Religions of the Ancient Near East

The Religions of the Ancient Near East were mostly polytheistic, with some early examples of primitive
Monolatry (Mardukites), Ashurism and Monism (Atenism). Some scholars believe that the similarities
between these religions indicate that the religions are related, a belief known as patternism.[1]

Especially the Luwian pantheon exerted a strong influence on the Ancient Greek religion, while
Assyro-Babylonian religion influenced Achaemenid-era Zoroastrianism and Judaism.
Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek traditions in turn strongly influenced Christianity.

The history of the Ancient Near East spans more than two millennia, from the Bronze Age to the
Early Iron Age, in the region now known as the Middle East, centered around the Fertile
Crescent. There was much cultural contact, so that it is justified to summarize the whole region
under a single term, but that does not mean, of course, that each historical period and each region
should not be looked at individually for a detailed description. This article will attempt to outline
the common traits of Ancient Near Eastern religions, and refer to sub-articles for in-depth
descriptions.

The Ancient Near East includes the following subregions:

 Mesopotamia (Sumer, Assyria, Babylonia and Akkad): Assyro-Babylonian religion,

Sumerian religion, Mesopotamian mythology
 Elam
 Ancient Egypt: Ancient Egyptian religion
 The Levant (Canaan, Ugarit, Ebla, Mitanni): Canaanite religion
 Anatolia (the Hittite Empire, Assuwa, Arzawa): Hittite mythology, Hurrian mythology
 the Caucasus and the Armenian Highland (Urartu)
 Cyprus, Crete (Minoan civilization): Minoan religion

Our earliest sources from ca. 2500 BC allow glimpses of Mesopotamian mythology and
Egyptian Religion

The early Hittite religion bore traits descended from Proto-Indo-European religion, but the later
Hittite religions became more and more assimilated to Assyria.

Ancient Greek religion was strongly influenced by Ancient Near Eastern mythology, but is
usually not included in the term. The Mystery religions of Hellenism were again consciously
connected with Egyptian religion.

There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common:

 Purification and cleansing rituals

 Sacrifices (plant and animal sacrifice, libations, rarely, but prominently in mythology, human
sacrifice)
 Polytheism (Though Egypt and Greece were Henotheistic societies)
 State (city state) sponsored religions (theocracy)
  Sacred prostitution
 Divination
 Magic (invocations, conjurings and Talismans)

Typically, Ancient Near Eastern religions were centered around theocracies, with a dominating
regional cult of the god of a city-state. There were also super-regional mythemes and deities,
such as the God Tammuz and the descent to the underworld.

Divinations:

 Apantomancy: seeing animals

 Cleromancy: drawing lots
 Hepatoscopy: observing the liver of an animal
 Nephomancy: cloud-watching
 Ornithomancy: watching birds in flight
 Capnomancy: divination through smoke
 Oneiromancy: divination through dreams

Astrology
Identification of the Gods and Goddesses with heavenly bodies — planets and stars, besides
Sun and Moon — and to assigning the seats of all the deities in the Heavens is found in
Assyro-Babylonian religion.

The personification of the two great luminaries — the Sun and the Moon — was the first step in
the unfolding of this system, and this was followed by placing the other deities where Shamash
and Sin had their seats. This process, which reached its culmination in the post-Hammurabic
period, led to identifying the Planet Venus with Ishtar, Jupiter with Marduk, Mars with Nergal,
Mercury with Nabu, and Saturn with Ninurta.

The system represents a harmonious combination of two factors, one of popular origin, the other
the outcome of speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia. The popular
factor is the belief in the influence exerted by the movements of the heavenly bodies on
occurrences on earth — a belief naturally suggested by the dependence of life, vegetation and
guidance upon the two great luminaries. Starting with this belief the Priests and Priestesses built
up the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on earth and phenomena in the
Heavens. The Heavens presenting a constant change even to the superficial observer, the
conclusion was drawn of a connection between the changes and the everchanging movement in
the fate of individuals and of nature as well as in the appearance of nature.

To read the signs of the Heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on
Earth, and with this accomplished, it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by
the position and relationship to one another of Sun, Moon, Planets and certain stars. Myths that
symbolized changes in season or occurrences in nature were projected on the heavens, which
were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the Earth.

All the Gods, Demons and Spirits had their places assigned to them in the Heavens, and facts,
including such as fell within the domain of political history, were interpreted in terms of astral
theology. So completely did this system in the course of time sway men's minds that the Cults
and Sects, from being an expression of animistic beliefs, took on the color derived from the
"astral" interpretation of occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in incantations, omens and
hymns, and it gave birth to astronomy, which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of
the heavens was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia
and Assyria.

"Chaldaean wisdom" became, in the classical world, the synonym of this science, which in its
character was so essentially religious. The persistent prominence which astrology continued to
enjoy down to the border-line of the scientific movement of our own days, and which is directly
traceable to the divination methods perfected in the Euphrates valley, is a tribute to the scope and
influence attained by the astral theology of the Babylonian and Assyrian priests.

As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the religion were made to conform to
the all-pervading astral theory, it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this
process of the view developed in a very early period which apportioned the control of the
universe among the three Gods Anu, Enlil and Ea. Disassociating these Gods from all local
connections, Anu became the power presiding over the Heavens, to Enlil was assigned the earth
and the atmosphere immediately above it, while Ea ruled over the deep. With the transfer of all
the Gods to the heavens, and under the influence of the doctrine of the correspondence between
the heavens and the earth, Anu, Enlil and Ea became the three "ways" (as they are called) on the
heavens.

The "ways" appear in this instance to have been the designation of the ecliptic circle, which was
divided into three sections or zones — a northern, a middle and a southern zone, Anu being
assigned to the first, Enlil to the second, and Ea to the third zone. The astral theology of the
Babylonian-Assyrian religion, while thus bearing the ear-marks of a system devised by the
priests, succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which represented the earlier attempts to
systematize the more popular aspects of the religion, and in this way a unification of diverse
elements was secured that led to interpreting the contents and the form of the religion in terms of
the astral-theological system.

Ethic

On the ethical sides, the religion of Babylonia more particularly, and to a less extent that of
Assyria, advances to noticeable conceptions of the qualities associated with the Gods and
Goddesses and of the duties imposed on man. Shamash, the Sun-God, was invested with justice
as his chief trait, Marduk is portrayed as full of mercy and kindness, and Ea is in general the
protector of mankind, a father who takes them under his protection. The Gods, to be sure, are
easily aroused to anger, and in some of them the dire aspects predominated, but the view
becomes more and more pronounced that there is some cause always for the divine wrath.
Though, in accounting for the anger of the Gods, no sharp distinction is made between moral
offences and a ritualistic oversight or neglect, yet the stress laid in the hymns and prayers, as
well as in the elaborate atonement ritual prescribed in order to appease the anger of the Gods, on
the need of being clean and pure in the sight of the higher powers, the inculcation of a proper
aspect of humility, and above all the need of confessing one's guilt and sins without any reserve
— all this bears testimony to the strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the
Religion.

This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the views concerning life after
death. Throughout all periods of Babylonian-Assyrian history, the conception prevailed of a
large dark cavern below the earth, not far from the Apsu— the fresh water abyss encircling
and flowing underneath the earth — in which all the dead were gathered and where they led
a miserable existence of inactivity, amid gloom and dust. Occasionally a favoured individual
was permitted to escape from this general fate and placed in a pleasant island. It would
appear also that the rulers were always singled out for divine grace, and in the earlier
periods of the history, owing to the prevailing view that the rulers stood nearer to the Gods
than other mortals, the kings were deified after death, and in some instances divine honours
were paid to them even during their lifetime

Demonology

Ancient Near Eastern religion knew an elaborate system of benevolent, neutral and malevolent
Demons (which more resembled Greek Daemons than the Christian concept of Evil Demons),
and much of medicine consisted of Exorcisms, e.g. of Lamashtu, the hermaphroditic Demoness
responsible for complications at childbirth and infant deaths.

In Chaldean mythology the seven evil Demons were known as Shedu, meaning "Storm-Demon".
They were represented in winged bull form, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective
genii of royal palaces, the name "Shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in
Babylonian magical literature.[2]

Later influence

The influence exerted by the Babylonian-Assyrian religion was particularly profound on the
Semites, while the astral theology affected the ancient world in general, including the Greeks and
Romans. The impetus to the purification of the old Semite religion to which the Hebrews for a
long time clung in common with their fellows — the various branches of nomadic Arabs — was
largely furnished by the remarkable civilization unfolded in the Euphrates valley and in many of
the traditions, myths and legends embodied in the Old Testament; traces of direct borrowing
from Babylonia may be discerned, while the indirect influences in the domain of the prophetical
books, as also in the Psalms and in the so-called "wisdom literature", are even more noteworthy.

Even when we reach the New Testament period, we have not passed entirely beyond the sphere
of Babylonian-Assyrian influences. In such a movement as early Christian gnosticism, Assyrio-
Babylonian elements — modified, to be sure, and transformed — are largely present, while the
growth of an apocalyptic literature is ascribed with apparent justice by many scholars to the
recrudescence of views, the ultimate source of which is to be found in the astral-theology of the
Babylonian and Assyrian Priests.

Egypt

The dominant religious rituals and beliefs of Ancient Egypt merged and developed over time. As
an example, during the New Kingdom, the Gods Ra and Amun were syncretized into a single
God, Amun-Ra.[3] Such syncretism should be distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to
as "families" such as Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Over time, Gods took part in multiple syncretic
relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and Horus into Ra-Herakty. Similarly, Ptah,
Seker, and Osiris becamePtah-Seker-Osiris.

Anatolia

Heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology, the religion of the Hittites and Luwians retains
noticeable Indo-European elements, for example Tarhunt the God of thunder, and his conflict
with the Serpent-God Illuyanka.

Tarhunt has a son, Telepinu and a daughter, Inara. Inara is involved with the Puruli spring
festival. She is a protective Goddess (dLAMMA). Ishara is a Goddess of the oath.