Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120

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The refrigerant R1234yf in air conditioning systems

Claudio Zilio a, *, J. Steven Brown b, Giovanni Schiochet a, Alberto Cavallini a
a
Dipartimento di Fisica Tecnica, Università di Padova, Via Venezia, 1, I-35131 Padova, Italy
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 20064, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Experiments were conducted for a typical R134a compact European automotive air conditioning system
Received 1 March 2011 equipped with an internally controlled variable displacement compressor, minichannel condenser, TXV,
Received in revised form and minichannel evaporator. A “drop-in” R1234yf system was tested together with two modified R1234yf
2 August 2011
systems with the primary goal to document some laboratory results and their analyses which could
Accepted 4 August 2011
Available online 27 August 2011
prove useful in aiding manufacturers and researchers by indicating “minor” system modifications which
could be implemented in existing air conditioning systems, with the aim to achieve with R1234yf similar
capacity and efficiency as modern R134a systems. Since the experimental results indicate that, for a given
Keywords:
Air conditioning
cooling capacity, R1234yf systems present lower performance than the baseline R134a, numerical
Automobile simulations were used to investigate the effects of “major” system modifications, such as, the use of an
R1234yf enhanced condenser and/or an enhanced evaporator.
R134a Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Over the last several years, much research and development
effort has been focused on potential refrigerants possessing low
Global Warming Potentials (GWPs). As discussed in [1], the catalyst
for much of this effort can be attributed to European regulations
regarding the use of R134a (GWP relative to CO2 based on a 100-
year time horizon, which is the reference that will be used
throughout this paper, is 1430 [2]) in automotive applications. In
particular, the European Union’s F-gas regulations [3,4] specify that
beginning on January 1, 2011 new models and on January 1, 2017
new vehicles fitted with air conditioning cannot be manufactured
with fluorinated greenhouse gases having global warming poten-
tials (GWP) greater than 150. Possible candidate refrigerants that
possess GWP < 150, and that are being considered, include R-152a,
R-744 (CO2), and R1234yf. R-152a has been investigated in the
recent years in several applications [5], anyway, if used in air
conditioning applications, would likely be implemented in
a secondary loop system because of its flammability. R-744, if used,
would likely be implemented in a transcritical cycle requiring
significant modifications to the currently used automotive air
conditioning systems [6] because of its considerably different
thermophysical properties when compared to R134a. Among the
fluorinated propene isomers which have normal boiling point
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ39 049 827 6893; fax: þ39 049 827 6896.
E-mail address: claudio.zilio@unipd.it (C. Zilio).
temperature data published in the public domain, several have low
GWP and normal boiling temperatures relatively close to R134a
(from about 3.7
C lower to about 8
C higher); however, among
them, R1234yf is the one closest to commercialization (its normal
boiling temperature is approximately 3.7
C lower than that of
R134a). It has a GWP of 4 [7] and is being widely considered as
a possible replacement for R134a in automotive applications or as
a component in non-azeotropic mixtures for heat pump applica-
tions [8].
To-date, researchers and manufacturers have focused their
R1234yf research and development efforts primarily on charac-
terizing its flammability, toxicity, environmental impact, materials
compatibility, oil compatibility, air conditioning system perfor-
mance, thermophysical property data, and in the developing of
simple equations of state (EoS). Excluding thermophysical property
data and EoS modeling, much of the remaining published work has
been presented by chemical manufacturers and vehicle manufac-
turers through organizations such as VDA (German Association of
the Automotive Industry), SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers),
and JAMA (Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association). For
example, VDA organizes an annual alternative refrigerant winter
meeting where chemical manufacturers and vehicle manufacturers
have presented some of their R1234yf work beginning with its
February 2008 meeting. SAE [9] through its Cooperative Research
Program CRP 1234-1, CRP 1234-2 and CRP 1234-3 has focused its
efforts on safety and risk assessment, air conditioning system
performance, and materials compatibility, with much of this work
having been presented at an annual automotive alternate

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2011.08.002
 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120
Nomenclature
COP Coefficient of Performance
CRP Cooperative Research Program
DISP geometric displacement volume per revolution (cm3)
DISP* displacement volume per revolution (cm3)
EoS Equation of State
GWP Global Warming Potential
m_ mass flow rate (kg s1)
N rotational speed (RPM)
OCR Oil Circulation Ratio (%)
P pressure (kPa, MPa)
PAG Polyalkylene Glycol
POE Polyol Ester
Q cooling capacity (kW)
R (hv DISP/DISPmax)  100
RH Relative Humidity (%)
TXV Thermal Expansion Valve
T temperature (
C)
refrigerant systems symposium beginning with its June 2008
meeting. In the previously mentioned work, the researchers, for the
most part, have concluded that R1234yf appears to be a promising
candidate to replace R134a in automotive applications, with SAE
[10] concluding R1234yf “can be used as the global replacement
refrigerant in future mobile air conditioning systems and it can be
safely accommodated through established industry standards and
practices for vehicle design, engineering, manufacturing, and
service.” Notwithstanding the preceding statement, several issues
are still being investigated through ongoing research and devel-
opment work. R1234yf, for example, has somewhat lower ther-
modynamic performance (e.g., Bang [11]) showed that the cooling
capacity of R1234yf is 3e7% lower and its COP is 1e3% lower than
R134a when used as a “drop-in” replacement for R134a. However,
Meyer [12] showed that with relatively simple system modifica-
tions the cooling capacity and COP of R1234yf could be made
approximately equal to the baseline R134a values. Along these
same lines, more recently, Petitjean and Benouali [13] experimen-
tally studied the effects of using an improved condenser, an
improved evaporator, an adjusted (“tuned”) Thermal Expansion
Valve (TXV), a modified compressor, and a liquid-line/suction-line
heat exchanger (llsl-hx) in an automotive air conditioning system.
Regarding the conventional heat exchangers, they concluded that
the condenser plays a much more important role than the evapo-
rator in the optimization of the R1234yf performance. This also can
be seen from Cavallini et al. [14] who showed analytically and Del
Col et al. [15] who showed experimentally that the condensation
heat transfer coefficients for R1234yf can be up to 30% or so lower
than R134a at high vapor qualities at the same mass flux and
saturation temperature; however, Del Col et al. [15] showed
experimentally that the condensation heat transfer coefficients for
R1234yf are nearly the same as those of R134a for lower vapor
qualities or for single phase liquid heat transfer. Finally, Petitjean
and Benouali [13] also show that to optimize the R1234yf perfor-
mance, the TXV needs to be properly tuned, that the use of a llsl-hx
has a bigger impact for R1234yf than for R134a, and that the
compressor capacity needs to be properly adjusted. In conclusion,
they show that with properly designed and tuned components, the
R1234yf performance can match or even better that of R134a.
A second issue is the flammability of R1234yf, where testing has
shown that, while flammable, a significantly larger amount of
energy is required to ignite the refrigerant than for other common
Class 2 refrigerants [16]. While Addendum w to ANSI/ASHRAE
6111
y Variable that represents either COP, Cooling Capacity,
_
or m
Greek Symbols
 
yR1234yf  yR134a
3
yR134a
hV volumetric efficiency (%)
r density (kg m3)
Subscripts
air air
disch discharge
evap evaporator
in inlet
max maximum
out outlet
suc suction
sup superheat
Standard 34-2007 [17] specifies R1234yf with a Safety Classification
of A2, it is a likely candidate to receive a 2L Flammability Subclass
defined in Addendum ak to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-2007 [17].
Note: the 2L Flammability Subclass includes Class 2 refrigerants
with burning velocities 0.10 m s1.
A third issue is the environmental performance of R1234yf.
Koban [18] performed Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP)
simulations and has shown under her assumptions that R1234yf
results in reductions of 17e20% when compared to R134a.
Finally, the compatibility of R1234yf with common materials
and oils appears promising [16].
Recently, several research groups have begun publishing
R1234yf thermophysical property data. For example, Tanaka and
Higashi [19] measured its critical properties, saturation pressure
from 310 to 360 K, and surface tension from 273 to 340 K. Tanaka
et al. [20] measured its liquid isobaric heat capacity and its liquid
density from 310 to 360 K at pressures up to 5 MPa. Then, Akasaka
et al. [21] developed both a Patel-Teja EoS and an Extended Cor-
responding State EoS based on their research group’s data. Di Nicola
et al. [22] measured saturation pressures from 224 to 366 K. Fedele
et al. [23] measured saturation pressures for reduced temperatures
ranging from 0.67 to 0.93. Brown et al. [24,25] developed a simple
Peng-Robinson (P-R) EoS model coupled with group contribution
estimation techniques to easily and relatively accurately predict
thermophysical property data, which were then used to make
performance predictions in a typical automotive air conditioning
system [26]. Leck [27] used his employer’s data to develop
a Martin-Hou EoS and then used it to predict the performances for
several refrigeration examples. Hulse et al. [28] measured its critical
temperature, saturation pressure, liquid density, ideal gas heat
capacity, liquid viscosity, and surface tension, and then developed
an Extended Corresponding States EoS using their data.
2. Motivation for this study
Given the above, particularly the facts that (1) Zilio et al. [26],
through a numerical approach, and Petitjean and Benouali [13],
through an experimental approach, demonstrated that it is theo-
retically possible to achieve nearly the same cooling capacity and
COP for R1234yf and R134a with some system modifications, (2)
the deadlines established by European regulations are fast
approaching, and (3) the sponsors of SAE CRP 1234 have concluded
that R1234yf appears to be a promising global replacement
6112 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120

refrigerant for future automotive systems, one of the principal

questions that should interest automotive and component manu-
facturers, and which this paper will attempt to address, is if and
what “minor” system modifications would allow R1234yf to have
equal cooling capacity to R134a, while maintaining similar COP
values between the two systems, particularly for vehicles smaller
than ones considered in SAE CRP 1234.
It is worth mentioning that the transition from R134a to R1234yf
and the accompanying system modifications most likely will not
occur “instantaneously”, but will occur over several years similar to
the way the transition from R12 to R134a happened. It is also worth
remembering (see, e.g. [29]), that automotive manufacturers had to
make several system changes to accommodate R134a, including:
(1) introducing condensers with approximately 20% higher
condensing capacity in order to maintain similar operating pres-
sures, and thus allowing for the same compressors to be used and
(2) for TXV systems the valve settings had to be adjusted. Moreover,
as is well known, the mineral lubricants used with R12 systems had
to be replaced by synthetic POE or PAG oils (Note: it appears that
R1234yf will not require such a “revolutionary” change in the
lubricant). Other R134a system improvements have been intro-
duced over time, including the now widespread use of minichannel
heat exchangers and variable displacement compressors.
To-date, SAE CRP 1234-1,2,3 are the only publically available
studies from a large consortium of worldwide companies that had Fig. 1. Schematic of experimental apparatus.
the purpose to assess the performance potential of R1234yf in
existing automotive systems which have undergone only “minor”
changes. In particular, the baseline system used in SAE CRP 1234
was the same one considered in SAE CRP 150, namely, a Cadillac CTS humidification equipment, and associated controls, (2) a closed-
with a fixed displacement compressor and a cross-charged TXV. loop air circuit for the condenser, including centrifugal fan,
However for SAE CRP 1234, two “minor” changes were made to the chiller, electric resistance heater and associated controls, (3) the
baseline system in order to obtain the same cooling capacity as refrigerant circuit, including a minichannel evaporator, a mini-
R134a, namely, (1) the TXV spring preload was adjusted to increase channel condenser, a variable volume swash-plate compressor, and
the bulb pressure to a corresponding temperature of 0
C and (2) a TXV, all components from the air conditioning system of a typical
the compressor suction line diameter was increased. The SAE European compact automobile, and (4) the instrumentation
studies do not report results for a purely “drop-in” system. In system.
a different study (SAE ARCRP [9]), the not so minor change of The inlet air temperatures for both the evaporator and the
including a liquid-line/suction-line exchanger was considered for condenser are controlled using two closed-loop air circuits, whose
the R1234yf system. ductwork configurations provide uniform temperature and velocity
While the systems used in the previously mentioned SAE profiles at the inlet faces of the heat exchangers. The volumetric air
studies contained fixed displacement compressors, nowadays, flow rates are measured using ISA 1932 nozzles per ISO 5167-
many vehicles are equipped with variable displacement compres- 4:2003 [30] to accuracies of 0.8% of the measured values. A chiller
sors, where the stroke is modulated by the crankcase pressure. supplies conditioned water to a cross-flow heat exchanger to
With this discussion in mind, in this paper, the performance maintain the condenser inlet air temperature to near the desired
potentials of R134a and R1234yf are compared in a typical Euro- value. Then, a PID-controlled electric resistance heater located
pean compact automobile equipped with an internally controlled upstream from the condenser controls the inlet air temperature to
variable displacement compressor and minichannel condenser and the desired value. A separate, but similar, system controls the
evaporator. In particular, experimental data from the baseline evaporator inlet dry-bulb air temperature to the desired value. An
R134a system are compared to data from three systems: (i) the industrial vapor generator located sufficiently far upstream of the
baseline system operating with an optimal charge of R1234yf with evaporator to ensure uniform conditions at the evaporator inlet
the baseline TXV setting, (ii) the system of i with an optimal charge face controls the relative humidity. A grid of nine evenly spaced
of R1234yf with a TXV setting optimized for R1234yf, (iii) the type T thermocouples for the condenser and six for the evaporator
system of ii with the variable displacement compressor control are used to measure the mean inlet air temperature for the
valve deactivated. The experimental part of the analysis outlines respective heat exchanger. The air downstream from each heat
the limitations of systems i, ii, iii and indicates strategies for system exchanger is well-mixed prior to its temperature being measured
performance enhancement through “minor” system modifications. by separate grids of nine evenly spaced type T thermocouples. For
Then, one possible enhanced system is further investigated using both air circuits and for the refrigerant system, a Pt-100 platinum
a simulation model which was validated using the experimental resistance thermometer with an accuracy of 0.02
C was used to
results. calibrate the temperature measuring system (consisting of ther-
mocouple, electronic ice point and multimeter) to an accuracy of
3. Experimental apparatus 0.05
C. The relative humidity (RH) of the evaporator air circuit is
measured in two ways: (1) using a capacity transducer with an
Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the experimental apparatus, which accuracy of 3% RH and (2) using a load cell that measures the
consists of four basic systems: (1) a closed-loop air circuit for the amount of water condensed in a specified time with an accuracy of
evaporator, including centrifugal fan, electric resistance heater, 0.5 g.
 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120
Calibrated type T thermocouples measure the refrigerant
temperature immediately before and after each major component.
Diaphragm-type differential pressure transducers measure the
pressure drop across both the evaporator and the condenser to
accuracies of 0.1 kPa. Strain gauge pressure transducers measure
the absolute pressures in the evaporator to 0.8 kPa and in the
condenser to 1.6 kPa.
The refrigerant enthalpies are determined from measured
temperature and pressure values, where the refrigerant quantities
are calculated using a version of the P-R EoS of Brown et al. [24,25].
The predictions used in this paper are from 1% lower to þ1%
greater when compared to the saturation data of Di Nicola et al. [22]
over the temperature range from 220 to 360 K. The version used in
this paper is based on using the normal boiling point temperature
of Di Nicola et al. [22] and the critical state property data of Tanaka
and Higashi [19].
A Coriolis flow meter located in the liquid line measures the
refrigerant mass flow rate to an accuracy of 0.1% of the measured
value.
An asynchronous electric motor drives the compressor. An
optical system measures the compressor speed to an accuracy of
0.01% of the measured value and a torsiometer located on the
shaft that couples the electric motor with the compressor measures
the torque to an accuracy of 0.2 N m. The expanded uncertainty
on the mechanical power delivered to the refrigerant is less than 2%
for compressor speeds of 900 and 2500 RPM and less than 3% for
compressor speeds of 4000 RPM.
A desiccant-based drier and a sight glass are located between
the condenser and the mass flow meter.
The total expanded uncertainties for the airside heat transfer
rate measurements are 1%. The total expanded uncertainties for
the refrigerant-side heat transfer rate measurements are 4% for
the evaporator and 3% for the condenser, with the largest
contributor being the uncertainties in the thermodynamic property
estimates calculated using the P-R EoS of Brown et al. [21].
It is worth noting that while the tests were not conducted per
SAE J 2765-2008 [31], they were carried out per ASHRAE and ISO
standards that ensure accuracies as high as the ones required
by [31].
4. Test conditions
The system tested is a typical R134a based compact European
automobile, which had a nominal cooling capacity of 5.8 kW at
a compressor volumetric flow rate of 7.8 m3 h1. Four systems were
tested: (i) the baseline R134a system, (ii) the same system as i
operating with an optimal charge of R1234yf with the baseline TXV
setting, (iii) the system of ii operating with a TXV setting optimized
for R1234yf, and (iv) the system of iii operating with the variable
displacement compressor control valve deactivated. While the
operating conditions were not meant to exactly duplicate actual in-
vehicle conditions, they were chosen to cover typical European
conditions. In particular, they covered three compressor speeds,
three ambient temperatures (the inlet air temperature of both the
evaporator and the condenser), and two relative humidity values
for the evaporator inlet air stream. The evaporator and condenser
fan speeds (air mass flow rates) were held constant throughout the
tests (while this is not the case in a real vehicle, it reduced the
complexity of the test matrix while still allowing for a comparison
of the performance potential of R1234yf relative to R134a). Table 1
provides the operating conditions. Note: in the figures that follow,
the naming convention of Ambient Temperature/Relative
Humidity/Compressor Speed is used. For example, 15/80/900
represents the condition with an ambient temperature of 15
C, 80%
relative humidity, and a compressor speed of 900 RPM.
6113
Table 1
Operating conditions.
Evaporator air inlet 35
C & 40% RH 25
C & 80% RH 15
C & 80% RH
Evaporator air volumetric 400  3% 400  3% 400  3%
flow rate (m3 h1)
Condenser air inlet 35
C 25
C 15
C
Condenser air volumetric 1580  3% 1580  3% 1580  3%
flow rate (m3 h1)
Compressor speed (rpm) 900 2500 4000 900 2500 4000 900 2500 4000
5. Results and discussion
More than 140 steady-state tests were conducted. The energy
balances on the airside and refrigerant-side for both the evaporator
and the condenser differed by a maximum of 4%.
The R134a oil circulation ratio (OCR) was measured per ASHRAE
41.4e1986 (R2006) [32]. Similar measurements were not per-
formed for R1234yf since the experimental procedure consumes
considerable fluid, which was not available at the time of the tests.
Therefore, the R1234yf OCR values were assumed to be those of
R134a at the same compressor displacement, which are reported in
Table 2. The refrigerant/Polyalkylene Glycol (PAG) oil enthalpies for
both refrigerants were calculated per [31].
The optimal refrigerant charge was determined per [31] for each
of the four system configurations, where in each case the airside
conditions were fixed at 35
C and 40% relative humidity for both
the condenser and the evaporator. The air volumetric flow rates for
the condenser and the evaporator were 1600 m3 h1 and
400 m3 h1, respectively.
In what follows in the next several paragraphs, particular
attention will be paid to the variable displacement compressor
since its internal control valve with factory settings regulates the
compressor capacity based on R134a. In particular, the compres-
sor’s internal valve control action controls the displacement as
a function of the difference between the suction and discharge
pressures, while the compressor attempts to maintain the evapo-
ration pressure at a constant value. The suction pressure is simply
the evaporator outlet pressure reduced by the suction line pressure
drop. For fixed air inlet conditions and for a fixed TXV setting, the
evaporator pressure is a function of the refrigerant’s thermophys-
ical properties and the refrigerant mass flux, which affect both the
in-tube heat transfer coefficient and the refrigerant-side pressure
drop (and thus also the local saturation temperature).
For the internally controlled variable displacement compressor
used in this study, the possible working conditions are the ones
located in the upper part of Fig. 2, that is, operating conditions
located above line BC.
The position of line BC is fixed by the control valve setting:
adjustment of the spring moves the line BC either up or down
relative to its baseline position. Regardless, operating conditions
below line BC are not possible. Note that without changing the
valve setting, given that the R1234yf saturation temperature is
slightly different from that of R134a, lines AB and CD will result in
different refrigerant temperatures (since the pressure is fixed).
Therefore, the first thing to be verified is that line CD will not result
in a saturation temperature at the evaporator outlet below 0
C for
the given refrigerant.
Table 2
Oil Circulation Ratio (OCR).
Compressor speed (RPM) OCR (%)
900 3.0
2500 4.2
4000 4.5
6114 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120
Fig. 2. Relationship between the suction and discharge pressures for the internally
controlled variable displacement compressor.
Now, turning our attention to the compressor discharge, we
note that the discharge pressure is simply the condenser inlet
pressure increased by the discharge line pressure drop. The
condenser includes an integrated liquid receiver in the manifold,
separating the two-phase region from the subcooling region, such
that if the refrigerant charge is determined per [31], the tubes after
the separator will be fed with saturated liquid. Cavallini et al. [14]
showed theoretically, through an exergetic analysis, that for
a given condenser design (with desuperheating and two-phase
regions) with fixed saturation temperature that the heat flux
which can be rejected with R1234yf is lower than that of R134a.
Also, Zilio et al. [26] showed for an ideal vapor compression cycle
that the COP of R1234yf is lower than R134a, where the gap
worsens if the actual compressor isentropic efficiencies are taken
into account. Therefore, for constant cooling capacity for the
R1234yf and R134a systems, the condensation heat rejection will be
higher for the R1234yf system. Consequently, the R1234yf system
will result in a greater saturation temperature at the condenser
inlet. Therefore, based on the preceding discussion, the discharge
pressures for R1234yf and R134a will be different, resulting in the
compressor control valve reacting differently for the two fluids. The
effect of the compressor’s internal control valve deactivation
(dashed line in Fig. 2) will be discussed later in the paper.
Fig. 3. Compressor refrigerant suction pressures. Note: for a given label along the
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the
relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
Fig. 4. Evaporator refrigerant superheat values. Note: for a given label along the
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the
relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
The experimental compressor suction pressures for systems i, ii,
and iii described in Section 4 are shown in Fig. 3. Then, Fig. 4 shows
the evaporator superheat values for the same systems. As can be
seen, the “drop-in” system has significantly higher superheat
values than the R134a system. Thus, in order to obtain more
reasonable superheat values for the R1234yf systems, the TXV was
modified (system iii, referred to as “TXV tuned” in the figure) from
its original setting of 0.20 MPa gauge at 0
C to 0.29 MPa gauge at
0
C. Similar to the evaporator, the experimental compressor
discharge pressures are shown for the same systems in Fig. 5.
Fig. 6 shows that the experimental suction line pressure drop as
a function of refrigerant mass flow rate is very similar for both
R1234yf and R134a; whereas, Fig. 7 shows that the suction line
pressure drop for R1234yf is greater than that of R134a for equal
cooling capacity, which is due to the somewhat lower specific
latent heat of vaporization for R1234yf.
Because of the previously discussed issues, SAE ARCRP recom-
mended increasing the suction line diameter; however, for the
compact automobile system considered herein the suction line
pressure drop is smaller than the pressure drop of the compressor
Fig. 5. Compressor refrigerant discharge pressures. Note: for a given label along the
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the
relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120
Fig. 6. Suction line refrigerant pressure drops vs. refrigerant mass flow rates.
manifold. Therefore, modification of the suction line would only
marginally reduce the overall pressure drop for this system. Also,
note that modification of the suction manifold would not be
considered a “minor” modification and thus is not considered in
this paper.
Now turning our attention to cooling capacity and COP, Fig. 8
reports the cooling capacity deviations for systems (i) and (ii)
relative to the R134a baseline system, and Fig. 9 reports the COP
deviations for the same systems. In the figures, the deviation is
defined as 3 ¼ ðyR1234yf  yR134a =yR134a Þ, where y is the cooling
capacity, the COP, or the refrigerant mass flow rate.
As Fig. 8 shows, the R1234yf systemeeven with a tuned
TXVeseverely lacks cooling capacity. In order to overcome this
deficit, the compressor displacement internal control valve setting
was modified using the model of Dou et al. [33]. In particular, their
model consists of a mechanical-fluid dynamic representation of the
internally driven control valve, where the crankcase pressure and
the spring force represent the actuation signal for displacement
control. The signal is a function of Pdisch, Psuc, and of the flow and
design characteristics of the suction and discharge ports. Thus, one
possible approach to adjusting the valve control for R1234yf is to
modify the port characteristics (i.e. flow coefficients and port
sections). A second possibility is to simply change the valve spring
preload, which is what the dashed line in Fig. 2 represents. The
Fig. 7. Suction line refrigerant pressure drops vs. cooling capacities.
6115
Fig. 8. Relative cooling capacities. Note: for a given label along the abscissa, the first
number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the relative humidity
in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
effects of this second approach can clearly be seen: the X marks are
located in an area that is non reachable using the baseline setting.
Now, turning our attention more in detail to the compressor: for
a reciprocating positive displacement compressor, the displace-
ment volume is given by:
_
60m
DISP* ¼ hv DISP ¼ (1)
rsuc N
where DISP is the geometric displacement, N is the rotation speed
in RPM, hv is the volumetric efficiency, rsuc is the suction density,
and m_ is the refrigerant mass flow rate.
Fig. 10 plots the term R ¼ (hv DISP/DISPmax)  100 as a function
of the difference between the discharge and suction pressures,
where the lines are simply interpolations of the experimental data.
Note: the compressor used in this study has a DISPmax ¼ 126 cm3.
Note that at 900 RPM the new valve setting results in the
maximum displacement possible (it achieves a value of nearly
100%; recall that DISP* is reduced by the volumetric efficiency).
Fig. 9. Relative COPs. Note: for a given label along the abscissa, the first number is the
ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the relative humidity in percent, and
the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
6116 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120
Fig. 10. Relative compressor displacement as a function of the difference between the
suction and discharge pressures.
Fig. 11 shows the cooling capacity data, including results for the
modified compressor valve setting. Despite this modification, the
system is still not able to provide the same cooling capacity as
R134a at an ambient temperature of 35
C. For an ambient
temperature of 25
C the same cooling capacity as the R134a system
is achievable for the 2500 RPM condition but not for the other
compressor speeds. Finally, for an ambient temperature of 15
C the
system achieves greater cooling capacity than the R134a baseline
system for all compressor speeds.
Fig. 12 shows a large mass flow rate increase for all conditions
for the modified R1234yf systems due to the combined effects of
increased DISP* and the greater R1234yf suction density [26].
The greater cooling capacity for R1234yf at an ambient
temperature of 15
C results in much lower evaporator inlet
temperatures for R1234yf (see Fig. 13), where the mismatch
decreases with increasing ambient temperature. Thus, for an
ambient temperature of 15
C, the R1234yf evaporator outlet
pressures (see Fig. 14) and temperatures (see Fig. 15) are lower than
R134a.
It is worth noting that because of the regulating action of the
compressor internal control valve, even at ambient temperatures of
15
C, the compressor did not cycle since the air outlet
Fig. 11. Relative cooling capacities. Note: for a given label along the abscissa, the first
number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the relative humidity
in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
Fig. 12. Relative refrigerant mass flow rates. Note: for a given label along the abscissa,
the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the relative
humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
temperatures were always higher than 3
C (see [31]), an example
is shown in Fig. 16.
Figs. 17 and 18 show the compressor discharge pressures and
temperatures, respectively. Even though the R1234yf discharge
pressures are always greater than those of R134a (with the only
exception being the condition 35/40/2500), the discharge temper-
atures of R1234yf are always lower than those of R134a, as would
be expected because of the thermodynamic properties of R1234yf
(see [26]).
Fig. 19 shows COP results, including ones for the modified
compressor internal control valve. The figure shows that in regions
(e.g., Northern Europe) possessing low year-round ambient
temperatures, R1234yf could lead to significantly lower seasonal
energy efficiency values as compared to R134a for the investigated
systems (i, ii, iii). While this conclusion seems to contradict previ-
ously cited studies (e.g. [9e11,18]), the present study clearly shows
that efficiency is strongly related to system design and that one
should, where possible, use a system that has been optimized for
a given refrigerant, which is consistent with the experimental
results and conclusions of Petitjean and Benouali [13].
Fig. 13. Evaporator refrigerant inlet temperatures. Note: for a given label along the
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the
relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120 6117

Fig. 16. Evaporator air outlet temperature distribution for the case 15/80/2500.
Fig. 14. Evaporator refrigerant outlet pressures. Note: for a given label along the
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the
relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.

To illustrate this assertion, it is worth considering in more detail

the operating condition (25/80/2500) where the cooling capacities
are the same for the two systems (see Fig. 11). This analysis is
shown in Table 3.
For this condition, the heat rejection rate for the R1234yf
condenser is approximately 5% greater, with a 2 K higher liquid
subcooling value and a greater inlet pressure (corresponding to
a 2.6 K increase in the saturation temperature). Furthermore,
because of the greater R1234yf pressure drop, the saturation
temperature drop through the condenser is 70% higher for R1234yf.
These results clearly demonstrate that R1234yf could benefit from
a redesigned condenser. As mentioned earlier, Shah [29] indicated
that R134a benefited from a similar exercise during the transition
from R12 to R134a. Furthermore, these experimental results are
consistent with the theoretical approach of Cavallini et al. [14].
A similar conclusion can be made for the evaporator: because of
Fig. 17. Compressor refrigerant discharge pressures. Note: for a given label along the
the larger R1234yf saturation temperature drop (1.5 K greater) at
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the
nearly the same vapor superheat (0.9 K higher), the R1234yf relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
evaporator could benefit from an improved design. Moreover, the
higher R1234yf pressure drop (for a given cooling capacity) along

Fig. 18. Compressor refrigerant discharge temperatures. Note: for a given label along
Fig. 15. Evaporator refrigerant outlet temperatures. Note: for a given label along the the abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is
abscissa, the first number is the ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the the relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in
relative humidity in percent, and the third number is the compressor speed in RPM. RPM.
6118 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120

On the basis of the present experimental observations, the

present authors simulated the performance of an “enhanced”
system, i.e., one containing an “enhanced” condenser and an
“enhanced” evaporator, together with the same overridden
compressor.
The simulation model used is described in detail in Casson et al.
[34], and thus will only be discussed briefly here. It consists of
a compressor model, a minichannel evaporator model, and a mini-
channel condenser model. For calculation purposes, the heat
exchangers are divided into a series of small three-dimensional
cells. This simple approach allows a finned coil to be solved
regardless of how complicated is the lay-out of the tube circuits.
Regarding the condenser, the refrigerant-side heat transfer
coefficient is evaluated with the Cavallini et al. [35] correlation, the
pressure drops are estimated through the Mishima and Hibicki
correlation [36]. Considering the evaporator, reference to [36] is
made for the refrigerant heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop
calculation.
Fig. 19. Relative COPs. Note: for a given label along the abscissa, the first number is the The airside heat transfer coefficients, including surface effi-
ambient temperature in
C, the second number is the relative humidity in percent, and ciency, are assumed to be uniform and are evaluated through
the third number is the compressor speed in RPM.
experimental correlations obtained with a modified Wilson plot
procedure, implemented by feeding with hot water both the
Table 3 condenser and evaporator.
Data for the 25/80/2500 condition. The compressor isoentropic efficiency was fitted on the exper-
imental values obtained from the tests herein reported. The
Measured value R134a R1234yf for TXV
tuned and compressor map for displacement and related volumetric efficiency
compressor was implemented basing on data in Fig. 10.
valve overridden Air temperature, relative humidity and flow rate at the inlet of
Refrigerant mass flow rate (kg s1) 0.0258 0.0323 the condenser and the evaporator are input data, as well as the
Condenser heat rejection rate (kW) 5.07 5.34 refrigerant superheating at the compressor suction. The actual
Compressor refrigerant discharge 75.6 68.4
geometry of the heat exchanger (including among others the
temperature (
C)
Compressor refrigerant discharge 1.15 1.22 minichannel diameter, flattened tube length, height and width,
pressure (MPa) actual circuitry refrigerant side, fin spacing, thickness, length and
Condenser refrigerant saturation 44.5 47.1 height) is an input as well.
temperature @ Pdisch (
C) A simulation proceeds by iterating on the evaporation and
Condenser refrigerant 10.2 12.0
subcooling (
C)
condensation pressures, ceasing when the model successfully
Compressor refrigerant suction 0.29 0.27 matches the refrigerant mass flow rate of the compressor to those
pressure (MPa) in the evaporator and condenser.
Compressor pressure ratio 3.98 4.46 The model was validated using some of the experimental data
Condenser refrigerant 55.3 79.4
reported earlier in the paper. The calculated cooling capacity was
pressure drop (kPa)
Condenser refrigerant saturation 2.0 3.4 found to be consistent with the experimental values, both for R134a
temperature drop (
C) and R1234yf.
Evaporator refrigerant 76.8 102.1 The validated model was then used to simulate an “enhanced”
pressure drop (kPa) system. Previous discussions indicate that, for a completely opti-
Evaporator refrigerant 10.4 11.3
mized design, a thorough optimization of the refrigerant-side
superheat (
C)
circuitry would need to be conducted for both the condenser and
the evaporator. This exercise, however, is far outside the scope of
the suction line decreases the R1234yf suction pressure. This, this paper. However, aiming to provide “numerical” evidence to our
coupled with the larger R1234yf discharge pressure, results in experimental analyses, we provide simulation results for a system
a pressure ratio for R1234yf that is approximately 12% higher than with a condenser with 20% larger face area and an evaporator with
for R134a. 10% larger face area. The original refrigerant circuitry was

Table 4
Deviations for cooling capacity (Q) and COP between the simulation results for an R1234yf system with “enhanced” condenser and evaporator and the
experimental values for the baseline R134a system.
   
Test condition QenhancedR1234yf  QbaselineR134a COPenhancedR1234yf  COPbaselineR134a
3Q ¼ 3 COP ¼
QbaselineR134a COPbaselineR134a
15/80/900 30.7 8.3
15/80/2500 36.5 5.7
15/80/4000 38.7 7.4
25/80/900 1.0 0.6
25/80/2500 1.0 6.9
25/80/4000 1.0 2.8
35/40/900 1.0 0.1
35/40/2500 1.0 4.4
35/40/4000 1.0 7.6
 C. Zilio et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 6110e6120
maintained. Moreover, the fin spacing, length, thickness and height
were left unchanged. Conservatively, the same volumetric air flow
rates measured during the experiments were used for the
“enhanced” condenser and the “enhanced” evaporator.
The simulations were carried out for equal cooling capacities for
the “enhanced system” running with the “overridden” compressor
and the baseline system operating with R134a, under exactly the
same operating conditions of the experiments. The COP deviations
are reported in Table 4.
Unfortunately, with the present compressor, even at the lowest
displacement and considering saturated R1234yf liquid at the
condenser outlet, the cooling capacity is higher than the baseline
with R134a at 15
C air temperature. The cooling capacity devia-
tions are reported as well in Table 4.
The simulation results indicate that, with the “enhanced”
condenser and “enhanced” evaporator, the R1234yf system effi-
ciency is higher than the baseline R134a system, at ambient
temperatures of 25
C and 35
C. The efficiency penalization at
15
C is a consequence of the much larger cooling capacity of the
R1234yf system. This latter penalization (recall: much lower than in
Fig. 19) could be eliminated considering a modified compressor
with a lower value for the minimum displacement. Finally, it should
be mentioned that the present results are not “optimal” ones, since
the exercise does not include optimization of the refrigerant
circuitries for the heat exchangers.
6. Conclusions
Experiments were conducted for a typical R134a compact
European automotive air conditioning system having a nominal
cooling capacity of 5.8 kW at a compressor volumetric flow rate of
7.8 m3 h1. Three R1234yf systems were tested using the baseline
hardware with some modifications: (i) the baseline system oper-
ating with an optimal charge of R1234yf with the baseline TXV
setting, (ii) the system of i operating with a TXV setting optimized
for R1234yf, and (iii) the system of ii operating with the variable
displacement compressor control valve deactivated.
The cooling capacity and COP of the “drop-in” R1234yf system
are considerably lower than the baseline R134a system. However,
their values can be improved significantly, even approaching or for
some operating conditions exceeding, the baseline R134a values
with some simple hardware modifications: (1) tuning the TXV
setting for R1234yf and (2) optimizing the variable displacement
compressor control valve. The experimental analyses presented in
this paper show that for a given cooling capacity and set of oper-
ating conditions, the R1234yf systems could be further improved
beyond among other things, optimizing the condenser and evap-
orator refrigerant circuitries [14,26]. The numerical simulations
show that enhancing the face area of the condenser by 20%, the one
of the evaporator by 10%, and using the overridden compressor, the
R1234yf system showed higher COP values than the baseline R134a
for equal cooling capacities.
The results and analyses presented in this paper demonstrate
the attractiveness of pursuing R1234yf as a potential replacement
for R134a in automotive applications.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Dr. R. Monforte of the FIAT Automotive Group
for his financial support.
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