it is difficult to
modeled.
Moisture Content (%wb) vs Time(hr) of Run

01
100 1000
80 800
Moisture Content (%wb)
Solar Radiation (W/m2)

60 600
40 400
20 200
0 0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
-20 -200
Time (hr)
MC Tray A (%wb) MC Tray B (%wb) h3 CM10 Solar Rad
Figure 6.1: Moisture Content Plot for Run 1
From Figure 6.1, the h3CM10 indicates that ‘h’ was set to 3 J/m 2.K and CM
was set to 10 (dimensionless).
182
Temperature Plot of Run01

70
60
50
Temp ºC
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (hours)
T roof T mid T bed T base T amb
Figure 6.2: Temperature Plot for Run 1
Relative Humidity Plot of Run01

120
100
Rekative Humidity (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (hours)
RH roof RH midlle RH ambient
Figure 6.3 : Relative Humidity Plot for Run 1

183
From the temperature plot for Run01, it is obvious that the temperature
in the greenhouse dryer was always higher than the ambient temperature
during the day, showing that the greenhouse kept the temperature inside
higher than the surroundings. The buoyancy effect can be seen in the graph
as the temperature of the coffee bed was higher than the temperature of the
roof. The lower density warm air near the coffee bed moves upwards and the
higher density cooled air near the roof moves downwards, agreeing with the
natural air flow theory for a greenhouse dryer.
The input value of heat transfer coefficient (h) and condensation

multiplier (CM) were tested many times in the program as to determine the
best plot of simulated data against experimental data. The condensation
multiplier is a ‘constant’ set as the ratio of heat going into the plastic with the
heat coming into the internal air of the dryer due to condensation effects.
From observation, increasing the value of h with constant CM, the simulated
moisture increased, but the variation was small. On the other hand, increasing
the value of CM with constant h, the simulated moisture, showed a large
effect, as the simulated moisture decreased. In conclusion, to increase the
drying rate of coffee beans, we can decrease the value of CM in order to have
more heat loss to the surrounding. Thus, more condensation will occur on the
wall of the greenhouse. Overall, the model agrees best with a value of heat
transfer coefficient between 2 to 4 W/m2.K.
Two parameters could not be predicted theoretically with any accuracy,

and so needed to be determined from the experimental results. These two
parameters were called ‘h’, used to model heat losses from the outer walls to
the ambient surrounds on the top surfaces (theoretical models are not
accurate here due to internal condensation, which affects the surface
temperatures), and ‘CM’ (called a Condensation Multiplier), used to model the
proportion of heat being transferred to the outer wall compared with the
amount of heat reincorporated into the air (see model development section).
184
6.1.1 Comparison between weather season
Experiment run01, run02 and run05 were carried out during the autumn
season, but Run01 and Run05 were carried out during early autumn and
run02 were carried out during middle of autumn. Results for run01 and run02
indicates the most error compare to run05 giving 25.8%, 9.2% and 0.1%
respectively. The reason for getting bigger error for run01and run02 were from
insufficient amount of coffee beans available during that time which make the
thickness of the coffee bed less than 3cm in the dryer. Experiment run05 were
seen to have the minimum error for autumn with reasonable thickness of
coffee beans provided. As it happens, Run01 was used as a calibration tool
for the first two parameters ‘h’, heat transfer coefficient and ‘CM’ condensation
multiplier.
Experiment run04, run07 and run08 were carried out during summer,
but run04 was carried out during the end of summer and run07 and run08
were carried out during early of summer. Experiment run04 was seen to give
the best correlation between simulated and experimental data with error 0.2%.
Although run08 has the lowest error of about 0% but, this experiment could
not be considered as the best drying condition as the experiment were halted
due to raining. Experiment run08 were carried out during raining but it was
stopped as the rain was predicted to get worse. Although the solar dryer has
the capability to run experiment during rain, we still needed to stopped the
experiment as to protect the exposed electrical equipment used for the
experiment.
Experiment run06 on the other hand was carried out during winter.
Giving error about 0.2%, this run was not capable of drying the coffee beans
to the desired moisture content. This experiment was also run with light
raining occurring on the dryer. The dried coffee was seen to be moldy at the
end of the experiment as the environment surrounding the dryer was not
susceptible therefore giving poor quality of coffee beans. The study on the
product quality were not carried out as the quality of the solar heat recovery
185
dryer products should not be different than sun-drying. This is justified as the
depths of the product on the bed were varied during the experiments, so that
the time required for drying is kept constant. This is due to the sensitivity of
coffee to the drying rate as too fast of drying rate will result in case-hardening
and too slow would occur mould problems
Looking at night time conditions for all of the experiments, the moisture
contents of the coffee beans was reduced by a maximum of about 3% from
the initial moisture content at dusk. As the reduction of moisture content for all
experiment was nearly impossible, assumption on no drying effects at night
time were initiated. The reason is, no solar radiation is available during night
time, although some researchers believe that there are radiation effects from
the sky, but due to the small changes of moisture content, this has been
neglected.
In conclusion, drying rate for coffee beans occurred faster during

summer compared to experiment carried out during autumn and winter. The
experiment carried out during winter was the slowest due to cold weather and
raining condition during that time. Experiment carried out during autumn was
seen to be the best condition for drying coffee beans as the coffee beans
were dried smoothly to its desired moisture content without any appearance
defects. Although summer gave the fastest drying effects, it was not the best
environment as a coffee bean needs to be dry slowly, to have uniform drying
from the inner layer to the outer layer of the coffee bean.
The residuals plot for Run 1 between the experimental data and the
simulated data are calculated and illustrated in Figure 6.4. The residual plot
was made to show simulated data against the experimental data.
186
Figure 6.4: Residuals Plot for Run 1
6.2 Summary of the experiments
Shown in the table below is a summary of the important parameters for

all of the experiments carried out. Experiment Run 3 was not analysed, as the
pyranometer malfunctioned. The detailed weather data for each of these runs
are attached in the appendix A.
Table 6.1: Summary of all important parameters

Initial Final Error Thickness
Experiments Date Season Moisture Moisture Between of Coffee
Content Content Experiment bed
(%wb) (%wb) &Simulated (cm)
Data
(%)
Run 1 17/3/2010- Early 53.5 2.9 25.8 0.62
19/3/2010 Autumn
Run 2 12/4/2010- Autumn 49.7 9.2 9.2 1.17
15/4/2010
Run 4 1/2/2010- End of 52.9 14.9 0.2 1.29
2/2/2010 summer
Run 5 8/3/2011- Early 48.2 27.4 0.1 2.7
10/3/2011 Autumn
Run 6 8/8/2011- Winter 51.8 34.1 0.2 2.65
11/8/2011
Run 7 7/11/2011- Early 50.3 10.6 0.6 3.15
11/11/2011 summer
Run 8 14/11/2011- Early 50.3 36.2 0 6.15
18/11/2011 summer
187
Drying and thermal efficiencies under these varying weather conditions

can be calculated by this equation; [(mass of water removed) x (latent heat of
water) / (integrated solar energy received)]. The final value will be expressed
as percentage. Usually, the reading will be given to about 60% if it is done
correctly. To find integrated solar energy received, the pyroheliometer
readings on solar intensity for one experimental run were added and multiply
by the based of the dryer. The calculations were then repeated for all runs.
The calculation for the integrated solar energy received can be done by this
equation; [ P = (Start total enthalpy of internal air + Start total enthalpy of
product – enthalpy of condensed water (in time dt) - Final total enthalpy of
internal air + Final total enthalpy of product)/ Solar energy entering system (in
time dt)]. Where “Start” and “Final” refer to the time interval dt only, and P is
the proportion of retained energy. This could be measured at different times of
the day to see how P varies with time. It could also be integrated to give an
average value over the day. As the values of the enthalpies are not yet to be
measured and needed extensive work in writing up the model, this will be
carried out by the next student. It is stated in the thesis that the dryer are
trapping the enthalpy within it by recondensing. This trapped heat
accumulates to the point where the heat losses through the walls matched the
solar energy input, and therefore giving rise to the temperature inside the
dryer by 10°C during the day. This phenomenon was observed during the
experiments in Sydney and it indicates that some heat recovery did occurred.
This future study were mentioned in the recommendation chapter as the next
student will investigates this further by determining the enthalpies, so that the
fraction recovered enthalpy can be determined. Having these values will help
the calculating the efficiency of the dryer.
188
6.3 Results of experiment Run 2
Moisture Content (%wb) vs Time (hr) of

Run 02
120 1200
100 1000
Moisture Conetnt (%wb)
Solar Radiation (W/m2)

80 800
60 600
40 400
20 200
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-20 -200
Time (hour)
MC Tray A (%wb) MC Tray B (%wb) h2 CM10 Solar Rad
60
Temperature Plot of Run02
50
40
Temp C
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (hours)
T(Near Roof) T Middle roof T Coffee bed T On floor T Ambient

189
Relative Humidity (2nd run)

120
100
Relative Humidity (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (hours)
RH (Near roof) RH coffee RH ambient
Figure 6.7: Relative Humidity Plot for Run 2
Residuals Plot of Run 02

1
0.8
Residuals (Moisture Content w/b)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Time(hour)

190
6.4 Results of Experiment Run 4
Moisture Content Plot (%wb) vs Time (hr) of

Run 04
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hr)
Moisture A wb Moisture B wb h3 CM100
Temperature Plot of Run 04

70
60
50
Temperature C
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hour)

191
Relative Humidity Plot of Run 04

120
100
relative Humidity (%)
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hours)
Residuals Plot of Run04

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Time(hour)

192
6.5 Results for Experiment Run 5

Run 05
60
Moisture Content Plot (%wb)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (hr)
MC Tray A (%wb) MC Tray B (%wb) h3 CM8.5

60
50
Temperature C
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (hour)

193

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (hours)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Time(hour)

194

Run 06
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (hr)

60
50
Temperature C
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (hours)

195

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (hours)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Time(hour)

196

Run 07
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
W Tray A W Tray B h3 CM8

Time (hr)

70
60
50
Temperature C
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (hour)

197

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (hour)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Time(hour)

198

Run 08
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (hr)

70
60
50
Temperature C
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (hour)
T(Near Roof) T Middle roof T Coffee bed

199

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (hours)

1
0.8
Residuals (moisture Content w/b)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Time(hour)

200
CHAPTER 7: OPTIMIZATION
7.1 Introduction
The heat recovery dryer was designed for a specific location and
operates best at low temperature and misty conditions. The dryer may not be
suitable in a hot climate or rainy environment, as case hardening and moldy
conditions might happen to the coffee being dried due to the outside of the
dryer which may not be sufficiently cool. The mathematical model built for this
dryer estimate the latent heat recovery in the dryer by taken condensation
effects into consideration. The current mathematical modeling takes into
account the proportion of the drying chamber starting from the section drying
trays and upwards, but neglects the lower proportion of the drying chamber
which is the segment below the drying trays to the floor, based on earlier
studies which showed no circulation in the lower half during the day. The
lower segment is assumed to be of low effect to the drying rate of coffee
beans as the buoyancy of air only generate airflow in the upper part of the
drying chamber to the roof.
The optimization method is also an important tool in predicting the best

design for any of the equipment used in a particular process. In this case, the
optimization of the solar dryer is carried out in determining the best
dimensions of the dryer for future design without having to run the experiment
many times and therefore saves time and money. The optimization method
include many parameters in one model to be taken into consideration, for
example the equation on profit incorporates equations of the price of dried
coffee and price of wet coffee, price of constructing the dryer, price of
maintenance and price of operating labour.
201
7.2 Response Surface Methodology
Since the full model is solved by time integration, it was not possible to
estimate differentials of time with respect to key variables. For this reason
response surface methodology was used to approximate the full model over
the variable range of interest. This gave us a simpler differentiable model
which gave approximate values of the full model. By finding local minima with
respect to the three variables, using the RSM model, an approximate solution
to the optimization problem could be found.
Solver is part of a tool in Microsoft Excel sometimes called “what-if

analysis” tool. It is used to find the maximum and minimum optimum value for
a formula in one cell called the ‘target cell’ in an Excel spreadsheet. Solver
works with a group of cells that are related, either directly or indirectly to the
formula in the target cell. The values adjusted in the cells are called the
adjustable cells which will produce the result that has been specified from the
target cell formula. Constraints may be applied to restrict the values used by
Solver by referring the constraints values in the other cells affecting the target
cell formula. Solver can be used to find the maximum and minimum value of
one cell by changing other cells for example; the amount of the projected
advertising budget can be changed to see the effect on a certain projected
amount of profit.
The Microsoft Excel Solver tool was developed by Leon Lasdon,

University of Texas at Austin and Allan Waren at Cleveland State University.
It uses the Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG2) for nonlinear optimization
code. Simplex method with bound on the variables and the branch and bound
method are used for linear and integer problems in Solver. This method was
implemented by John Watson and Dan Fylstra, Frontline System Inc.
Microsoft Excel also provides a workbook, Solvsamp.xls to help in solving
problems for example, product mix, maximizing income, engineering design
and portfolio of securities. In the example shown below, the amount of sales
202
revenue, the associated expenses and the profit can be determined indirectly
by affecting the number of units sold in the adjustable cells. Solver can
modified the quarterly budgets for advertising (Cells B5:C5), up to a total
budget constraint of $20,000 (cell F5), until the total profit value reaches the
maximum possible amount. The profit for each quarter is calculated using the
value in the adjustable cells, and are interconnect with the formula in the
target cell F7, =SUM (Q1 Profit: Q2 Profit) (Microsoft, 2013).
1- Adjustable cell
2- Constraint cell
3- Target cell
Figure 7.1: Excel spreadsheet before SOLVER evaluation (Microsoft,2013)
Figure 7.2: Excel spreadsheet after SOLVER evaluation (Microsoft, 2013)
The 3 parameters (h1, L1 and δ) which are (front height, front length
and thickness of the coffee bed) were chosen for the RSM model because
they are the main parameters of dimensions of the dryer, and believed to be
significant factors affecting the drying rate of the coffee beans. The method is
explained below.
203
7.2.1 Obtaining h1, L1 and δ as random values
Forty values for h1,L1 and δ were randomly generated within a chosen range
as follows:
(7.1)
(7.2)
(7.3)
The value of and were chosen to be 0.4m and 0.8m due

from the actual value of H1 which was at 1.0m. The value of and
were chosen to be 0.5m and 0.8m due from the actual value of L1 which was
at 1.0m. Finally, the value of and were chosen to be 0.02m and
0.04m due from the actual value of δ which was at 0.03m. These ranges were
chosen as being close to the experimental values for the equipment used.
7.2.2 Obtaining final run time (t) from the simulation
The generated values of h1,L1 and δ were put into the simulation to
obtain the relevant run times for different configurations, determining the time
at which the moisture content of the coffee beans first reached 20%wb. The
value of 20%wb were chosen to be the final moisture content (although the
drying goal is actually about 10%) because we need to ensure that a positive
outcome was achieved. Fortunately, due to sensible choice of the parameters,
the simulation gave physically realistic results. This gave a better correlation
between time and the RSM model. Forty different sets of randomized
variables were used and entered into an Excel data sheet.
204
7.2.3 Obtaining RSM Model values as a comparison with time and bed
temperature from the simulation
RSM (Response surface methodology) models were generated from

the general second order equation in three variables as below:-
(7.4)
(7.5)
The optimum values of the constants a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i and j were

found using the Excel Solver routine by minimizing the sum of squares of
deviations between the full model and the RSM surface. To remove non-
significant constants from the equation, they were systematically eliminated
and the effect after each deletion was checked in terms of the correlation for
the whole model. This led to testing deletion of the constant h, and then c and
b. However, the unexplained variance grew so rapidly, that all constants were
concluded to be significant. Therefore, we took all of the constants into
consideration and no deletion was done.
205
The calculations which are carried out in Excel are shown in the table below:
Table 7.1 : Obtaining RSM Model values for time

t
Runs h1 L1 δ t (hrs) modified(hrs) T model Diff^2
1 0.5767 0.6619 0.0362 146.6 74.6 70.16328 19.68452
2 0.7401 0.5980 0.0395 171.0 87.0 82.15098 23.51298
3 0.7947 0.7290 0.0262 145.6 73.6 71.96353 2.678025
4 0.6652 0.6864 0.0206 79.3 43.3 47.14197 14.76076
5 0.7702 0.6345 0.0256 123.3 63.3 62.21257 1.182496
6 0.7546 0.5698 0.0348 145.5 73.5 75.35231 3.431066
7 0.4147 0.6068 0.0349 98.3 50.3 52.17762 3.52546
8 0.4384 0.6302 0.0257 77.1 41.1 43.65878 6.547369
9 0.6222 0.5923 0.0398 146.0 74.0 71.8739 4.520315
10 0.6675 0.6482 0.0337 145.6 73.6 72.65283 0.897134
11 0.5784 0.5125 0.0373 122.8 62.8 61.21335 2.517445
12 0.5229 0.6147 0.0211 72.8 36.8 37.77348 0.947665
13 0.5544 0.6832 0.0266 102.7 54.7 55.56226 0.743486
14 0.6703 0.5506 0.0254 97.2 61.2 51.6313 91.55997
15 0.4910 0.7922 0.0225 100.5 52.5 52.52891 0.000836
16 0.5536 0.7654 0.0275 123.5 63.5 64.23494 0.540131
17 0.4739 0.7154 0.0363 123.3 63.3 66.924 13.13335
18 0.5601 0.6763 0.0383 146.5 74.5 72.19691 5.30423
19 0.4339 0.5283 0.0261 74.4 38.4 38.78284 0.146565
20 0.7404 0.5724 0.0280 122.8 62.8 62.231 0.323759
21 0.4377 0.5543 0.0201 53.2 29.2 28.98884 0.04459
22 0.5663 0.6266 0.0222 77.0 41.0 42.98559 3.942583
23 0.5265 0.5954 0.0225 75.5 39.5 40.03485 0.286065
24 0.6306 0.7604 0.0351 171.7 87.7 82.13368 30.9839
25 0.4421 0.6637 0.0280 100.1 52.1 49.8424 5.096752
26 0.6703 0.7665 0.0246 123.9 63.9 64.57294 0.45285
27 0.5099 0.7681 0.0270 121.5 61.5 60.9339 0.320464
28 0.4560 0.7134 0.0307 114.2 54.2 58.85954 21.71132
29 0.6237 0.7337 0.0245 122.4 62.4 58.88301 12.36919
30 0.6474 0.7085 0.0255 123.0 63.0 60.4314 6.597724
31 0.7926 0.5169 0.0313 123.9 63.9 69.46277 30.94446
32 0.6157 0.7273 0.0279 124.2 64.2 65.42515 1.500989
33 0.7477 0.6500 0.0336 147.2 63.2 78.4111 231.3775
34 0.7952 0.7897 0.0396 219.6 99.6 105.338 32.92516
35 0.7080 0.5191 0.0399 145.5 73.5 74.66998 1.368858
36 0.5120 0.6545 0.0279 101.9 53.9 53.30055 0.359335
37 0.7809 0.7538 0.0330 193.6 97.6 88.90996 75.5168
38 0.5366 0.7940 0.0232 102.5 54.5 56.60479 4.430127
39 0.6204 0.6684 0.0367 146.8 74.8 74.72995 0.004907
40 0.6051 0.6742 0.0234 101.1 53.1 50.65478 5.979117
SS= 662.1703
r= 0.96558
206
Table 7.2 : Testing deletion of the constants using SOLVER
Constant All No h No hc No hcb

a 8.537989 7.238418 7.928102 -4.46331
b 112.4645 159.5123 42.74616 0
"+ve" c -119.178 -104.251 0 0
d -291.06 -280.982 -185.374 -111.879
"+ve" e 192.4624 206.4256 156.1736 111.2138
f 3208.426 2061.037 2159.409 2268.908
"+ve" g -56119.1 -46110.8 -34791.2 -45463.1
h 92.29915 0 0 0
i 1295.156 1119.711 773.7791 2171.249
j 1717.962 2704.123 1809.449 1337.967
SS 570.265 592.2452 642.431 662.1703
r 0.97043 0.969272 0.966624 0.96558
7.3 Economic Model
The annual operating profit in operating the dryer was calculated from the sale
coffee price, the cost of buying coffee beans, the cost of the material, labour,
salvage value, the cost of maintenance and the operating cost.
∑ ∑ (7.6)
where
∑ = Best sale price of the dried coffee beans (AUD)
∑ = Purchase price of the wet coffee beans (AUD)
= Cost of material+ cost of labour – salvage cost (AUD in a year)
M = Maintenance cost (AUD)
O = Operating cost (AUD)

207
The sale price of the coffee beans was calculated by incorporating two types
of penalty which include the time and the temperature constraints. The sale
price of the coffee beans is express as below:-
( ( (7.7)
where PF is the best sale price per kg
The first penalty (Pe1) is based on an optimum drying time, calculated as

below, where the drying time should be less than the optimum drying time
( ( ) (7.8)
( (7.9)
Where,
(7.10)
The penalty function chosen for temperature as below limits the temperature
of the dryer to be more than 45ºC.
( ( (7.11)
( (7.12)
Where,
(7.13)
The calculations of constant of A to J were calculated using the Excel Solver

routine by minimizing the sum of squares of deviations between the penalty
model for both time and temperature and the RSM of the two penalty
functions. The calculations are shown below:
208
Table 7.3 : Calculations for lambda 2 Penalty Function
temp λ2*heavyside Model Diff^2 Tmax Model

10 1.0 0.9944 3.1E-05 10 0.9944
15 1.0 1.0122 1.5E-04 12 1.0074
20 1.0 1.0012 1.4E-06 14 1.0122
25 1.0 0.9896 1.1E-04 16 1.0112
30 1.0 0.9914 7.4E-05 18 1.0069
35 1.0 1.0055 3.0E-05 20 1.0012
40 1.0 1.0163 2.7E-04 22 0.9955
45 1.0 0.9936 4.1E-05 24 0.9911
50 0.9 0.8923 5.9E-05 26 0.9887
55 0.7 0.6528 7.8E-06 28 0.9888
60 0.2 0.2007 4.9E-07 30 0.9914
0.000769 32 0.9961
34 1.0022
Constants 36 1.0087
A 0.6848 38 1.0140
B 0.0615 40 1.0163
C -0.0040 42 1.0134 Figure 7.3: Required function for lambda 2
D 0.0001 44 1.0028
E 0.0000 46 0.9813
48 0.9457
50 0.8923
52 0.8169
54 0.7151
56 0.5820
58 0.4124
60 0.2007
209
Table 7.4: Calculations for Lambda 1 Penalty Function
Time(hrs) λ1*heavy side Model Diff^2

12 0.7 0.700368 1.35E-07
24 0.85 0.848268 3E-06
36 0.96 0.963139 9.85E-06
48 1 0.997403 6.75E-06
60 0.92 0.920758 5.74E-07
72 0.72 0.720173 3E-08
84 0.4 0.399892 1.17E-08
2.03E-05
tmax Model
Constants 12 0.7004
F 5.84285714E-01 24 0.8483
G 6.18656806E-03 36 0.9631
H 3.90625000E-04 48 0.9974
I -8.75362420E-06 60 0.9208
J 3.47076085E-08 72 0.7202 Figure 7.4: Required function for Lambda 1
84 0.3999
210
First term of the profit equation:-

( (
∑
( )
(7.14)
Second term:-
∑ (
(7.15)
Third term:-
(7.16)
where;
(7.17)
⌈ ⌉
(
(7.18)
(7.19)
The parameters in the material cost are derived from the materials used in
order to build the dryer based on the dimensions of the real solar dryer
designed. The labour cost is equal to the price of labour times maintenance
cost. The salvage cost is fixed to be the selling value of the solar dryer after
10 years assumed to be zero.
The fourth term:-
(7.20)
211
The fifth term:-
(7.21)
where tH indicates harvest time per season. The value 3.5hours comes from
the calculation below:
[ ( ( (
( ( )
( ] (7.22)
Combining all the derived equations values in the main profit calculation:-
∑ ∑
( (
( ) (
(7.23)
The profit equation is then differentiated with respect to to find

the optimum value for these three main parameters, within the chosen
variable limit ranges.
212
7.4 Optimization Technique
Profit equation is derived and shown as below:
( (
( ) (
(7.25)
Let ( )
and (
( (
[ ]
(7.26)
We need to differentiate the above equation with respect to H1, L1 and δ. The
first differentiation of the equation is as follows.
Differentiate with respect to H1:
( )
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
213
[ ( )
( )
( ( )] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ( )(
( ( ]
[ ( ] [ ]
[ ( ]
(7.27)
Now, differentiate the profit equation with respect to L1,
( )
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ( )
( )
( ( )] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
214
[ ( )(
( ( ]
[ ( ]
(
[ ]
[ ( ]
(7.28)
Now, differentiate the profit equation with respect to δ,
[ (
( ) ]
[ ] [ ]
( )
[ ( (
( ( )
(
] [ ]
[ ( ]
(7.29)
215
7.5 Simulated Results
The profit calculation was based on the use of the cost of material of a
mild steel square hollow section of AUD5 per metre, a galvanized sheet
painted in black of AUD20 per metre square, chicken wire of AUD3 per metre
square, a low density polyethylene film of 0.093mm thickness with AUD6.63
per metre square and the coffee sale and buy price of AUD3.5/kg and
AUD0.35/kg each.
The optimum design was defined in terms of the total cost of

constructing, maintaining, and operating the dryer, and included labour costs
of attending each dryer each season. The optimum values of the parameters
are shown in Table 7.5 below.
Table 7.5: Dryer dimensions for basic mode and optimum mode
Parameter Basic Optimum
Front height of the dryer (H1) 0.5m 0.403m
Front length of the dryer (L1) 1m 0.792m
Thickness of the coffee bed (δ) 0.03m 0.0278m
Optimization predicted a lower height for the front face of the dryer.
The optimum front length of the dryer was also shown to be shorter than the
original basic dimensions of the dryer. This is due to the designed tray which
is used in the dryer to be smaller than the actual tray mesh platform designed
in the dryer. The reason why the whole platform was only utilized to about
90% of the total areas, was lack of coffee beans to be dried. The trays were
designed in such a way to allow at least 3cm thickness of coffee beans as per
current practice. Therefore, the simulated value shown in Table 7.5 for front
length of the dryer is optimized to be shorter than the original length
dimension of the dryer. The optimum value of the thickness of the coffee bed
was 0.0278m as illustrated in Figure 7.5. This result agreed with the
constrained being set and nearly fulfilled the optimum thin layer of drying
condition where a minimum thickness of coffee bed of 3cm is needed.
216
Figure 7.5: Variation of front height of the dryer with profit
Figure 7.6: Variation of front length of the dryer with profit

217
Figure 7.7: Variation of thickness of the coffee bed with profit
The graphs shown in Figure 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5 show the variation of the 3
parameters chosen with profit from the optimization method. The shapes for
these graphs show to give good results as all of the graphs show maximum
value of profit.
7.6 Sensitivity Analysis
The table below shows the sensitivity of Profit in the optimization analysis in a
form of percentage as the parameters were increased by 5%.
Table 7.6: Sensitivity of variables in optimization equation

Parameter Profit Sensitivity (%)
Tray area 25.91%
Coffee bulk density 25.91%
Harverst time, tH 10.44%
Final moisture content, W f 4.02%
Initial moisture content, W i 6.72%
Dried coffee price,Pf 32.29%
218
Buy wet coffee price,Pi 6.38%

Price of mild steel,Psteel 0.39%
Price of black wall,Pblack 0.11%
Price of polyethylene film,PPE 0.32%
Price of wire mesh,Pmesh 0%
Moisture removal,Δm 0%
Lifetime years 4.41%
Price of labour, PL 20.05%
From the above table, it is shown that the price of dried coffee has the highest
impact on the profit with 32.29% followed by the tray area and coffee bulk
density, each with 25.91%. Price of labour ranked the third in the sensitivity
analysis of optimization of profit with 20.05%. The price of wire mesh, and
moisture removal have no effect on the profit optimization analysis of the solar
dryer.
The sensitivity analysis of the model on different weather conditions

can be calculated by; (1) defining an outcome, for example drying time up to
12% wb of the crop, (2) Run the simulation under BASE conditions (which is,
any conditions that are close to the centroid of data for which the model has
been validated), (3) Change the parameter you want to test by 10% (more
complex for weather conditions: choose a different year for annual sensitivity,
or a different week for sensitivity tests on time of year), (4) Run simulation and
measure change its’ outcome, (5) Calculate ratio ABS (change in outcome) /
ABS (change in input variable) x 100 (percent). Due to time constraints, the
sensitivity analysis will be carried out by the next student. This was stated in
the recommendation chapter, as future work on sensitivity analysis of the bed
depth, dimensions of the dryer and different weather conditions needed to be
carried out.
219
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS
The investigations have resulted in many contributions to the overall

understanding of drying coffee beans in the solar dryer. These were:
(a) A simple mathematical model was derived initially based on a thin layer
drying model for the product, plus an analysis of air movement within
the dryer, which was divided into 4 segments. The first was the
relationship between the coffee bed and adjacent air (lower section).
The second segment was the relationship between the first segment
and the air near the roof. The third segment of the model was the
relationship of the air near the roof with outside air, through saturation
and convection mechanism. Finally was the relationship of all of the
segments due to buoyancy driving forces.
(b) The model was improved by incorporating better solar radiation
modeling and also modeling condensation effects using boundary layer
theory.
(c) The condensation region modeling was by mass and energy balances
and transfers through a succession of boundary cells for the front wall
and roof. The boundary layer was based on the theory of the natural
convection effects on a vertical wall based on the (Sparrow and Gregg,
1956) analysis. The velocity distribution used was modified because
the theory explained was different from the actual flow in the heat
recovery dryer. The boundary layer of air accumulates and moves up
as temperature increases, whereas, the actual condition was that the
air moving up started to condense as the temperature drops to the dew
point temperature. However, the vertical temperature distribution for
each cell was assumed to be the same as in the (Ostrach, 1953)
analysis.
(d) Optimization based on three critical parameters allowed design for
maximize profit. Calculation of the profits included consideration of the
price of sale and purchase of green beans, the cost of manufacturing
the dryer, the maintenance cost and the operating costs. The sale price
of the coffee beans was modified to include 2 penalty functions, based
220
on time and temperature constraints. These penalties were modeled

based on the effect of quality on sale price.
(e) The three main variables chosen, based on their impact on dryer
performance, were optimized for maximum profits;. the front height
(H1), the front length (L1) and the thickness of coffee beans in the trays
(δ). A sensitivity analysis of each of the parameters included for the
profit calculation showed that the tray area, density of coffee beans and
the price of labour affected the most.
The following are general conclusions about the model validation:
(a) Laboratory data on drying the beans was used as validation against the
results obtained from the mathematical modeling showing agreement
to within ± 0.5%.
(b)The improvement to the model by including equations on the theory of
condensation effects in the boundary layer on the solar dryer walls was
justified and necessary.
(c) The model was successfully validated with experimental results.
(d) The optimization method also gave physically reasonable results.
221
CHAPTER 9: RECOMMENDATIONS
As was said previously, this study has contributed to the development of an

original mathematical model for an enclosed solar dryer, and so was
successful in determining the drying rate of coffee beans for an arbitrary
design of the heat recovery solar dryer. A more complete mathematical model
would require more of the processes related to the drying of coffee beans, for
example solar radiation effects on the reflected internal surfaces of the dryer
walls. The fraction of heat recovery dryer was not determined and would also
be worthwhile determining in future work. It is recommended that the following
investigations be undertaken in the future:
(a) Investigations of the amount of heat recovered on the cover of the solar
dryer during condensation during coffee drying. How much water is
condensed on the walls should also be studied.
(b) Investigations on quality changes of coffee during drying in different
weather conditions must be further extended to establish the effect of
the newly design solar dryer on the final coffee beverages. These
properties are required in determining the Ochratoxin.A due to moldy
conditions in the coffee beans which will cause the taste and aroma of
coffee beans to deteriorate.
(c) Investigations of the physical characteristics of the coffee beans can be
carried out to study the effects of different drying conditions on the
coffee beans, for example the shrinkage effect of coffee beans during
drying.
(d) Investigations of the effect of the mathematical model on different
geographic locations. This is essential as to study the application and
flexibility of the model with different weather conditions on coffee
drying.
222
APPENDIX A : DETAILED WEATHER PLOTS FOR EACH RUNS
Weather Plots For Run02

223

224

225
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A STUDY OF RADIATION AND NATURAL CONVECTION

OF AIR ON DRYING OF COFFEE BEANS IN A HEAT

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Siti Noor Suzila MAQSOOD UL HAQUE

School of Chemical Engineering

Surname or Family name:: Maqsood ul Haque

First name: Sltl Noor Suzlla Other namels:

Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD

School: School of Chemical Engineering Faculty: Engineering

Title: A study of radiation and natural convection

Abstract 360 words maximum:

Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation

FOR OF ACE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award:

THIS SHEET IS TO BE GLUED TO THE INSIDE FRONT COVER OF THE THESIS

CHAPTER 2 :LITERATURE REVIEW 28

2.3.3 Rotary Flow Dryer 39

2.9 Solar Dryer Modeling 119

CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY 129

3.1 Raw Materials 129

CHAPTER 4: INITIAL SIMPLE MODEL 142

4.1 Analysis of Prototype Greenhouse Dryer 142

CHAPTER 5: NEW CONCEPT OF THE HEAT RECOVERY DRYER 153

5.1 Introduction 153

5.7 Condensation Regions 166

CHAPTER 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION FOR MATHEMATICAL

6.1 Experiment Run 1 180

CHAPTER 7: OPTIMIZATION 200

7.1 Introduction 200

CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS 219

CHAPTER 9: RECOMMENDATIONS 221

APPENDIX A : DETAILED WEATHER PLOTS FOR EACH RUNS 222

Figure 1.1: Summary of work reported in the literature 23

Figure 1.2 : World’s 10 Top Coffee Producing Countries 24

Figure 1.3: Top 10 Arabica Coffee Producing Countries 25

Figure 1.4: Top 10 Robusta Coffee Producing Countries 25

Figure 2.1:Coffee processing stages 35

Figure 2.2: Flowchart showing various options for coffee drying 36

Figure 2.3: Hot air and screen bottomed trays 37

Figure 2.4: Vibrated tray dryer 38

Figure 2.5: Rotary Flow Dryer 39

Figure 2.6: Rotary Drum Dryer 39

Figure 2.7: Torres Dryer 42

Figure 2.8: Rotary Conduction Dryer 43

Figure 2.9: Moreira Dryer 44

Figure 2.10: American vertical dryer 46

Figure 2.11 : Shivers Dryer 48

Figure 2.12 : Fluidized Bed Dryer 49

Figure 2.13 : Open sun drying principle 52

Figure 2.14 : Direct solar drying principle 53

Figure 2.15 : Single tray reverse absorber cabinet dryer 54

Figure 2.16 : Indirect solar drying system principle 54

Figure 2.17: Picture of a passive cabinet solar dryer 56

Figure 2.18 : Picture of an active solar convective dryer 57

Figure 2.19 : Picture of natural-circulation greenhouse dryers 58

Figure 2.20 : Experimented mixed-mode natural convection solar dryer 59

Figure 2.21 : Picture of a passive solar cabinet dryer 60

Figure 2.22 : Schematic diagram of a cabinet-type solar dryer 60

Figure 2.25: Picture of direct solar dryer 62

Figure 2.26 : Comparison of collector and mixed mode design 63

Figure 2.27 A multi-shelf domestic solar dryer 64

Figure 2.28: Schematic diagram of a fixed bed dryer 65

Figure 2.29: Picture of indirect natural convection solar dryer 65

Figure 2.30: Picture of an indirect solar dryer 66