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Long-term athletic development, Part 2: Barriers to success and potential solutions

Articlein The Journal of Strength and Conditioning esearchR · May 2015

DOI: 10.1519/01.JSC.0000465424.75389.56

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alt devel st a
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de weigh cally
ra t dema
ng machi nding
e nes, envir
of free on-
re weigh ments
si ts (130).
sti (barb Fund
ve ells ament
lo and al
ad dumb move
s bells), ment
to elasti skills
en c repres
ha bands ent
nc , and loco
e medic motiv
he ine e
alt balls. (runni
h, The ng,
fit term skippi
ne physi ng,
ss,cal and
an litera hoppi
d cy ng),
pe refers mani
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m y of (catch
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7) l to graspi
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or tive striki
m proce ng),
s sses and
of such stabili
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si antici (bala
st patio nce,
an n, rotati
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tr ory, and
ai and antiro
ni decisi tation
ng on- , and
in maki braci
cl ng to ng)
ud help skills
e move (64).
th with
e poise, Proble
us econo m 1:
Physic
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dy dence It can
w in a be
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gh of ved
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o indica is a
m tes consi
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ng large declin
it propo e into
ud rtion adole
in of scenc
al childr e and
da en adult
ta and hood
th adole (125).
at scents Addit
fit routin ionall
ne ely y,
ss fail to increa
le accu ses in
ve mulat the
ls e amou
of reco nt of
yo mme time
ut nded viewi
h physi ng
in cal televi
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ne ty or
ra guide playi
l lines ng
ha propo video
ve sed game
de by s
te leadin (11),
ri g reduc
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at autho or the
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ov (36,4 val of
er 2). Of time
th partic devot
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pa conce recess
st rn, (2),
20 resear reduc
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30 have time
ye show durin
ar n that g the
s physi schoo
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7, activi for
10 ty physi
7, levels cal
12 appea educa
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. peak (93),
R at reduc
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en ximat in the
t ely 6 numb
ev years er of
id of youth
en age, who
ce after use
no which active
tr factor d
an s that injury
sp contri .
or bute Addit
tat to ionall
io reduc y,
n tions resear
to in chers
sc daily have
ho physi show
ol cal n that
(1 activi partic
07 ty ipatin
), amon g in
po g mode
or youth rate-
di (86). to-
et Failur vigor
ar e to ous
y addre physi
be ss cal
ha negati activi
vi ve ty
or trends (MVP
s in A) is
(1 lifest positi
4, yle vely
21 factor associ
,1 s such ated
08 as with
), insuff emoti
an icient onal
d sleep state
in or in
su poor ado-
ffi dietar lesce
ci y nts
en behav (114).
t iors Comb
le in ined,
ve youth these
ls will factor
of undo s will
sl ubted limit,
ee ly delay,
p reduc or
(3 e or postp
7, blunt one
69 the athlet
,1 benef ic
19 icial devel
) effect opme
ar s of nt
e exerci irresp
so se ective
m and of the
e poten innate
ot tially tal-
he increa ent of
r se the the
lif risk youn
es of g
ty sport- athlet
le relate e.
R rative
ec that
og practi
ni 1452 tioner
zi s
ng respo
th nsibl
e for
at
the
da
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y
well-
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being
ys
of
ic youth
al are
ac cogni
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vi of the
ty impo
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y these
in contri
lif butin
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is lifest
a yle
cr factor
iti s and
ca progr
l essiv
co ely
m use
po target
ne ed
nt progr
of ammi
all ng
lo with
ng appro
priate
-
interv
te
entio
r
ns.
m
Co
at
hen et
hl
al.
eti
(18)
c
indica
de
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ve
that
lo
there
p
has
m
been
en
a
t
recent
m
and
od
sustai
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s,
declin
it
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is
the
i
musc
m
ular
pe
str and g
en 2008. declin
gt Addit es in
h ionall both
le y, 1 in handg
ve 10 rip
ls childr streng
of en th and
ch could bent-
il- not arm
dr suppo hang
en rt perfor
wi their manc
th own e in
in body Spani
th weigh sh
e t on a adole
U wall s-
ni bar cents
te (18). (77)
d The and a
Ki autho declin
ng rs e in
do sugge the
m,sted neuro
re that motor
po the fitnes
rti declin s of
ng e in pre-
a streng pubes
26 th cent
% levels Dutch
de was childr
cli likely en
ne becau (107).
in se of Cumu
ar reduc lative
m tions ly,
str in these
en physi data
gt cal indica
h activi te that
an ty mode
d levels rn-
a . Data day
7 from youth
% other do
dr count not
op ries posse
in show ss
ha s a suffic
nd simila ient
gr r levels
ip trend of
str of musc
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gt th streng
h def- th
be icits largel
tw in y due
ee youth to
n , physi
19 highli cal
98 ghtin inacti
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ty. curre cal
T nt activi
hi requir ty
s ement (63).
is s and There
an future fore,
is struct given
su uring the
e of recent
th long- declin
at term e in
re athlet both
qu ic of
ir devel these
es opme fitnes
i nt s
m progr para
m ams. meter
ed Youth s, any
iat requir long-
e e term
att coord strate
en inated gy
ti musc shoul
on ular d
. streng priori
th for
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he the the
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se manc muscl
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pr funda streng
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ce ment profi-
of skills cienc
de (28,6 y
co 7). It durin
nd is g the
iti also prima
on establ ry
ed ished schoo
yo that l
ut funda years.
h menta It is
is l imper
li move ative
ke ment that
ly skill youth
to comp engag
ha etenc e in
ve y is traini
a associ ng
di ated moda
re with lities
ct long- to
i term devel
m engag op
pa ement musc
ct in ular
str se lly
en evide leads
gt nce- to
h based seden
an guide tary
d lines lifest
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nd nge behav
a previ iors
m ous in
en athlet adole
tal ic scenc
m devel e and
ov opme early
e nt adult
m mode hood
en ls (8) (20,9
t and 9,120
sk count ,122),
ill er it is
s preco imper
in nceiv ative
ea ed that
rl conce youth
y rns engag
ch surro e
il undin regul
dh g arly
oo struct in
d ured streng
to resist th-
m ance buildi
ax traini ng
i ng for and
m childr skill-
iz en. enhan
e cing
th Poten activi
ei tial ties at
r Soluti an
m ons to early
od the age.
ifi Probl Resea
ab em. rchers
le Consi have
ne derin pre-
ur g the viousl
o existi y
m ng stated
us levels that
cu of becau
la inacti se of
r ve the
sy youth neura
st (36,4 l
e 2) plasti
m and city
s that associ
(2 child ated
8, hood with
91 inacti pread
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he early
en relate to
ga d start
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en s of traini
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in s) is most
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ati devel are
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ne long- for
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tr comp part
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(I ced recrea
N physi tion,
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( psych practi
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hi cal, physi
ch and cal
co social educa
m devel tion
pr op- (31,9
is ment 1).
es (83). Howe
of Altho ver,
bo ugh it youn
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he diffic childr
alt ult to en (,7
h- identi years
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d defini age)
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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

intensity training higher levels of
that “strengthens muscle strength
muscle and and lower
still bebone” being aerobic fitness
encouraged toperformed 3 (17).
engage with lesstimes per week. Additionally, a
formalized Although these recent position
structured andguidelines offer statement from
unstructured support for the American
activities (e.g.,youth to engage Medical Society
introductory with physical for Sports
gymnastics andtraining, it is Medicine
playground noteworthy that highlighted that
activities thata greater a wealth of
promote emphasis is research now
kinesthetic placed on exists that shows
development andaerobic exercise neuromuscular
physical in compar-ison training can
literacy). Ofwith exercise reduce injury
note, authors ofthat promotes risk, especially
the 2014 interna-“muscle and injuries to the
tional consensusbone strength- lower limb (27).
statement onening” or skill- Clinical
youth resistancebuilding researchers have
training statedactivities. indicated that the
that the childConversely, risk of overuse
should bepractitioners injury can be
emotionally should reduced in youth
mature enoughacknowledge populations if
to accept andthat developing children and
follow fundamental adolescents
instructions andmove-ment skills engage with
possess and muscular appropriately
competent levelsfitness within a prescribed and
of balance and
well-rounded well-supervised
postural control
train-ing training
(57).
program should programs
Despite globalbe the priority (75,113).
physical activityfor youth, as Furthermore, it
guidelines these physical is purported that
recommending qualities training
youth ultimately programs
accumulate 60provide the inclusive of
minutes offoundations for resistance
MVPA per dayMVPA and help training that
(131), detailsto enhance target risk
outlining whatperformance and factors
should comprisereduce sport-and associated with
60 minutes ofphysical activity- injury risk (e.g.,
MVPA arerelated injuries. muscle
somewhat This contention imbalances)
general. Theis re-inforced by have the
WHO (131)research that potential to
suggested thatshows children reduce over-use
daily physicalwith high injuries by as
activity aerobic fitness much as 50% in
guidelines for 5–and low muscle youth (75,127).
17 year oldsstrength are at a
Table 1
should com-significantly
summarizes the
prise mainlygreater risk of
recommended
aerobic exercise;skeletal fracture
solutions to
with higherthan youth with reduce the
negative impact all
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an
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Problem 2: . d
Prevalence of be
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The concept of ag
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that inactivity e ac
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likely risk factor i at
for the etiology o lea
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sports- and mi
physical f n
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injuries (117). In r M
comparison with VP
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normal weight e dai
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that overweight u as
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children and n of
adolescents are g act
twice as likely to ive
experience an p tra
injury when h ns
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participating in s rta
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physical activity c n,
(72). Con- a fre
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suggested that pla
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a s in
m Pra wit
el ctiti h
y one spo
m rs rts
u nee pra
s d to ctic
c val e
ul ue and
ar bot co
st h mp
re hea etiti
n lth on
gt and but
h skill rath
a - er
n rela evolve
d ted out of
fu co general
n mp preparat
d one ory
a nts conditio
m of ning
e phy
nt sic
al al
m fitn
o ess
v to
e avo are ill-prepared
m id
e
for the physical
neg
nt ativ
demands of
s e sports (57), ulti-
ki traj mately placing
ll ect them at an
s, orie
s increased risk of
s in
h injury (105).
phy
o sic Specifically, low
ul al fatigue
d and resistance, lack
s psy
er of postural and
cho
v neu-romuscular
soc
e ial control,
a well inadequate
s - strength levels,
th bei
e and reduced
ng
fo motor control
in
u chil development
n dre have all been
d n proposed as
at and
io potential
ado
n mechanisms that
les
fo cen increase injury
r ts risk within this
y ove population (72).
o r
ut Considering the
tim
h increased
e
d Par demands of con-
e tici trolling an
v pati excessively large
body mass inpreparation to body mass,
response to themeet the muscle imbalan-
unpredictable demands of ces,
and dynamicsports practice dysfunctional
nature ofand competition. movement
sporting Practitioners patterns, and
activities, and parents alike strength and
overweight andshould recognize power
obese youththat participation deficiencies.
should engage inin sport practices Similarly, it has
preparatory will not been suggested
training, necessarily that the risk of
inclusive of bothprovide enough acute traumatic
health- and skill-of a training injury (e.g.,
related fitnessstimulus to ankle sprain or
components suitably prepare anterior cruciate
before overweight and ligament injury)
participating inobese youth for is decreased in
organized sport.the loadings overweight and
A sim-ilarencountered obese
approach shouldwithin sports. individuals who
be taken forResearchers participate in
those youth whohave shown that age-appropriate
are of normalengagement in prepa-ratory
weight butorganized sports neuromuscular
inactive. Ofdoes not conditioning
note, normalguarantee youth activities
weight inac-tiveattain (57,72). Impor-
youth mayrecommended tantly, this risk is
appear ready todaily physical reduced to a
engage in sport;activity greater extent
however, theirguidelines (55), when
musculoskeletal nor enable VOLUME
systems areindividual needs 29 |
NUMBER
likely to requireto be addressed, 5 | MAY
general such as excess 2015 |
1453

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ght ©
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Conditi
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Associ
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Unauth
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of this
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LTAD for all Youth
ilosop mize
hy their
co based partic
nd on ipatio
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on ing physi
in musc cal
g ular activi
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ti th and into
vi funda adult
tie menta hood,
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ar move , and
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tr withi t
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uc well- shoul
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h progr adher
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ag ach existi
e for ng
(9 obese long-
1) and term
. over- athlet
C weigh ic
ol t devel
le youth opme
cti , nt
ve much theor
ly, in the y (58)
th same as an
e way ongoi
da traini ng
ta ng lifest
su prescr yle
pp iption com
or is mitm
t viewe ent.
th d for
e norm
pr al Poten
e weigh tial
mt Soluti
is childr
ons to
e en
the
th and
Probl
at adole
em.
a scents
Histo
tr (109).
ricall
ai Cruci
y,
ni ally,
physi
ng to
cal
ph maxi
activi
ty 09). from
in Howe 8 to
te ver, 52
rv such week
en traini s in
ti ng durati
on moda on
s lities (71,1
ai can 09,11
m be 1,112
ed probl ). The
at emati increa
pr c in sed
ev terms adher
en of ence
ti comp rates
ng liance associ
or and ated
tr adher with
ea ence neuro
ti (109). musc
ng Conv ular
ov ersely traini
er , ng for
w traini obese
ei ng and
gh interv over
t entio weigh
an ns t
d inclus youth
ob ive of is not
es motor surpri
e skill sing
yo traini given
ut ng, the
h streng heigh
(e th and tened
sp powe impos
ec r ed
ial traini dema
ly ng, nds of
ch and handl
il sprint ing
dr traini exces
en ng s
) have body
ha all mass
ve show for
fo n prolo
cu relati nged
se vely perio
d high ds of
on adher weigh
ae ence t-
ro rates beari
bi in ng
c traini exerci
ex ng se, in
er interv comp
ci entio arison
se ns with
(4 rangi their
,1 ng norm
al ation quent
w class) engag
ei may ement
gh actual in
t ly physi
pe increa cal
er se activi
s. their ty.
E risk Altho
xp of ugh
os injury peer
in and comp
g reduc arison
ov e may
er their be a
w self- negati
ei estee ve
gh m proce
t becau ss
an se of durin
d the g
ob natur aerob
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e peer exerci
yo comp se, in
ut arison contr
h withi ast
to n resist
ae schoo ance
ro l-age traini
bi youth ng
c . offers
ex Resea over-
er rchers weigh
- have t and
ci show obese
se n that youth
(e.over the
g., weigh oppor
pr t tunity
ol youth to
on exper outpe
ge ience rform
d greate their
pe r peers
ri levels with
od of respe
s critici ct to
of sm absol
ru durin ute
nn g streng
in physi th
g cal perfor
wi activi manc
th ty e. For
in (35) exam
a and ple,
ph such Defor
ys critici che et
ic sm al.
al may (24)
ed limit show
uc subse ed
th obese specti
at youth ve of
ov carry the
er exces poten
w s fat tial
ei mass, additi
gh they ve
t typica benef
yo lly its of
ut posse resist
h ss a ance
pe large traini
rf fat- ng
or free progr
m mass ams
ed also, for
be thus over
tte increa weigh
r sing t and
th their obese
an poten youth
no tial ,
r for practi
m absol -
tioner
al ute
s
w streng
must
ei th
remai
gh perfor
n
t manc
sensit
yo e
ive to
ut (109).
the
h Cons
poten
in equen
tially
ac tly,
heigh
ti over
tened
vi weigh conce
tie t and rns
s obese that
re youth these
qu may popul
iri be ations
ng more may
m comp have
us liant about
cu and their
la enthu increa
r sed to sed
str regu- body
en larly mass,
gt partic espec
h. ipate ially
Al in when
th integr over
ou ative weigh
gh neuro t and
ov musc obese
er ular- youth
w based exerci
ei traini se
gh ng withi
t progr n the
an ams. same
d Irre settin
g key
as guide
no differ lines
r entiat for
me practi
al activi tioner
s to
w ties
consi
ei withi der
gh n when
t traini worki
yo ng ng
ut sessio with
h. ns over
C (and weig
on overa ht or
se ll obese
qu traini youth
en ng .
tlyprogr Proble
, ams) m 3:
pr to Early
help Sport
ac Speci
enabl
tit alizati
e all on
io
youth
ne Altho
to
rs ugh
achie
wi the
ve
ll injury
succe
li risks
ss
ke associ
irresp
ly ated
ective
ne with
of
ed over
their
to weigh
body
t and
mass.
1454 obese
This
appro youth
ach arise
will from
help insuff
foster icient
an expos
appro ure to
ach to sports
exerci and
se physi
that cal
encou activi
rages ty
self- (72),
impro of
veme growi
nt and ng
positi conce
ve rn for
social childr
intera en
ctions and
. adole
Ta scents
ble 2 are
sum the
mariz injury
es risks
as und ized
so train- postu
ci ing ring
at withi and
ed n a rotati
wi single on of
th sport the
ex (27) torso
ce and and
ss likely extre
iv limits mities
e the .
ex child’ Howe
po s ver,
su expos these
re ure to youn
to a g
sp bread athlet
ec th of es
ifi sporti shoul
c ng d also
sp activi be
or ties. engag
t(s It is ed
) ackno with
(2 wl- an
7, edged integr
46 that ative
). certai streng
E n th and
ar sports condi
ly traditi tionin
sp onall g
or y progr
t favor am
sp early focus
ec speci ed to
ial aliza- divers
iz tion ify
a- (i.e., motor
ti gymn skill
on astics devel
re or opme
fe figure nt and
rs skatin enhan
to g) ce
th becau muscl
e se of e
en the streng
ga relati th to
ge ve maxi
m advan mize
en tage perfor
t for a manc
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in g reduc
te athlet e
ns e to their
iv perfor relati
e m ve
ye extre risk
ar me of
- speci injury
ro al- .
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an classi k
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 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

those athletes (27,113). It is
who have suggested that
skill specialized in a the proportion of
competency. single sport at an acute versus
Researchers early age, overuse injuries
have indicatedphysical training in youth is
that youth whoshould approximately
do specializeconcentrate on 50:50; however,
early in a sportenhancing it is feared that
are at angeneric the number of
increased risk ofmovement skills overuse injuries
overtraining, and addressing is rising (12).
overuse injury,muscle weakness Conditions such
and burnout (i.e.,or imbalances as patellofemoral
stress-induced (59) instead of pain (65,86),
withdrawal) being exposed to Osgood–
(1,26,45). sport-specific Schlatter disease
Talented youthperformance- (41), calcaneal
who are selecteddriven training. apophysitis (95),
for a sportingProviding little league
team during lateprogressive and elbow (52) and
adolescence butmul-tifaceted little league
have nottraining shoulder (113),
engaged in age-opportunities for spondylolysis
appropriate such athletes to (53), and
conditioning develop more osteochondritis
during theirfundamental dissecans (100)
childhood yearsmovement skills are all common
are more likelymay overcome overuse injuries
to present withthe pro-pensity seen in children
poor funda-for early and adolescents
mental specializing subject to
movement skills.athletes to be at repetitive sports
For example, Igaincreased risk training. As
et al. (48)for a sports- youth engage
showed that therelated injury, earlier in formal-
muscle-loading illness, or ized sport and
patterns burnout (45,91). specialize in
associated with sport(s) at
It is accepted
youth soc-cer younger ages,
that not all acute
can lead to they may be at
injuries are
alterations in increased risk of
unavoidable in
functional experiencing
sport; however,
hamstrings to overuse injury
practitioners
quad-riceps (45). Of concern,
should be
strength ratios researchers have
cognizant of risk
about the knee, shown that the
factors that may
and that cycle of reduced
predispose youth
untrained young activity after an
to overuse
soccer players acute injury can
injuries. Overuse
presented with initiate
injuries are
greater overweight and
defined as an
quadriceps obesity markers
injury caused by
dominance than in youth (84).
repetitive
those who have
submaximal Irrespective of
participated in
loading of the whether long-
formalized
musculoskeletal term modeling is
resistance
system with focused on
training.
inadequate developing talent
Recently,
recovery time or athleticism,
researchers have
for subsequent existing
proposed that for
adaptation literature is
unequivocal that development
experiencing a models (8). Con-
range ofthe talent versely, the
activities during development of research of
childhood is an a young team Moesch et al.
important sport athlete (76) and Fransen
component of (e.g., soccer et al. (38) shows
youth player). that
development Although soccer accumulating
(8,22,40,58). may be the 10,000 hours of
From a talent primary sport specific practice
development that the child does not
perspective, participates in, guarantee
researchers havethey are likely to success and may
shown thatdevelop not be needed to
expert decision-perceptual and reach elite
making decision-making performance
processes can beskills such as levels later in
enhanced whenvisual scanning, life.
young athletesanticipa-tion, From an
are exposed to aand movement athletic
breadth andpattern development
depth of sportingrecognition from perspective, it is
experiences (7).participating in important to
Additionally, itsimilar invasion- expose youth to
was sug-gestedbased sports a variety of
that exposure to (e.g., basketball movement
a variety ofor rugby). patterns to
activities where Researchers ensure that a
generic patternhave also shown child can
recognition, that a competently
hand-eye diversification perform a
coordination, approach to breadth of move-
and decision- sampling many ment skills in a
making skillsdifferent sports range of
can beduring childhood different
developed, willis optimal for the activities and
ultimately avoiddevelopment of environments
the need forgross motor before specializing in specific
early coordination a single sport. Children also
specialization (38) and a breadth of
(7). This is subsequent activities as a
exemplified athletic high proportion
from performance of youth who
later in life specialize early
(56,76). Such will not
research refutes successfully
the misnomer of reach the highest
the “10,000-hour level of elite
rule,” which is sport and will
underpinned by therefore require
an individual a requisite level
seeking to of athleticism to
acquire expertise support lifelong
in a given participation in
activity needing recreational
to engage in sport and
10,000 hours (or physical activity.
10 years) of Specifically, a
deliberate young athlete
practice, a theory should be able to
that has been repeatedly
adopted by produce a range
previous athletic of high quality
movement youth may fur-ther stifles
capacities (e.g.,underlie reduced diversity in motor
pushing, pulling,diversity in motor skills and limits
rotating, bracing,skill proficiency current and long-
jumping andas young athletes term physical
landing, rolling,focus on sport- activity and
twisting, specific skills, health (79).
hopping, while ignoring Consequently,
running, andmotor skills comprehensive
stabilizing) withdeveloped motor skill
requisite forcethrough a development will
production anddiversified be stifled, which
attenuation participation can also increase
before beingportfolio (38). risk of future
exposed to theAlthough injury and
rigors ofspeculative, if potentially reduce
repetitious sport-sports opportunities to
specific training. specialization achieve optimal
occurs too early sport performance
Potential in children and if (45,79).
Solutions to theyoung athletes Children who
Problem. continue to do participate in
Encouraging progress their specialized sport
youth tolevel of activities more
participate in acompetition, their than 16 hours a
variety of sportsopportunities for week of intense
sport-specific
during theirparticipation in
focused
growing years“fun”-focused
can help themage-related VOLUME
29 |
develop morephysical activities NUMBER
5 | MAY
diverse motorare likely to be 2015 |
skills. Sportslimited, which 1455
specialization in

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ght ©
Nation
al
Strengt
h and
Conditi
oning
Associ
ation
Unauth
orized
reprod
uction
of this
article
is
prohibi
ted.
LTAD for all Youth
traini alized
ng. In athlet
additi es
tr on, invol
ai with ved in
ni the intens
ng comp e
sh etitiv comp
ou e etitio
ld dema n
be nds shoul
cl typica d be
os lly allow
el highe ed
y r for suffic
m athlet ient
on es recov
it speci ery
or alized time
ed in a betwe
fo single en
r sport, repeat
in intrin ed
di sic bouts
ca risk of
to factor same
rs s of day
of acute (10,4
bu injury 9).
rn that Befor
ou are e pro-
t, highe longe
ov r d
er durin comp
us g etitio
e comp ns,
in etitio athlet
ju n es can
ry,comp also
or ared benef
po with it
te traini from
nt ng limiti
ial shoul ng
de d be intens
cr monit e
e ored traini
m durin ng 48
en g hours
ts accu befor
in mulat e
pe ed comp
rf game etitio
or s, n
- match (66).
m es, Conti
an meets nued
ce , or resear
fr tourn ch is
o ament neede
ms d to
ov (47). better
er Speci deline
at forma ses
e l target
th guide ed to
e lines addre
th to ss
re optim motor
sh ize contr
ol safe ol
d youth defici
co sport ts)
m perfor condi
pe manc tionin
- e. g
tit Ba activi
io sed ties
n on the that
vo curre are
lu nt desig
m evide ned to
e nce, enhan
re we ce
lat encou both
iv rage health
e youth - and
to to skill-
th engag relate
e e in d
e prepa relate
m ratory d
er INT fitnes
ge befor s
nc e the (13,8
e initiat 3). In
of ion of terms
ris comp of
k et- physi
fa itive cal
ct sport condi
or partic tionin
s ipatio g,
as n. youth
so Integr sport
- ative practi
ci neuro ce
at musc and
ed ular game
wi traini s may
th ng not
ov inclu enabl
er des e the
sc gener youn
he al g
du (e.g., athlet
li streng e to
ng th- accu
to buildi mulat
be ng e the
tte exerci reco
r ses) m-
es and mend
ta spe- ed
bl cific amou
is (e.g., nt of
h exerci mode
ra nsity d in
te physi prese
- cal ason
to activi and
- ties off-
vi (43,5 seaso
go 5). A n
ro youn perio
us g ds
ph athlet can
ys e’s be
ic partic espec
al ipatio ially
ac n in benef
ti sport icial
vi shoul to
ty, d athlet
as evolv es
a e out who
larof have
ge prepa speci
pr ratory alized
op condi in
or tionin sports
ti g and and
on instru may
of c- not
ti tional have
m practi had
e ce adequ
in sessio ate
pr ns expos
ac that ure to
tic addre devel
e ss opme
(a indivi ntal
nd dual motor
ev defici skill
en ts and activi
co prepa -ties
m re (82).
pe their Integr
- motor ative
tit syste neuro
io ms musc
n) for ular
ca the traini
n dema ng
be nds of provi
sp practi des
en ce sup-
t and portiv
in comp e
se etitio condi
de n tionin
nt (57,8 g that
ar 0). can
y Prope reduc
or rly e
lo desig injury
w ned risk
- INT and
in imple enhan
te mente ce
pe me reduc
rf cases, ed
or early injury
m sport risk
an specia witho
ce lizatio ut
in n may integr
all limit ation
at the of
hl potent appro
et ial to priate
es achiev long-
(2 e elite term
9, status. athleti
34 These c
,8 data trainin
7– provid g
89 e progra
). suppo ms.
Irt to Tab
n the le 3
at conce summ
hl pt of arizes
key
et early
reco
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mme
it divers ndati
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ou on reduc
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se recog negati
e nizes ve
m that impac
th while t of
at delibe early
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su rate
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cc play
alizati
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s practi
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yo forma m 4:
un lized Traini
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es nly For
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lo sports of
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m suffici athleti
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tioner se)
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inclu
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des
becau
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perio se of
be ofat
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redu
risk under
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for ly-ing
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-exces physi
sive
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fic the
traini
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workl s of
enha
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nce accu
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and ular
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ery, repeat
*
and
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uscular
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training exerci
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ch d also these
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or that theor
ad altho eticall
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r adults exper
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ov high Altho
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ng g (68)
(6 athlet indica
), es ted
ov have that
er report overtr
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ai exper g or
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sy ainin overr
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(7 overr solely
4) eachi a
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or (68). of
bu Speci physi
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at athlet long-
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 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

their preferred differences, the
philosophy of notion of
Researchers periodization prioritizing
have shown that(e.g., progressive general
parental orcycling of preparatory
coach-led various aspects training and
pressure canof training), it is developmental
positively or
generally practices during
negatively
accepted that the early stages
influence youth
planning of childhood is
(98). Such
sequential blocks essential. Such
external pressure
of training is an approach will
to perform in
crucial to elicit hopefully avoid
multiple
the greatest excessive
competitions or
adaptive competitive
to train or play
response. workloads and
when injured to
Recently, Haff negative
make selection
(44) suggested experiences,
for higher level
competitions that for young which may
(i.e., nationalchildren entering ultimately lead
team rosters ora long-term to premature
securing athletic disen-gagement
professional development from the sport
contracts) canmodel, the during early
also contribute majority of their adolescence
to the risk oftime engaged (97). Such an
intolerable within the approach should
workloads. system should be also help ensure
Consequently, devoted to the holistic
balancing general development of
exposure preparatory youth (96).
between training and the Interestingly,
competitive development of Matos et al. (68)
events and timefundamental reported that
dedicated movement skills. level of
towards physicalHowever, as the competition was
preparation mustchild moves significantly
be an integralthrough the correlated with
component oflong-term the inci-dence of
any long-termathletic nonfunctional
athletic development overreaching or
development pathway, a overtraining; and
model. greater emphasis therefore,
should be placed practitioners
Possible on competition, working with
Solutions to theso that by the youth must
Problem. Thetime they reach ensure that long-
objective of theadulthood term athletic
strength and(approximately development is
conditioning 20 years of age), driven by
coach is tothey will spend process (athlete-
carefully 25–35% of their centered) as
manipulate time in training opposed to
training loads toand 65–75% of outcomes
achieve long-their time in (results-
term adaptationscompetition oriented), espe-
in physical(44). Although cially at the
perfor-mance. these ratios are younger ages of
Although estimations and competition.
practitioners willdo not account The need for a
intuitively adoptfor individual comprehensive
approach that is season. For
consid-erate of example, during
all demands topreparation an enforced
long-term phases exist transition/prepar
athletic within the ation phase, a
development is overall long- practitioner may
emphasized forterm athletic need to rectify
youth who development muscle
participate inplan. Enforced imbalances or
multiple sports.transition/prepar decrements in
The design ofation phases motor skill
training from sport- proficiency that
programs for specific training have developed
single-sport are also essential through
athletes willto ensure that the exposure to
typically includechild has competition and
an appropriate sufficient time to reduced
phase of rest and recover opportunities for
physical and to enable preparatory con-
prepara-tion normal growth ditioning. Youth
before the onsetand maturation who specialize
of a competitiveprocesses to in a single sport
phase. However, occur. These should be
for youth whophases are also encouraged even
participate inimportant to more to
multiple sports, safeguard participate in
competitive against the planned periods
seasons may run negative effects of enforced
synonymously of accumulated preparation to
(i.e., 2 winterfatigue and allow exposure
sports) or potential risks of to isolated and
overlap (e.g., a overuse injury. focused INT, to
fall, winter, andAn example of enhance diverse
spring sport).this is apparent motor skill
Irrespective ofin recent development,
the arrangement recommen- and reduce
of the seasons,dations whereby injury risk
practitioners young baseball factors. Such an
must avoid thepitchers are approach
temptation ofencouraged to requires a high
solely focusing pitch for no degree of
on the loadingmore than 8 cohesion
stimulus duringmonths within a between
training phases12-month time practitioners of
and ensure thatframe to reduce different
adequate the risk of sports/teams,
transition and overuse injury in which might be
the shoulder (3). challenging.
General However, for the
preparation long-term
should also be welfare and
viewed as an well-being of the
opportunity to child or
regain, or adolescent
improve on, adequate
precompetition preparation time
levels of fitness must be viewed
that would as a critical com-
typically have ponent of any
plateaued or athletic
decreased as a development
result of the model.
demands of the
Several
competitive
prominent
international performance are a maintenance of
organizations defining charac- performance,
have recom-teristic of masking the
mended that theovertraining in negative
training of youthadults (73). In consequences of
athletes should beyouth growth, overtraining.
monitored tomatu-ration and Supporting the
avoid thedevelopment may difficulty of
negative obscure the identifying
consequences ofability to identify physical
excessive trainingdecrements in symptoms of
(1,27,81). performance overtraining the
Whether thesecaused by American
recommendations overtraining. Medical Society
are beingPerfor-mance for Sports
implemented isdecrements Medicine (27)
unknown, but thelasting months or have stated that
continued longer may be there seems to be
reporting of con-caused by a more of a
sistent levels ofnaturally psychological
staleness, occurring period compo-nent to
burnout, andof adolescent burnout and
overtraining inawkwardness, as attrition in youth
youth sportshas been noted in sports.
suggest that moreyouth soccer
needs to be doneplayers (101). A holistic
to protect youthConversely, over- approach should
athletes training may be adopted to
(50,68,103). Partcause impaired monitoring
of the problem isresponsiveness to youth athletes,
the difficulty oftraining but with considering both
physical and
identifying initialnatural growth
psychosocial
symptoms ofand maturation
overtraining inprocesses still VOLUME
29 |
youths. allowing some NUMBER
5 | MAY
Prolonged level of 2015 |
impairments inimprovement or 1457

Copyri
ght ©
Nation
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Strengt
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Conditi
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Unauth
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reprod
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of this
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is
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LTAD for all Youth
achin oppo
g and nents,
pe overtr bad
rs ainin mood
pe g in ,
cti youth often
ve sports feelin
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In de lack
ad loss of
di of confi
ti appeti dence
on te, in the
to predis future
pe positi and in
rf on to com-
or injury petiti
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ce ent Coac
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cr ess, shoul
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en cope te
ts, with youth
th traini athlet
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m loads, and
os frequ their
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pr respir ts to
ev atory be
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en ions, of
t heavy such
ph muscl sympt
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ic and build
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sy probl good
m ems rappo
pt (68). rt
o Altho with
m ugh their
s the athlet
as most es to
so preva help
ci lent identi
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th sympt sympt
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n- inclu have
fu de robus
nc apath t
ti y, monit
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al g syste
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er dated place
re by to
all ychol prese
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w monit in
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rl the 4.
y profil Proble
de e of m 5:
te mood Curre
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Physic
on has al
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ov widel tion
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Durin
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, overtr the
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d g in musc
ha adult ular
ve athlet syste
ap es m is
pr and a highl
op conde y
ri nsed, “plast
at 24- ic”
e questi (33,9
str on 1)
at versio and is
eg n, has amen
ie been able
s valida to
to ted adapt
de for ation
al use owin
wi with g to
the
th adole
peaki
su scent
ng of
s- popul
brain
pe ations
matur
ct (123). ation
ed Ke rates
ca y (6–8
se consi years
s derati and
of ons 10–
ov for 12
er practi
tr tioner
ai s to
ni consi
ng der
. when T
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ng
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oads e
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of are m
ps m
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s lt m
for h p
ma o e
na o ti
gin d ti
g , v
trai t e
nin h p
g e e
wo r rf
rkl a o
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ds o m
of b a
yo
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uth
t c
.
w e
For e C
e hi
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recov g. ur
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growt m a
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to cl pr
reduc e o
e the i c
risk m e
of b d
overu al ur
se a e
injury n s
Durin c fo
g e r
prep s, id
arati in e
on ef nt
and fi if
trans ci yi
ition e n
mes nt g
ocycl la o
es, n v
pract di er
ition n tr
ers g ai
shou m ni
ld e n
ende c g
avor h in
to a a
addr ni d
ess c ul
any s) ts
physi T s
cal h h
limita e o
tions pr ul
(e.g., o d
redu c n
ced e ot
mus s n
cle s e
stren of c
gth m e
and o s
pow ni s
er or to ar
decr ri il
eme n y
nts g b
in tr e
sprin ai a
t ni p
mec n pl
hani g ie
cs) w d
or or to
youth for
motor
years) skill
(102), devel
synap opme
1458
tic nt.
pruni Resea
ng rch
(15), also
and show
overa s that
ll musc
streng ular
theni streng
ng of th is
the impor
synap tant
tic for
pathw motor
ays skill
(16). perfor
It has manc
also e
been (9,19,
establ 32,60
ished ,121,
that 126)
funda and
menta that
l childr
move en
ment can
skill make
maste worth
ry while
and impro
motor veme
pro- nts in
ficien musc
cy are ular
positi streng
vely th
associ after
ated appro
with priate
long- traini
term ng
engag interv
ement entio
in ns
physi (9).
cal Cons
activi equen
ty tly,
(115, becau
116), se of
and the
that neura
child l
hood plasti
is an city
oppor associ
tune ated
time with
ch ping a al
il bread cause
dh th and for
oo depth conce
d of rn
an move (129).
d ment Not
th skills all
e and mode
re requis rn
sp ite physi
on levels cal
si of educa
ve musc tion
ne ular curric
ss streng ula
to th exclu
m (58). -
ot No sively
or twiths invol
sk tandi ve the
ill ng the enhan
an aware ceme
d ness nt of
re of physi
si subst cal
st andar fitnes
an d s and
ce levels have
tr of beco
ai curre me
ni nt more
ng health divers
, aand e in
str fitnes terms
on s of of
g mode subje
fo rn- ct
cu day conte
s youth nt and
of , the requir
ph lack ed
ys of learni
ic robus ng
al t outco
ed gover mes.
uc nmen For
ati tal exam
on strate ple,
cu gies withi
rri for n the
cu physi Unite
la cal d
sh activi King
ou ty dom,
ld withi in
be n the additi
ba educa on to
se tion prima
d sector ry
on remai schoo
de ns a l
ve critic pupils
lo being
ta ey ting
ug must progr
ht also am
to be relate
pl taugh d to
ay t to the
co devel physi
m op que
pe critic of the
tit al huma
iv think- n
e ing body
sp skills and
or and shoul
ts, learn d
le to use encou
ar infor rage
n matio psych
da n omot
nc techn or
e ology learn-
an withi ing in
d n the a
rh physi variet
yt cal y of
h educa settin
m tion gs
ic settin that
mg prom
ov (25). ote
e- Despi health
m te and
en mode exerci
t rn- se
pa day (5).
tte polici There
rn es fore,
s, leadin even
an g to with
d an such
pa increa a
rti sed broad
ci dema range
pa nd on of
te physi curric
in cal ula
ou educa requi
td tion reme
oo teach- nts to
r ers, it satisf
an shoul y,
d d be physi
ad noted cal
ve that educa
nt the tion
ur term progr
ou “phys ams
s ical must
ac educa retain
ti tion” a
vi repres centr
tie ents al
s; the tenet
th educa
of relate ,
of d prom
fe comp ote
ri onent psych
n s of osoci
g physi al
y cal devel
o fitnes opme
ut s. nt,
h Beca and
th use instill
e child motiv
o hood ation
p repre for
p sents lifelo
or a ng
tu uniqu enga
ni e geme
ty oppor nt in
to tunity regul
e to ar
n take physi
g adva cal
a ntage activi
g of a ty.
e highl De
in y spite
m plasti the
ea c obvio
ni neuro us
n musc role
gf ular for
ul syste the
p m, educa
h expo- tion
ys sure sector
ic to to
al daily teach
ac prima and
ti ry devel
vi schoo op
ty l health
th physi and
at cal skill-
e educa relate
n tion d
h curric fitnes
a ula s in
n woul schoo
ce d l-age
s seem youth
b to be ,
ot a resear
h critic chers
h al have
ea time show
lt frame n that
h in curre
a whic nt
n h to educa
d devel tion
sk op syste
ill athlet ms
- icism are
fa . For refere
ili exam nce to
ng ple, age-
to an appro
de exami priate
ve natio motor
lo n of skill
p the devel
ap natio opme
pr nal nt and
op curric resist
ri ula ance
at for traini
e physi ng for
st cal schoo
an educa l
da tion childr
rd withi en,
s n the espec
of Unite ially
fit d for
ne King prima
ss dom ry
(7 show schoo
7, s that l
10 there educa
7, is tion.
11 mini
8) mal
a o prohibi
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 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

existing curricula, a
education recognized and
Furthermore, incurricula to certified
the Unitedappropriately continued
Kingdom, it isprepare children professional
recognized thatfor the demands development
primary schoolof recreational (CPD) pathway
teachers arefitness or does not
poorly preparedsporting currently exist
through theiractivities was for practitioners
teacher trainingreflected in to enhance their
programs torecent data knowledge base
teach physicalexamining the and practical
education (51),
preparedness of skill sets within
and it has been
college freshmen the field of youth
suggested that
for the rigors of athletic
the statutory
college-based development.
requirements for
strength and Furthermore, it
physical
conditioning is likely that a
education have
(128). The number of
often not been
researchers physical
achieved (51). It
showed that education
would seem that
current college teachers working
limited subject
strength and within schools
knowledge is
conditioning (especially
often the pri-
coaches believed primary schools)
mary
the areas of may not be
explanation for
athleticism willing or
inadequate
requiring the motivated to
standards of
great-est actively
physical edu-
improvement of participate in
cation teaching
college freshmen continued CPD
in primary
were lower oppor-tunities
schools within
extremity related to long-
the United
strength, term athletic
Kingdom (94).
weightlifting development,
Similar
technique, core which poses a
negative trends
strength, and very real
are evident
overall problem if
within the
flexibility (128). existing
United States,
It is reasonable education
with more than
to suggest that if curricula are to
half of all states
education sectors change to
permitting
possess more address the
school districts
highly skilled current syllabus
to allow students
practitioners in that is delivered
to substitute
the pro-vision of to school-age
other activities
athletic youth. For
for their required
development, the example,
physical
number of youth recently, it has
education
entering college- been shown that
classes (92), and
based programs high school
59% of states
with substandard physical
allowing
levels of athleti- education
required
cism could be teachers’ and
physical
reduced. youth sport
education credits
coaches’
to be earned Irrespective of
knowledge and
through onlinethe existing
concerns with understanding of
computer-based
the provision of youth resis-tance
courses (93).
physical training is
The inability of
education deficient and not
consistent with hockey).
the rec- Adopting such a
ommended such curricula short-term policy
guidelines are suboptimal will blunt the
(39,70). for long-term continual
Consequently, it physical devel- development of
is imperative opment in youth. athleticism of
that physicalDespite the youth, will likely
education short- and long- enable some
teacher trainingterm benefits of form of
programs appropriately detraining to
provide traineeprescribed ensue, and not
teachers with thephysical facilitate the
development
relevant correction of key
interven-tions on
curriculum to injury risk
the health and
ensure that, at factors (e.g.,
fitness of youth
least, newly poor landing
(29,54,62), it
qualified mechanics or
would seem that
teachers possess lack of postural
existing
up-to-date stability).
education
knowl-edge and Researchers
structures
the necessary have shown that
require a
skill sets to significant
dramatic
deliver improvements in
overhaul to
appropriate ath- physical fitness
enhance their
letic can be achieved
capacity to
development from
reverse the
curricula to all approximately
cascading effects
youth. 15 minutes of
of physical
INT twice
inactivity and its
Possible weekly (30,29).
associated
Solutions to thenegative health Therefore, some
Problem. form of targeted
outcomes
Cumulatively, it(32,129). ath-letic
would seem that development
Within
the content of training should
existing physical
existing be creatively
education
education incorporated into
curricula, what
curricula and the all physical
could be viewed
knowledge of education classes
as “athletic
practitioners (e.g., dynamic
development” is
responsible for warm-up
often termed
the delivery of activities) and
health-related
not just limited
exercise (HRE)
to independent
and is typically
blocks of HRE
delivered in
teaching.
discrete units of
The
work across a
development of
single school
athletic potential
term (94), often
in school-age
by practitioners
youth should be
without the
viewed as a
relevant
long-term
expertise in
process. To
long-term ath-
adopt some form
letic
of periodization
development.
to the school
These units of
physical
work are then
education
replaced with
system,
more traditional
practitioners
units of seasonal
should view the
sports (e.g.,
school career of
rugby, soccer, or
youth as amicrocycle (5–7 practitioners
sequence ofdays). Although working within a
multiyear plans:such an approach school system
(1) primarymay ini-tially should ensure
school years andseem complex that children are
(2) years spentand unrealistic, exposed to
in secondaryusing this type of varied practices
education. Byperio-dized that focus on
integrating aapproach to developing a
long-term school-based broad range of
periodized physical athletic motor
approach withineducation should skill
the schooloffset the competencies
system, chances of (AMSC (78);
practitioners canexposing youth Figure 1) and
structure to isolated appropriate
sequential blocks of HRE levels of muscle
annual curriculathat fail to strength. Such an
to progressivelyproduce long- approach is
build on theterm gains above illustrated within
athletic potentialand beyond that the Composite
of all youth.of growth and Youth
Within eachmaturation. Development
school year, Of interest to (CYD) model
practitioners canthe practitioner presented in part
then design eachis how 1 of this com-
term to serve asphilosophies mentary. Within
a structuredfrom athletic the primary
mesocycle development education sector,
(typically 4–8modeling (58) such practice
weeks), withcan be integrated
VOLUME
each teachingwithin school- 29 |
NUMBER
week based physical 5 | MAY
representing aeducation. 2015 |

structured Initially,
1459

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