Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1988-Locat1988 - Viscosity, Yield Stress, Remolded Strength, and Liquidity Index Relationships For Sensitive Clay
1988-Locat1988 - Viscosity, Yield Stress, Remolded Strength, and Liquidity Index Relationships For Sensitive Clay
1988-Locat1988 - Viscosity, Yield Stress, Remolded Strength, and Liquidity Index Relationships For Sensitive Clay
sensitive clays
JACQUES
LOCAT
Groupe de recherche en ge'ologie cle l'inge'nieur, De'pnrtement de ge'ologie, Utziversite' Lnval, Sainte-Fay, Que.,
Canada GI K 7P4
AND
DENISDEMERS
Service des sols et chausse'es, MinistPre des Transports du Que'bec, 200 Dorchester Street South, Que'bec, Que.,
Canada G1K 521
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
The rheological behavior of some sensitive clays has shown that there are positive relationships between plastic viscosity,
yield stress, remolded shear strength, and liquidity index. Based on the various correlations, remolded strength values can be
predicted for soils with a liquidity index as high as 6. For a liquidity index varying from 2 to 5, the remolded undrained shear
strength and plastic viscosity vary from about 90 to 5 Pa and from 200 to 7 mPa . s respectively. It has been observed that most
sensitive clays behave either as a Bingham or a Casson fluid, the latter behavior being related to less sensitive clays of higher
pore-water salinities. Increasing the salt content from 0.5 to 30 g/L modified the rheological behavior of a single test soil from
that of a Bingham to that of a Casson type of fluid. Such modification in the pore-water salinity illustrates how soils can have
similar plastic viscosity and similar remolded strength but different yield stresses. The range of viscosity measured for
sensitive clays is very different from that of values obtained from back analysis of subaerial or submarine slides where viscous
flow can be expected.
Key words: sensitivity, clays, viscosity, yield stress, shear strength, salinity, liquidity index, submarine slide, landslide.
Le comportement rhCologique de quelques argiles sensibles a dCmontrC une relation positive entre les valeurs de viscositC
For personal use only.
plastique, de limite liquide, de rksistance au cisaillement remaniCe et d'indice de liquiditC. En partant de diverses corrClations,
les valeurs de rksistance au cisaillement peuvent &trepredites pour des sols ayant des indices de liquidit6 aussi Clevis que 6.
Pour un indice de liquidit6 entre 2 et 5, la rksistance au cisaillement non drain6 remaniCe et la viscositC plastique varient
respectivement d'environ 90 B 5 Pa et de 200 B 7 mPa. s. I1 a CtC observC que la plupart des argiles sensibles se comportent
comme un fluide de Bingham ou de Casson, ce demier comportement correspondant aux agiles moins sensibles avec des
salinitCs d'eau interstitielle plus ClevCes. L'accroissement de la teneur en sel de 0,5 B 30 g/L a modifiC le comportement au
cours d'un essai, passant d'un type de fluide de Bingham B un fluide de Casson. Une telle modification dans la salinitC de l'eau
interstitielle illustre comment des sols peuvent avoir des viscositCs plastiques et des rCsistances au cisaillement semblables mais
des limites Clastiques diffkrentes. Le domaine de viscositC mesure pour les argiles sensibles est trks different de celui donne par
des valeurs obtenues d'analyse B rebours de glissements terrestres et marins oh l'on s'attend B des Ccoulements visqueux.
Mots cle's : sensibilitC, argiles, viscositC, limite Clastique, risistance au cisaillement, salinitC, indice de liquidit&,glissement
marin, glissement de terrain.
[Traduit par la revue]
Shear rate
FIG. 1. Major types of fluids: (1) Newtonian; (2) thickening; beginning of this test, the shear rate is set to maximum and
(3) fluidizing; (4) Casson; (5) Bingham. then reduced, in regular steps, to a shear rate of 0 , and
increased again, in steps, to the maximum. At each step, after
15 s at a particular shear rate, a torque reading is taken, and at
given water content, it became possible to use the fall cone for the end of the test a hysteresis loop is traced (Fig. 2c).
that purpose (Garneau and LeBihan 1977). However, the Six different samples (Table 2) were tested for this work.
lower strength limit of the fall cone is at 73 Pa (equivalent to a Four samples come from specific sites in the Champlain Sea
liquidity index of about 3); this is too high for many sensitive basin; they were tested at their natural pore-water salinity. The
clays having liquidity indexes between 3 and 6, or more. fifth sample (Saint-Alban-2) is a subsample of Saint-Alban-1
Recently, Demers and Locat (1985, 1986), Torrance (1987), for which the pore-water salt content was increased from 0.5 to
and Locat et al. (1988) started using a viscometer on a more 30 g/L. The sixth sample, named QuCbec, is a mixture of
routine basis and have presented positive relationships between several marine clay soils from the St. Lawrence Valley that is
For personal use only.
yield stress and remolded undrained shear strength (measured frequently used in our laboratory as an internal standard for
by the fall cone). various types of testing. These soils were selected to provide a
The liquid limit of a soil varies with salinity (Torrance good range of plasticity index (1 1 - 37 %), sensitivity (8 - 82),
1975). Kerr and Drew (1965, 1968), Bentley (1976, 1979), and clay fraction (19-75%). Table 2 summarizes their physi-
Dixon (1982), Torrance (1984), and Torrance and Pirnat cochemical characteristics. All samples were stored for less
(1984) have discussed the effect of salinity on the flow behav- than 2 years in a room at 95% relative humidity at 7°C; they
ior of clay slurries. They observed that increasing the salt con- showed no evidence of physicochemical modification due to
tent of the pore water from low (less than 2 g/L) to high (above storage.
5 g/L) values resulted in an increase in the yield stress. Work was done in four steps. First, natural geotechnical
Investigating the microfabric of clay slurries, Osipov et al. parameters were determined for the various soils (Table 2).
(1984) have shown that the yield stress can decrease with Pore-water extraction was conducted according to the method
increasing shear rate, as the interaggregate links are broken used by Torrance (1976): about 50 g of wet soil is placed in a
near the zone of shearing. Moore (1965) has indicated that, for plastic cell and the water squeezed out by an air pressure
partially deflocculated suspensions, the hysterisis loop is very system and collected in a test tube. The salt content is measured
large, as the restructuration rate is very slow. As for Bingham as NaCl equivalent, and is maintained constant during all the
fluids, these soils show linear shear stress - shear rate rela- tests on a given sample. Second, the liquidity index was slowly
tionships at values above their yield stress. increased while maintaining the salinity of the pore water con-
In this paper, efforts are directed towards the understanding stant by adding water of the same salinity. Third, after each
of the flow characteristics of remolded soils to relate viscosity, water content increase, a viscometric test was run (including
yield stress, remolded shear strength, and liquidity index in all the three phases described previously, as shown in Fig. 2)
order to provide a simple first approximation of the rheological and water content measurements taken before and after the
parameters of clayey soil. tests to detect evaporation or sedimentation of the mixture; no
significant variation was measured. Fourth, in parallel with the
Methodology viscosity measurement, the remolded undrained shear strength
The viscometer used in this study is a rotational rheometer was measured, whenever possible, and the salinity checked at
(Haake-Rotovisco, model RV-12), which is run in a steady the end of the last test. All tests were run at a controlled tem-
state regime. Sensors are composed of two coaxial cylinders. perature of 7 "C.
The inner one, the rotor, is the mobile part, which is linked to a Although the behavior of some mixtures departs from that of
gauge measuring the torque applied on the fluid. The outer a Bingham fluid to that of a Casson fluid (Fig. I), calculations
cylinder is fixed and insures the temperature control by means for the viscosity were always done by taking the slope of the
of a liquid cooling system. The main specifications of the last portion of the shear stress - shear rate curve (Figs. 2a and
apparatus are given in Table 1. The procedures followed for 2d). This portion normally corresponded to the portion of the
viscometric measurements are described in Bentley (1976) and curve between shear rates of 58 and 512 rpm (Torrance 1987).
Torrance (1987), and included three types of tests: (1) dynamic Resu!ts obtained with MV-I and MV-I1 sensors have shown no
response, (2) constant shear rate, and (3) hysteresis (Fig. 2). evidence of a slippage plane developing within the soil mate-
The hysteresis test is the last one to be carried out. At the rial in the annulus located between the cylinder walls. Such a
LOCAT AND DEMERS
(I)
(I)
a,
C
(I)
L
m
a,
r
(I)
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
- A
- (e) A (f)
-2
a
a
200 -
-
??
(I)
- -
2 100-
a,
c
(I)
Oo 260 460
- Oo
I
10
I
20
*
Oo 200 460
-
Shear rate (s-') Time ( m i n ) Shear r a t e (s-')
FIG.2. Flow characteristics of the two types of behavior observed determined using the dynamic response constant shear rate, and hysteresis
For personal use only.
test for (a-c) the Saint-Alban-1soil (I, = 3.0, w = 82%, cur = 88 Pa) and (d-f) the QuCbec soil (I, = 2.4, w = 90%, cur= 190 Pa) (T is yield
stress).
Results
Over 70 viscometric tests were carried out. An example of
shear rate - shear stress curves is presented in Fig. 3 to show
the gradual decrease in the yield stress as the water content, or
liquidity index, increases. These curves are used to compute
both viscosity and yield stress. By inspection of the various
curves, two types of fluids could be observed: Bingham and
Casson. The Berthierville and Saint-Alban-1 soils presented a
behavior closer to Bingham type of fluid (Fig. 2a). These soils
exhibited a pronounced thixotropic behavior noted by a con-
tinuous decrease of the shear stress at a constant shear rate
(Fig. 2b) and a large hysteresis loop (Fig. 2c). Soils of
QuCbec, Saint-Hyacinthe, and Saint-Alban-2 behaved more
like a Casson-type fluid, were only slightly thixotropic
(Fig. 2f), and could easily reach a stable torque value
(Fig. 2e). The Saint-Wenceslas soil, much coarser than the
others (Table 2), showed some shear thickening at a liquidity Shear r a t e (s-'1
index above 3 and at a shear rate above 200 rpm. In return, it FIG.3. A series of shear rate - yield stress curves obtained for the
made viscosity computation less accurate. Saint-Alban-1 soil for various water contents and at a salt content of
Plotting the viscosity versus the yield stress (Fig. 4) shows 0.2 g/L (T is yield stress).
that at low values of yield stress, two tendencies exist, and
again, are related to the type of fluid behavior mentioned
above. Artificially increasing the salt content to 30.2 g/L trans- than 3. Here, for a given soil and salinity, the correlation is
formed the rheological behavior of Saint-Alban-1 soil from quite good.
that of Bingham to that of a Casson-like fluid (Saint-Alban-2), However, when correlating liquidity index (IL) and viscosity
a feature also observed for other sensitive clays to Bentley (v), the distinction between the two type of fluids cannot be
(1979) and Dixon (1982). The same distinction can be made made (Fig. 6). The scatter of the results, particularly for the
when the yield stress is correlated to the liquidity index coarser grained Saint-Wenceslas soil, is larger than it is for the
(Fig. 5); this is particularly true for a liquidity index greater other correlations presented. As observed before, the relation-
CAN. GEOTECH. J . VOL. 25, 1988
TABLE
2. Soil characteristics
Depth w w, I, SS CF S
Site (m) ( 2 ~ )St (%) (%) (%) (m2ig) (%) (g/L)
Berthierville 6.1 1.38 25 47 44.2 21 49 36 0.3
Quebec - 2.04 - 41 52.4 28 62 60 5.6
Saint-Alban- 1 2.3 0.20 39 71 42.2 20 49 49 0.5
Saint-Alban-2 2.3 - - - 55.0 32 59 59 30.2
Saint-Hyacinthe 4.3 0.77 8 82 62.8 37 96 75 1.6
Saint-Wenceslas 3.6 0.52 82 35 27.4 11 22 19 0.3
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
NOTE:SS stands for specific surface area; CF, clay-size faction; and S, salinity
- 0 -
n
!0' 10 0
0
+ -
--
a
2:
-
4+0
o*o
* -
E
w
-
- A * Q
." ,+ + y* -
-
ccn
0 0
0
A
0 o 0
+
0
'=O
% -
-
8-0 --
For personal use only.
0 1 0 -1
cn -- omO --
5 - A ST-ALBAN-1 -
- 0 ST-ALBAN-2 -
- It ST-HYACINTHE -
+ ST-WENCESLAS
-
1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 10 10 10
YIELD STRESS (Pa)
FIG. 4. Relationship between viscosity and yield stress.
ItST-HYACINTHE
+ ST-WENCESLAS ~1
0 dl I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 I 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 10 10 10
YIELD STRESS (Pa)
FIG. 5. Relationship between liquidity index and yield stress.
LOCAT AND DEMERS
-
-
-
6-
- *
-- ST-HYACINTHE
5-
X -
W -
0 1
z 45-
ir:
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
1
ii
- 35
3 - -
Cr 1 -
7 2-
-
- -
1 -- -
-
-
- -
- -
0 I I t 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 g I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 10 '
VISCOSITY (mPa-s)
Fw. 6. Relationship between liquidity index and viscosity
For personal use only.
10 0
10 10 10
This relationship would be valid for a liquidity index between
1.5 and 6. The relationship proposed by Leroueil et al. (1983)
REMOLDED SHEAR STRENGTH (Pa) is quite similar and has values of 25.9 and 2.27 for the coeffi-
FIG. 7. Relationship between yield stress and remolded shear cient and exponent respectively. Equation [2] can now be used
strength. to compute the sensitivity of sensitive clay soils having a
remolded undrained shear strength lower than 73 Pa.
ship for a given soil is still quite good. At higher plastic viscos-
ity, the relationship deteriorates as the operational limit of the Discussion
viscometer sensors is approached. Of interest are the results for Viscosity measurements
the Saint-Alban soil, which, at the various salinities, show There is very little information in the literature about the vis-
similar viscosity - liquidity index relationships. As a first cosity of remolded sensitive clays. Eden and Kubota (1961)
approximation, the following relationship, plotted as a curve in reported a viscosity of about 76.0 mPa. s for an Ottawa soil
Fig. 6, can be used to compute the plastic viscosity of a soil having a liquidity index of about 2.3. This is in the range of
with values of liquidity index between 1.5 and 6: what could be predicted from [I]. More recent data on liquidity
index and yield stress are plotted in Fig. 9, along with the
range of data presented here. Included are results of Bentley
For each soil, a good correlation was obtained between the (1979), Dixon (1982), and Torrance and Pirnat (1984), which
804 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 25, 1988
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
10 ' 10"
REMOLDED SHEAR STRENGTH (Pa)
FIG. 8. Relationship between liquidity index and remolded shear strength (solid line, curve A, represents the linear regression line of our
results and the dashed line, curve B, is from Leroueil et al. (1983) and is extrapolated at values of the liquidity index higher that 3).
For personal use only.
I
I apparent viscosity has little physical meaning unless shear
I stress and shear rate conditions are specified. By inspection of
1 laboratory results presented here, and elsewhere (Dixon 1982),
I it appears that, for a given water content, a stable plastic vis-
I
cosity can be computed for shear rate values above 100 s-I. It
is interesting to note that, for the viscometer used here, such
shear rates are approximately equivalent to a velocity of
10 mls, which is in the range of those observed for various
debris flow slides (Edgers and Karlsrud 1982). Johnson and
Rodine (1984) and Edgers and Karlsrud (1982) present viscos-
ity values back-calculated from various subaerial and sub-
marine slides. By applying a viscous flow model to these
various slides, they found viscosity values varying from 100 to
1499 Pa.s. For example, Edgers and Karlsrud (1982)
calculated viscosities of 190 and 810 Pa. s for the Rissa and Yield stress (Pa)
Saint-Jean-Vianney slides respectively, for velocities of 7 - FIG. 9. Comparison of results on liquidity index - remolded
10 mls. Based on the average liquidity index (more than 2) of strength relationships from other sources (the solid lines indicate the
these soils, [I.] would yield viscosity values less than 0.2 Pa. s. upper and lower limits of the results from the present work).
Without discussing in detail these results, it clearly illustrates
the large discrepancy between laboratory and back-calculated
field values of viscosity, and the need for field and laboratory increase in the salt content from 0.5 to 30.2 g/L changed the
calibration of these models. rheological properties from those of a Bingham type of fluid to
those of a Casson type of fluid. This test also illustrates (Fig. 5)
Salinity and jlow behavior that, at the same liquidity index, leaching would reduce the
Increasing the pore-water salinity of a sensitive clay is yield stress. Figure 10 presents a conceptual model that
known to increase the remolded shear strength (Bjermm 1954; describes the changes in the rheological behavior observed for
Bjermm and Rosenqvist 1956; Torrance 1975; Quigley 1980; the Saint-Alban soil. This soil, at the same liquidity index, can
Locat 1982; Locat and Lefebvre 1986). A similar control of have two values of yield stress. As the salinity is increased
salinity on the rheological properties was presented here and above the coagulation point (van Olphen 1977; Locat and
elsewhere (Dixon 1982). The various correlations between the Lefebvre 1985) the flow behavior evolves from that of a Bing-
rheological and geotechnical parameters are satisfactory. The ham to that of a Casson type of fluid. In nature, the leaching
viscometric behavior of the various soil samples can be process would follow a path in the opposite direction. In the
described by either a Bingham or a Casson type of fluid; in present case of Saint-Alban, it can be shown that for the liquid-
most cases, the material is plastic. For the Saint-Alban soil, an ity index - remolded shear strength relationship, an increase
LOCAT AND DEMERS 805
Conclusions
The results presented in this paper can lead to the following
general conclusions. First of all, it is very interesting to note
that viscometric testing can now be camed out on a routine
basis and that repetitive results can be obtained and compared.
The viscometer can provide a good tool to relate remolded
shear strength to liquidity index and viscosity. For sensitive
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible by the financial support
of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council
of Canada and the cooperation of the technicians and engineers
of the Groupe de recherche en gCologie de 1'ingCnieur of
the Department of Geology at Laval. In particular, we would
For personal use only.
GREGERSON, 0 . 1981. The quick clay landslide in Rissa, Norway. MOORE,F. 1965. Rheology of ceramic systems. Institute of Ceramics
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Publication 135. Textbook Series. Maclaren and Sons Ltd., London, England.
HAJELA,R. B., and BHATNAGAR, J. M. 1972. Applications of OSIPOV,V. I., NICOLAEVA, S., and SOKOLOV, V. N. 1984. Micro-
rheological measurements to determine liquid limit of soils. Soil structural changes associated with thixotropic phenomena in clay
Science, 114: 122- 130. soils. GCotechnique, 34: 293 - 303.
HUTCHINSON, J. N. 1974. Periglacial solifluxions: an approximate QUIGLEY, R. M. 1980. Geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of
mechanism for clayey soils. GCotechnique, 24: 438 -443. Canadian soft soils: a geotechnical perspective. Canadian Geotech-
JOHNSON, A. M., and RODINE,J. R. 1984. Debris flow. In Slope nical Journal, 17: 261 -285.
instability. Edited by D. Brunsden and D. B. Prior. Wiley, New REINER,M., and SCOTTBLAIR,G. W. 1967. Rheological terminol-
York, NY, pp.257-362. ogy. In Rheology: theory and applications. Vol. 4. Edited by F. R.
JOHNSTON, G. H., editor. 1981 Engineering design and construction. Eirich. Academic Press, New York, NY, pp. 461 -488.
SACKS,M. 1985. Rheological science in ceramic processing. Pro-
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
ity of an artificially sedimented clay soil: The Grande-Baleine Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 24: 3 18-322.
marine clay, Quebec, Canada. Marine Geotechnology, 6: 1-28. TORRANCE, J. K., and PIRNAT,M. 1984. Effect of pH on the
1986. The origin of structuration of the Grande-Baleine rheology of marine clay from the site of the South Nation river,
marine sediments, Qutbec, Canada. Quarterly Journal of Engi- Canada, landslide of 1971. Clays and Clay Minerals, 32:
neering Geology, 19(4): 365 -374. 384-390.
LOCAT,J., and LEROUEIL, S. 1988. Physicochemical and geotechni- VANOLPHEN,H. 1977. An introduction to clay colloid chemistry.
cal characteristics of Saguenay Fjord sediments. Canadian Geo- John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
technical Journal, 25: 382-388. WATSON,G. H., SLUSARCHUCK, W. A., and ROWLEY, R. K. 1973.
LOCAT,J., KURFURST, P., BERUBE,M.-A., CHAGNON, J.-Y., and Determination of some frozen and thawed properties of permafrost
GELINAS, P. 1988. Viscometric properties of a Beaufort Sea sedi- soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 10: 592-606.
ment. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 1708.
This article has been cited by:
1. Ching Jianye, Phoon Kok-Kwang. Transformations and correlations among some clay parameters — the global database. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, ahead of print1-23. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] [PDF Plus]
2. Sueng Won Jeong. 2014. The effect of grain size on the viscosity and yield stress of fine-grained sediments. Journal of Mountain
Science 11:1, 31-40. [CrossRef]
3. Brendan C. O'Kelly. 2013. Atterberg Limits and Remolded Shear Strength—Water Content Relationships. Geotechnical Testing
Journal 36:6, 20130012. [CrossRef]
4. Beier Nicholas, Wilson Ward, Dunmola Adedeji, Sego David. 2013. Impact of flocculation-based dewatering on the shear strength
of oil sands fine tailings. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 50:9, 1001-1007. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] [PDF Plus]
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
5. Sueng Won Jeong. 2013. Determining the viscosity and yield surface of marine sediments using modified Bingham models.
Geosciences Journal . [CrossRef]
6. Sueng Won Jeong, Jacques Locat, Serge Leroueil, Jean-Loup Robert. 2013. Fluidization Process in Submarine Landslides:
Physical and Numerical Considerations. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 31:2, 190-207. [CrossRef]
7. Sueng-Won Jeong, Hiroshi Fukuoka, Young-Suk Song. 2013. Ring-shear Apparatus for Estimating the Mobility of Debris Flow
and Its Application. Journal of The Korean Society of Civil Engineers 33:1, 181-194. [CrossRef]
8. Sueng Won Jeong. 2013. The viscosity of fine-grained sediments: A comparison of low- to medium-activity and high-activity
clays. Engineering Geology 154, 1-5. [CrossRef]
9. Shannon Hsien-Heng Lee, Budijanto Widjaja. 2013. Phase concept for mudflow based on the influence of viscosity. Soils and
Foundations 53:1, 77-90. [CrossRef]
10. Budijanto Widjaja, Shannon Hsien-Heng Lee. 2013. Flow box test for viscosity of soil in plastic and viscous liquid states. Soils
and Foundations 53:1, 35-46. [CrossRef]
11. Sueng-Won Jeong. 2013. Debris Flow Mobility: A Comparison of Weathered Soils and Clay-rich Soils. Journal of the Korean
For personal use only.
for pure and interstratified smectite clays. Rheologica Acta 44:3, 262-269. [CrossRef]
31. Peter Gauer, Tore J. Kvalstad, Carl F. Forsberg, Petter Bryn, Kjell Berg. 2005. The last phase of the Storegga Slide: simulation
of retrogressive slide dynamics and comparison with slide-scar morphology. Marine and Petroleum Geology 22:1-2, 171-178.
[CrossRef]
32. F.V. De Blasio, A. Elverhøi, D. Issler, C.B. Harbitz, P. Bryn, R. Lien. 2005. On the dynamics of subaqueous clay rich gravity
mass flows—the giant Storegga slide, Norway. Marine and Petroleum Geology 22:1-2, 179-186. [CrossRef]
33. Trygve Ilstad, Anders Elverhøi, Dieter Issler, Jeffrey G. Marr. 2004. Subaqueous debris flow behaviour and its dependence on the
sand/clay ratio: a laboratory study using particle tracking. Marine Geology 213:1-4, 415-438. [CrossRef]
34. F.V. De Blasio, A. Elverhøi, D. Issler, C.B. Harbitz, P. Bryn, R. Lien. 2004. Flow models of natural debris flows originating from
overconsolidated clay materials. Marine Geology 213:1-4, 439-455. [CrossRef]
35. Fabio V. De Blasio. 2004. Hydroplaning and submarine debris flows. Journal of Geophysical Research 109:C1. . [CrossRef]
36. O Maquaire, J.-P Malet, A Remaı̂tre, J Locat, S Klotz, J Guillon. 2003. Instability conditions of marly hillslopes: towards
For personal use only.
landsliding or gullying? The case of the Barcelonnette Basin, South East France. Engineering Geology 70:1-2, 109-130. [CrossRef]
37. M. Drago. 2002. A coupled debris flow–turbidity current model. Ocean Engineering 29:14, 1769-1780. [CrossRef]
38. M.D. Trifunac, M.I. Todorovska. 2002. A note on differences in tsunami source parameters for submarine slides and earthquakes.
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 22:2, 143-155. [CrossRef]
39. Jasim Imran, Peter Harff, Gary Parker. 2001. A numerical model of submarine debris flow with graphical user interface. Computers
& Geosciences 27:6, 717-729. [CrossRef]
40. Charles Harris, Brice Rea, Michael Davies. 2001. Scaled physical modelling of mass movement processes on thawing slopes.
Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 12:1, 125-135. [CrossRef]
41. A. Pérez-Foguet, A. Ledesma, A. Huerta. 1999. Analysis of the vane test considering size and time effects. International Journal
for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 23:5, 383-412. [CrossRef]
42. J.Kenneth Torrance. 1999. Physical, chemical and mineralogical influences on the rheology of remoulded low-activity sensitive
marine clay. Applied Clay Science 14:4, 199-223. [CrossRef]
43. Thierry Mulder, Jacqueline A. Berry, David J.W. Piper. 1997. Original Articles. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology 15:3,
253-281. [CrossRef]
44. T. MULDER, B. SAVOYE, J. P. M. SYVITSKI. 1997. Numerical modelling of a mid-sized gravity flow: the 1979 Nice turbidity
current (dynamics, processes, sediment budget and seafloor impact). Sedimentology 44:2, 305-326. [CrossRef]
45. Philippe Coussot, Sébastien Proust, Christophe Ancey. 1996. Rheological interpretation of deposits of yield stress fluids. Journal
of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics 66:1, 55-70. [CrossRef]
46. D. Perret, J. Locat, P. Martignoni. 1996. Thixotropic behavior during shear of a fine-grained mud from Eastern Canada.
Engineering Geology 43:1, 31-44. [CrossRef]
47. Monty A. Hampton, Homa J. Lee, Jacques Locat. 1996. Submarine landslides. Reviews of Geophysics 34:1, 33. [CrossRef]
48. Philippe Coussot, Sébastien Proust. 1996. Slow, unconfined spreading of a mudflow. Journal of Geophysical Research 101:B11,
25217. [CrossRef]
49. Philippe Coussot. 1994. Steady, laminar, flow of concentrated mud suspensions in open channel. Journal of Hydraulic Research
32:4, 535-559. [CrossRef]
50. Lin Jiang, Paul H. LeBlond. 1993. Numerical modeling of an underwater Bingham plastic mudslide and the waves which it
generates. Journal of Geophysical Research 98:C6, 10303. [CrossRef]
51. R.A. McBride, N. Baumgartner. 1992. A simple slurry consolidometer designed for the estimation of the consistency limits of
soils. Journal of Terramechanics 29:2, 223-238. [CrossRef]
52. Gebran N. Karam. 1992. Theoretical and Empiriical Modeling of the Rheology of Fresh Cement Pastes. MRS Proceedings 289. .
[CrossRef]
53. Harald Norem, Jaques Locat, Bonsak Schieldrop. 1990. An approach to the physics and the modeling of submarine flowslides.
Marine Geotechnology 9:2, 93-111. [CrossRef]
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 05/31/14
For personal use only.