The Short Story

Rationale
Why it is important for you to learn this material.

In order to understand a short story, you as a reader should have an appreciation of the
theory of the short story. Only then can this theory be applied to any story you read. It
will give you a greater understanding of the author's intent.

Learning Outcome
Here is what you will be able to do at the end of this module.

Analyze a short story by applying short story theory to what you read. The student will do
this by using a variety of methods:

 Explore thoughts, ideas, feelings and experiences

 Comprehend literature
 Manage ideas and information
 Create oral, print texts to enhance the clarity and artistry of communication
 Respect, support and collaborate with others


Learning Objectives
Here is what you will learn to do in order to achieve the learning outcome.

 Describe the theory elements of a short story.

 Increase story understanding by applying various reading strategies.
 Describe the context of words used in a short story.
 Read a short story to identify setting and its significance to the understanding of
the story.
 Determine the point of view of a short story and its impact on the telling of the
story.
 Read a short story to describe specific events in the development of plot.
 Describe the literary device of irony.
 Describe the protagonist of a short story.
 Understand why dialogue is written in a specific format.
 Write dialogue correctly.
 Identify the theme of a short story.
 Write a statement of theme.
 Apply your understanding of the short story form in interpretative and response
activities.
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Prerequisites
Here is what you need to know before beginning this module.

An understanding of the theory of narrative writing

Resources
Materials and people needed to complete the module.

 Anderson, N. et al (2001) Literature and Media 10. Thomson Limited Canada.

Learning Activities
Preview of interactive materials in the module.

 Short Story Theory

 Reading the Short Story
 Setting and Point of View
 Plot
 Irony
 Character
 Dialogue in the Short Story
 Thematic Development

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Learning Activity: Short Story Theory

Learning Objectives
 Describe the theory elements of a short story.

Key Concepts
 An understanding of short story theory allows the reader greater comprehension
of the author's intent.
 A short story can be read in one sitting, has three to six characters and narrates an
incident or event.

Directions
1. Read Short Story Theory below.
2. Complete Exercise 1, Review of Short Story Theory. Check your answers with
the key.
3. Complete Exercise 2, Identifying Figurative Language. Check your answers
with the key.

Short Story Theory

A Short Story

 is fictional prose, which means it is not a poem

 is short; can be read at one sitting; narrates a single event or incident.
 usually contains three to six characters; has a conflict situation that causes
suspense; identifies who, what, where, when, and why.

The Essential Elements of a Short Story

Every story has events happening to characters in a time and place, which develop or
reveal ideas about life.

These are the necessary elements within a short story:

 Setting
 Mood
 Plot
 Characters
 Theme

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Setting

Setting is where and when the story happens. It can be very specific, such as Thursday,
December 12, 2002 at the Chinese Cultural Center in downtown Calgary, Alberta, or very
vague, such as a farmhouse in the spring. The setting can affect the characters, the plot
and the mood of the story.

Mood

The emotion the author intentionally wants the reader to feel - sad, humorous, spooky,
etc.

Plot

Plot is the storyline or sequence of events that take place during the story. It may be
simple or complicated. Plot is seldom the dominating element, except in murder
mysteries and adventure stories. It usually serves as a means for the storyteller to develop
character or theme. The plot of a story is based on conflict where the main character is
confronted by an opposing force. The opposing force may be a person or some other
element.

Short stories can be graphically represented on a plot diagram:

Exposition

The exposing of setting, characters, situation and mood. This information is usually found
in the beginning of the story. The main character is described, the author tells when and
where the story takes place and some brief information about the situation is provided. It
is from this brief introduction that you begin to sense the mood of the story.

Initial Incident
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The first indication or event that introduces the conflict in the story.

Conflict

Conflict is often categorized as follows

 Human versus Human (External Conflict): The protagonist (main character) is

pitted against some other character or group of characters (antagonist).
 Human versus Environment (External Conflict): The protagonist is pitted
against a larger external force, e.g., society, nature, fate.
 Human versus Himself/Herself (Internal Conflict): The protagonist is pitted
against himself/herself and some element in his/her nature.

Rising Action

The series of events and complications that build suspense and develop the conflict.

Climax

The point in the story where the conflict changes. For example, in a story where a
character can’t make a major decision, the climax is the point in the story where
something happens to make him able to do so.

Falling Action/Resolution

The events following the climax that see the conflict resolved.

Denouement

The wrapping up of all of the loose ends in the story. Not all stories will have a
denouement.

Other Plot terms

 Suspense: the feeling that is created when the reader knows that something is
going to happen, but doesn’t know what it is or when it will happen. Suspense is
often used by the author to keep the reader involved in the story.
 Flashback: the action of the story is interrupted to introduce an event that took
place before the story began. It serves mainly to give the reader background
information about characters and conflict.
 Foreshadowing: hints of what is going to happen later in the short story.
 Dilemma: a special type of conflict. The character must make a decision between
two actions. It is like being between a rock and a hard place.

Characters

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Characterization is the type of people in story. Characters can be:

 Flat: the character is one-sided. The reader only knows one or two things about
him/her.
 Round: the character is fully developed/many-sided. The reader knows a lot of
detail about this person.
 Stereotypical: the character is easily recognized by his/her appearance. For
example, a story might have a cowboy as one of the characters. Without knowing
much about the character, the reader could make assumptions about him—he
works with horses and cows, he likes working by himself, he owns a horse trailer
and a pickup truck, he knows how to dance western style, etc. This type of
character is not usually the main character of a story. He or she is most likely an
extra character used to advance the plot of the story.
 Static: static characters do not change throughout the story. They are the same at
the end as they were at the beginning of the story.
 Developing: the character changes during the story.

Character Development

This is how the reader comes to know and understand the characters within the story.
Characters may be revealed to the reader in five ways:

1. What a character says

2. What a character does
3. What a character thinks
4. What others say about the character
5. What the author says about the character. The author uses analysis or explanation.

Functions of Character

The main character, or force, may be referred to as the protagonist. The protagonist can
be a hero, who is a main character with an admirable character, or an anti-hero, a main
character who is a rogue or scoundrel. The character, or force, which is pitted against the
main character is the antagonist.

Theme

Theme is the point of the story, novel, poem, play, etc. It often makes a comment about
life or human behaviour (a basic truth). Theme is a general comment about life.

Theme must be:

 General (fit as many situations as possible)

 Qualified with words like: "sometimes, usually, often" (Never use the words
"always" or "never.")
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  Supported by the events of the story

Theme is not a summary of events. It does not describe main action. It does not teach a
moral or lesson (i.e., never say "..should not do..." etc.) When finding a thematic
statement, consider the following:

 Title—pick out key (important) words

 Main conflict and how it is resolved
 Main character—what we discover about the character

Note: You, as the reader, do not have to agree with the theme the author has presented.
However, you should consider it. There is value in knowing what the world looks like to
other people. You are considering the model of reality created by that author to best
explain his or her reason for writing.

Style of the Short Story

Imagery

Imagery is the pictures that the reader sees in his/her mind while reading the story.
Imagery uses the five senses to create images:

Sight The sunset was a mix of mauve, pink and baby blue.
Hearing The crunch-crunch-crunch of the snow under his boots told me he was close.
Smell The scent of gingerbread and cloves filled the kitchen.
Touch The sweater was velvety smooth.
Taste I cringed at the bite and bitterness of the lemon.

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Exercise 1
Review of Short Story Theory

The exercise below is based on How to Read a Short Story.

1. In a complete sentence, define "short story." Include three details.

2. Describe what the emotion the author intentionally wants the reader to feel is
called.
3. Name the two opposing forces in a short story.
4. Describe two things a theme should be.
5. Match the terms below with the appropriate explanation:

Theme a. How the author writes

Style b. The point of the story
c. The emotional atmosphere of the story
Setting d. The types of people in the story
Mood e. Where and when the story happens
Plot f. The storyline
Characterization

See Answer Key.

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How to Read a Short Story
Pre-reading

Before you read the story, it can be helpful to do the following:

1. Look the story over.

o Look at the title; does it give you any ideas about what it might be about?
o Are there any pictures in the story that might help you understand the
story?
2. Have you been given any pre-reading questions or suggestions? If you have,
complete them before you read the story. If you have not, look ahead to the
questions you are suppose to answer once you finish reading the story. This can
help you focus your attention on the story and increase your understanding and
memory of the plot, characters and theme.

Reading

Guidelines for Reading

1. Carefully read the beginning of the story. For what purposes does the author use
the beginning?
o To introduce character?
o To announce setting?
o To give background facts?
o To establish an atmosphere?
o To create a dominant impression?
2. Protagonist
o Identify the protagonist(s).
o What does she/he want?
o What is in his/her way? (Notice external and internal forces that occur.)
3. Plot
o Identify the climactic incident.
o In an attempt to gain an objective, what important choice does the
protagonist make during this incident?
o What does the protagonist gain/lose as a result of this choice?
4. Ending
o Does the story have an ending?
o For what purpose has it been used?
o Is the ending in any way connected the beginning?
5. Subject
o What is the subject of the story?
o What is its theme?
o Are the characters simple or complex?
o Have they a number of characteristics that produce conflict?

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 6. Theme
oIn the manner (style) of telling the story, has the author suggested the
theme by any of the following stylistic features: diction, both choice and
meaning of special tone, or figurative language?
7. Vocabulary
o Has the instructor listed words from the story that you need to define?
o Are there words in the story that are new to you?
o Have you used context clues and a dictionary to define the instructor’s list
of words and your list of words?
o Did you use each of the words in a sentence of your own invention?

Post-reading

After you have finished reading the story, complete the exercises that have been assigned.
If you have applied pre-reading and reading strategies, you should be able to answer the
questions with little trouble. If you have problems understanding the assignment, ask for
help. Your classmates and instructor are excellent resources.

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Figurative Language

Figurative Language is non-literal language involving comparisons. Some common

figures of speech or literary devices used by writers are:

1. Simile: a direct comparison between two unlike things using a comparing word
(like, as, than).
Example: "My love is like a red, red rose." When Robert Burns wrote this line, he
did not mean that his love was literally like a flower, but by comparing her to one,
he conveys the idea of her beauty.
Many common expressions are examples of similes:
"That story is older than the hills."
"Bob is as cool as a cucumber."
2. Metaphor: an indirect comparison where one thing is said to be another.
Example: Robert Burns could have said, "My love is a red, red rose," and we still
would have understood the comparison.
Further examples:
o "Life is a bowl of cherries."
o "He is a tower of strength."
3. Personification: is the assignment of human characteristics to things or animals.
Examples: "The wind whispered to the trees." William Wordsworth described
daffodils as "Tossing their heads in sprightly dance."
In doing so, he attributed physical heads and human activities to them.

Symbolism

A symbol is something that represents something else. For example, a dove is often a
symbol of peace, the maple leaf is a symbol of Canada, and the black hat is a symbol for
the bad guy in old western movies. Symbols are used in stories to bring another level of
meaning to the story.

Figurative Language Exercise

Identifying Figurative Language

For each of the lines below, identify whether figurative language is used. Use S for
simile, M for metaphor, P for personification, or E if the statement is just a descriptive
expression.

1. He felt like the symptoms on an aspirin bottle.

2. George constantly wears his heart on his sleeve.
3. Terry goes to bed at 10:00 p.m. every evening.
4. My car is a real sweetheart.
5. William Shakespeare wrote many famous plays.
6. I couldn't make heads or tails out of what he was saying.
7. Brenda has the student council election in the bag.

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 8. Words have individuality, a personality of their own.
9. The human mind should be like a good hotel—open the year round.
10. He slept like a log after running in the marathon.
11. His mind works like a machine.
12. The weather was balmy and beautiful all week long.
13. Her eyes were as sparkling as diamonds.
14. As the clouds drifted, a sudden flood of moonlight revealed his figure in the
doorway.
15. The stars looked like specks of dust on black velvet.
16. Bob's sister spilled the beans; now he is being punished.
17. After finishing work, everyone gathered at the new restaurant.
18. The teachers felt as though they were drowning in paper.

See Answer Key.

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Learning Activity: Setting and Point of View

Learning Objectives
 Read a short story to identify setting and its significance to the understanding of
the story.
 Determine the point of view of a short story and its impact on the telling of the
story.

Key Concepts
Both the setting of a short story and the point of view from which the story is told are
important to the understanding of the story. Setting helps determine the mood of the story
and can influence the progression of plot. Point of view has direct bearing on how the
events of the story are presented to the audience.

Directions
1. Read Point of View below
2. Read "The First Day," a short story by Edward P. Jones, in Literature and Media
10.
3. Complete Comprehension Questions for "The First Day." When you are finished
check your answers with the key.

Point of View

Point of view indicates who is telling the story (the narrator). The narrator can be:

First Person

A character in the story is telling the story. You can tell that the point of view is
first person if the narrator uses the word "I" in the telling of the story.

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Limited Omniscient

A narrator who knows the thoughts and feelings of one character (usually the main
character) tells the story. The omniscient narrator uses "he", "she", "they" or a
person’s name in the telling of the story.

Omniscient

The narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of several characters in the story. This
narrator also uses "he", "she", "they" or a person’s name in the telling of the story.

Objective

An objective narrator does not make any comments about the action or characters in
the story. He/she does not know the thoughts or feelings of any character. This point
of view is much like a video camera, recording sights and sounds only.

Comprehension Questions for "The First Day"

General Comprehension Questions

1. Find five examples of imagery that appeal to the five senses.

2. In the first two pages, what background information does the author give us about
this mom and daughter?
3. Explain the statement: "I see her eyes in the closing gate."
4. Explain the statement: "I know almost all her looks, but this one is new to me."
5. Explain the statement: "My mother is now diseased." (p. 63)
6. What is the significance of the mom offering 50 cents and the woman accepting
it?
7. Who are the women "out of the Ebony ads"?
8. Do you think the mother and daughter like the teacher? Explain.
9. Why didn’t the mom take part in their old game of saying goodbye?

Focus Questions

10. Who is telling the story? What point of view is this?

11. What is the setting of the story?
12. Why does the mother want her daughter to attend school at Seaton?
13. What are the mother’s feelings about the Walker-Jones school when they first
arrive? Does that feeling change at the end of the story?
14. What is the significance of the last sentence, "I can still hear my mom’s footsteps
above it all"?

See Answer Key.

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Learning Activity: Plot

Learning Objectives
 Read a short story to describe specific events in the development of plot.

Key Concepts
It is the plot which explains the sequence of events in a short story and which lets the
reader see the development of the conflict.

Directions
1. Read the story, "Just Lather, That’s All," by Hernando Tellez, in Literature and
Media 10.
2. Complete “Just Lather” questions. When you are finished, compare your
answers with the key.

“Just Lather” questions

1. Provide details from the first paragraphs which:

a. introduce main characters
b. announce setting
c. give background facts
d. 10 words or phrases that establish atmosphere/mood
2. Who is the protagonist?

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 3. Complete the chart below using elements from "Just Lather, That’s All."

Element Explanation

1. Conflicts 1. vs.

2. vs.

3. vs.
2. Protagonist
3. Antagonist
4. Conflict (external or internal)
5. Setting
6. Mood

4. What is the central conflict of the story?

5. What is the barber’s dilemma?
6. What happens at the end of the story?
7. Why did the barber make the choice he made?
8. A protagonist's character (moral makeup) is revealed indirectly in many ways.
What does each of the following tell us about the barber’s character?
a. What he does:

He took care pride in shaving the captain "carefully, gently, like that of
any customer".

b. What he says:

"Do you plan to punish them all?"

c. What he thinks:

"My destiny depends on the edge of this blade."

"…I don’t want blood on my hands. Just lather, that’s all."

d. What others say about him:

"They told me that you’d kill me. I came to find out. But killing isn’t easy.
You can take my word for it."
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 9. Has the barber changed by the end of the story?

See Answer Key.

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Learning Activity: Irony

Learning Objectives
 Describe the literary device of irony.

Key Concepts
Irony is a literary technique based on contrast.

 Verbal irony: the actual intent is expressed in words which carry the opposite
meaning, similar to sarcasm except that sarcasm is harsher. An example of verbal
irony is "What great weather we’re having!" said after a week of pouring rain.
 Situational irony: the situation may have an opposite outcome to what the
character, or the reader, expected. e.g., the "Casanova" character, great lover,
loses the girl.

Directions
1. Complete Comprehension Questions, which will help you explore irony in the
short story, "Just Lather, That’s All." When you are finished, compare your
answers with the key.

Comprehension Questions

1. Who is the narrator? What is his secret?

2. Describe the setting.
3. Why isn’t the setting more fully developed?
4. What point of view is the story told from? How does this impact the story?
5. How is the ending ironic?
6. How does our perception of the captain change at the end of the story?

See Answer Key.

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Learning Activity: Character

Learning Objectives
 Describe the protagonist of a short story.

Key Concepts
Understanding the motivations and conflicts that a protagonist faces and the challenges
presented by antagonists are keys to the understanding of the short story.

Directions
1. Read the story "Dancer" in Literature and Media 10.
2. Answer the questions in Dancer Comprehensive Questions. When you are
finished, compare your answers with the key.

Dancer Comprehension Questions

1. Who is telling the story?

2. Who is Clarissa?
3. What type of character is Clarissa?
4. Describe Clarissa at the beginning of the story?
5. How is Clarissa’s character developed?
o What does she do?
o What does she say?
o What do others say or think about her?
6. What changes do we see in Clarissa’s attitude and behaviour?
7. What is significant when Clarissa states, "I’m an Assiniboin"?
8. Who is Molly Graybull?
9. What type of character is Molly Graybull?
10. Who is the old Eagle Spirit Woman who comes to Clarissa?
11. The Story ends with an extended metaphor. Explain the metaphor. How can
Molly Graybull and Clarissa be the same age?
12. Why is poor grammar and sentence structure an important part of the story?

See Answer Key.

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Learning Activity: Dialogue in the Short Story

Learning Objectives
 Understand why dialogue is written in a specific format.
 Write dialogue correctly.

Key Concepts
Dialogue is a very important element of a successful and enjoyable reading experience. It
is important to understand how and why dialogue is written in a particular format and
why it is important to record the words as they would actually be spoken.

Directions
1. Read Dialogue below.
2. Read the story "Lifeguard" in Literature and Media 10.
3. Answer the Lifeguard Comprehension Questions. When you are finished,
compare your answers with the key.

Dialogue

Dialogue represents the words spoken by characters. People quite often do not speak with
grammatical correctness, and since the author wants to paint a true picture of the
character, the words spoken by the characters are not subject to the same grammatical
rules as the rest of the story. The way the author writes what a character says may help
the reader determine the age, level of education, ethnicity, region/community in which
he/she lives and makes the character plausible.

Punctuating Dialogue

Look over dialogue in the various stories that you have read in this module. What
similarities do you notice?

 A new paragraph is started every time a new character speaks.

 Punctuation is enclosed inside the quotation marks when it is part of the direct
speech.
 Comments about the speaker are set off with commas.
 A comma or end punctuation mark comes inside the final set of quotation marks.
 Make sure that quotation marks are put around only what the character says.
 Note the labels on the diagram below.

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Comprehension Questions

1. What is the irony at the beginning of the story?

2. What is the point of view in this story?
3. List three bits of background information we learn about the lifeguard.
4. Why do you think Mike is always after Chris?
5. Why, do you suppose, was Chris’ dad at the pool?
6. Explain the term "someone who wasn’t wrapped too tight!!" (Page 24)
7. What is Chris’ reaction to the older lifeguard’s warning?
8. Why did Chris visit Mike in the hospital and the home when he states he doesn’t
like children and doesn’t appear to like Mike?
9. Explain why seeing his father "clinched it" for Chris during his tryout for the
diving team.
10. What causes Mike to finally respond to Chris?
11. What does Chris anticipate Mike to do when Mike walks to the deep end of the
pool?
12. What "lower" part of Chris is giving him a message? (Page 31)
13. At the end of the story, how does Chris feel about his father?
14. By the end of the story, how has Chris changed?

See Answer Key.

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Learning Activity: Thematic Development

Learning Objectives
 Identify the theme of a short story.
 Write a statement of theme.

Key Concepts
Theme is the underlying idea in a short story. It is the reason why an author writes a
story. In the modern short story, theme is never directly stated but must be inferred from
the motivation of the main character, from the conflict in the story, and/or from the title
of the story.

Directions
1. Read Theme below
2. Complete Comprehension Questions and check your answers with the key.

Theme

Theme is the point of the story, novel, poem, play, etc. It often makes a comment about
life or human behaviour (a basic truth). Theme is a general comment about life.

Theme must be:

 General (fit as many situations as possible)

 Qualified with words like: "sometimes, usually, often" (Never use the words
"always" or "never.")
 Supported by the events of the story

Theme is not a summary of events. It does not describe main action. It does not teach a
moral or lesson (i.e., never say, "should not do..." etc.) When finding a thematic
statement, consider the following:

 Title — pick out key (important) words

 Main conflict and how it is resolved
 Main character — what we discover about the character

Note: You, as the reader, do not have to agree with the theme the author has presented.
However, you should consider it. There is value in knowing what the world looks like to

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other people. You are considering the model of reality created by that author to best
explain his or her reason for writing.

Comprehension Questions
General Comprehension Questions

1. Who is telling this story?

2. Why are they so excited?
3. What act is the most exciting?
4. How does the author build the suspense of the wrestling bear and the train? Give
three examples.
5. What is the language the children didn’t understand?
6. What does Monsieur Rancourt do to help the communication?
7. What happened to the circus bear?
8. What similarities, do you notice, of both the French and English when each is
reacting to a catastrophe?
9. What were the children doing that thrilled them and broke down the language
barrier?
10. Why were the children helping set up the circus?
11. How was the bear reacting to being brought back to the camp?
12. What was the cry that couldn’t translate?
13. Why did Dr. Shultz let out a cry?
14. In the end what happened to the bear?
15. What happened to Dr. Shultz?
16. Why were the men laughing?
17. Explain the last sentence "that bear was a bear that talked English, though,
because I didn’t understand a single word he said".
18. What underlying Canadian issue is this story dealing with?

See Answer Key.

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