University of Nairobi

School of Physical Sciences

Department of Physics

HEAVY METALS ASSESSMENT IN FISH FROM KENYA

MARKETS

Thomas Mutoro Wefwafwa

I44/1236/2015

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of B.Sc.
Astronomy and Astrophysics of the University of
Nairobi

JUNE 2020
Declaration

I declare that this project is my original work and has not been submitted elsewhere for research
or exam purposes.

Thomas Mutoro Wefwafwa

I44/1236/2015
Department of Physics
School of Physical Sciences
University of Nairobi

29-06-2020
Signature....................................... Date..................

The undersigned person(s) have agreed to supervise this research project for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Science in Astronomy and Astrophysics of the University of Nairobi:

Dr. Alix Dehayem Massop

University of Nairobi
P.O Box 30197-00100
Nairobi Kenya
alix@uonbi.ac.ke

Signature............ ........................... Date.. 01-07-2020................

i
Dedication

I dedicate this to my grandmother Margret, Brother Samuel, Sister Lilian: To my uncle Mr. Clifford
M. Wefwafwa: your great and consistent support gave me hope.

ii
Acknowledgments

I first begin by acknowledging my Almighty Father who dwells in heaven for protection, love,
mercy, and grace that has been with me.

I appreciate my supervisor Dr. Alix Dehayem Massop for her consistent support and guidance
to make sure this work is completed.

My warm appreciation goes to my family and friends for continuous prayers and
encouragement throughout the study period to make sure I successfully achieve my goal.

iii
Abstract

In various parts of Kenya, fish is vital for consumption and commercial purposes. Most aquatic
animals are known to be contaminated by toxic heavy metals. Heavy metals present during the
research were manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), copper
(Cu), and lead (Pb). Thus, some heavy metals noted to be higher than WHO permissible limits.
Fish are therefore likely to expose mankind to heavy metals through the food chain.

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List of Figures

2.1 A graph of lead concentration in fish from various markets in Kenya; (Nzeve,
2015)……………………… 5

2.2 A graph of chromium concentration in fish from various markets in Kenya; (Nzeve,
2015)………………………… 6

3.1 Tilapia (obtained from Kenya markets). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.2 Mud-fish (obtained from Kenya markets). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.3 Common carp (obtained from Kenya markets). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.4: MP15 laboratory pellet compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.5: A set of 20 mm pellet press die binder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.6: Sample pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.7 EDXRF Machine (For evaluating heavy metals in the fish samples). . . . . . . . .12

v
List of Tables

4.1 Values of Concentration of heavy metals in fish in ppm………. 13

vi
Tables of Contents

Declaration i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgments iii

Abstract iv

List of Figures v

List of Tables vi

Table of Contents viii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem and justification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Main Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Specific objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.4 Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Literature Review 4

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.2 Distribution of Heavy metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.3 Heavy Metals Concentration in Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.4 Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

vii
 2.4.1 Lead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.4.2 Mercury. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.4.3 Arsenic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.4.4 Cadmium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.4.5 Copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.4.6 Chromium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Methodology 9

3.1 Market and Sample Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2 Sample preparation and Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.3 Pellet preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Expected Results 13

4.1 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.2 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

References 16

viii
Chapter 1

Introduction

Fish and their products play a big role in Kenya since a very large percentage of the population
depends on fish for protein and even some on fish production for a livelihood. Most types of fish
in Kenyan markets are obtained either locally from oceans such as the Indian Ocean at the
coastal region, lakes such as Lake Victoria, Naivasha, Turkana among others, some from rivers
such as Tana, Athi River, Kuywa, Nzoia, and some from ponds or imported from other countries
like China for instance. Heavy metals are channeled into water sources where fishing takes
place by human activities such as agricultural practices. Waste products from industries,
hospitals and residential areas are being directed into rivers, lakes, and oceans thus
contaminating water sources (Al-Wesabi, 2015). This desecration of ecosystems by heavy
metals is now a field of concern (Narayan et al., 2008). There are those metals that are needed
by the body for nutritional purposes and assist in body metabolic processes, like Copper, Zinc,
Iron, Magnesium, Cobalt. If inadequate in the body they may lead to deficiency syndromes and
can also be harmful if found in excess. There are other metals which are very toxic in the body
in both small and large amounts, these metals are mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), Arsenic (As),
cadmium, uranium, silver, aluminum, titanium, and gold.

There are different ways of subjection to these toxicants like occupation, ingestion, air
pollution, soil erosion, and water pollution from sewage systems, pesticides, herbicides, and
other veterinary activities. These affect human organ and are termed as causes of very chronic
diseases such as cancer, high blood pressure, arthritis, etc. This happens when fish from
contaminated sources are being consumed by people. Recently there are many reported health
issues associated with these heavy metals contamination, increasingly creating local and
international health concerns in the environment.

1
1.1 Statement of the Problem and justification

Environmental pollution, both in urban centers and rural areas has contributed to
contamination of the aquatic ecosystem which is linked to heavy metals accumulation in fish
(Dua et al. 2005). In Kenya heavy metal analysis has been done on freshwater sources such as
river Kuywa (Wasike et al., 2019), Lake Victoria (Oyoo, 2010), Masinga reservoir (Nzeve, 2015),
Lake Naivasha (Owiti et al., 2010). However, very few researchers focused on fish species like
Tilapia from Arthi-Galana Sabaki tributaries (Muiruri et al., 2013). Most of the fish such as mud-
fish, common carp, and tilapia obtained from these sources are sold locally in cities, towns,
markets, and along the roads in Kenya. There is therefore limited information about heavy
metals found in these fish species sold locally to Kenyan citizens exposing them to risks.

1.2 Main Objectives

To evaluate heavy metals in fish from Kenya markets which might be the cause of some health conditions.

1.3 Specific objectives

• Collect fish samples from various markets in Kenya and prepare pellets for EDXRF analysis.

• Qualitatively identify heavy metals in fish samples using EDXRF

• Assess the concentration of heavy metals in fish samples using EDXRF

1.4 Significance of the Study

Due to the increased supply and distribution of fish across the country, most people depend on
fish obtained from our local markets for protein. However, the rate at which our oceans, lakes,
and rivers which are habitats for fish are contaminated by heavy metals poses a risk to

2
consumers. The information gathered by this research shades more light on heavy metals
contamination in fish.

3
Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Metals with density exceeding 4.9g/cm3 are known as heavy metals. They found themselves
in oceans, seas, lakes, dams, and ponds through anthropogenic activities like dumping of waste
materials and raw sewage directed into the river sources (Woodford, 2020). These metals can
exist in the systems of some aquatic animals such as fish for a very long period of time without
directly affecting them but when ingested in human systems they are very harmful especially
when in excess above the allowed limits. Heavy metals can be traced by determining their levels
in fish or water (Senathne, 2007).

2.2 Distribution of Heavy metals

Human activities that have been increasing with respect to an increase in population and rapid
development in the economy have led to widespread heavy metal contamination in the entire
world. Almost every nation is suffering from the effects of heavy metals (Yang, 2009). Their
distribution is a result of natural and anthropogenic processes on the earth’s surface. Natural
processes are volcanoes, erosion, acidic rain, floods, etc. Anthropogenic processes include
veterinary services, pesticides, medical, dumping, and sewage directed into water sources and
technological activities (Holland et al., 2005).

4
 In the soil, it has been noted that heavy metals accumulate on our planet‘s lithosphere and it
is very difficult to control them as compared to pollution in air and water (Magno, 2018).

2.3 Heavy Metals Concentration in Fish

As we all know fish plays a pivotal part as a source of protein including other nutritional
benefits such as being a source of Omega3 in nourishing human health (Sarojnalini et al., 2019).
However, there are many more dangers coming by eating fish most frequently. Pollution of
ecosystems has been on the rise and heavy metals are known to be a serious type of pollution
across the globe in both developed and underdeveloped nations (Yashveen, 2018). It is,
therefore, becoming a global disquietude as long as human health is concerned (Tchounwou et
al., 2014).

Fish has been considered as the best aquatic indicator in the monitoring of heavy metals
since they are easily found in bulk and are capable of accumulating metals with time without
probable harm in their system, (Authman et al., 2015). Fish can also be a universal monitor
since it feeds on various things in the aquatic environment including sediments and algae. Thus,
suitable samples for analysis.

The graphs below illustrate the levels of lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr) concentration in three
species from various markets in Kenya. This analysis was carried out using a computerized Varian
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (model Spectra AA-10) (Nzeve, 2015).

5
 Figure 2.1: A graph of lead concentration in fish from various markets in Kenya; (Nzeve, 2015)

Figure 2.2: A graph of chromium concentration in fish from various markets in

Kenya; (Nzeve, 2015)

2.4 Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Health

2.4.1 Lead

Lead (Pb) poisoning may result in health problems in the gastrointestinal tract and central
nervous system. Exposure to lead at lower levels leads to complications in the liver, kidney,
infirmities in the reproductive system, and brain leading to illnesses such as headache,
hypertension, vertigo, arthritis, hallucination, and may cause death (Leone et al., 2008). Lead is
a threat even when it exists in the body system in trace concentrations. Chronic exposure leads
to mental retardation, birth defects paralysis, fatigue, coma, and even causes death. Lead can
also be termed as a known teratogenic element (Matte et al., 2003).

2.4.2 Mercury

Mercury (Hg) is termed as human toxicant and has no known biological or physiological
benefits or function in the human system (Sutton et al., 2002). Both organic and Inorganic states
of mercury can cause damage to the foetus in the womb, kidney, spontaneous abortion,
congenital malformation (Azevedo et al., 2012). Mercury generally causes tremors,
neuromuscular changes like weakness, muscle atrophy, twitching, headaches, and distorts

6
nervous reactions, interference in sensations, poor functioning of the mind, insomnia. Long-
term exposure may lead to respiratory collapse and eventually death (EPA, 2017).

2.4.3 Arsenic

Arsenic (As) inspissates protein then forms compounds with co-enzymes and slows down the
production of adenine atria-phosphate during breathing. As is a probable mutagenic compound
in oxidized forms and long term exposure can cause lung cancer, and death (Yang et al., 2014).
Arsenic can enter into the body by consuming food, water, and soil. Its toxicity results in
damaging of blood vessels and skin, stomach irritations, minimized nerve activities and also
affects the body immunity system. Long-term exposure to (As) can lead to poor IQ in children
(ATSDR, 2007).

2.4.4 Cadmium

Cadmium (Cd) mostly known to have a density of about 8 times more than water and is also a
very toxic heavy metal. Cd affects mostly internal body organs including the placenta in women.
Cadmium also causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains, dyspepsia, fatigue and weakening of
bones. Chronic effects are pulmonary dropsy, and death. Diseases such as Itai-Itai in Japan
raised a concern about the dangers of cadmium pollution in the ecosystem to world attention.
Cd is termed as both posing smaller or bigger risk in causing various health conditions such as
cancer and tumor among others. Controlling Cd exposures in the ecosystem have been very
challenging, causing high morbidity and mortality rates (Singh et al. Int. J. Res, 2011).

2.4.5 Copper

Copper (Cu) has both positive and negative impacts on human health. Cu is very essential in
human life. In low concentration it helps in the formation of blood vessels, nerves, maintain
bones, and even prevention of cardiovascular disease. If copper is concentrated in the body at
high levels more than recommended it can result in health effects such as anemia, intestinal

7
irritation kidney, liver, and stomach damages (Turniland et al., 1998). Studies done on copper
concentration in some parts of Kenya such as lake Kanyaboli (ranged from 1.80 ppm to 30.27
ppm) (Ochieng et al., 2008) and on Lake Victoria Winam Gulf (ranged from 3.90 ppm to 150.2
ppm) (Ochieng et al., 2007) was found to be higher than WHO limits of 25 ppm.

2.4.6 Chromium

Chromium (Cr) exists in different forms such as chromium VI which is very toxic thus causing
allergies, anemia, irritations, nose ulcers, and ulcers in small intestines and stomachs. It can also
damage sperm production, and the entire male reproductive system. Long-term exposure can
cause cardiovascular disease, respiratory problems, neurological effects, and even leads to
death (S. Wilbur et al., 2012).

8
Chapter 3

Methodology

EDXRF, a non-destructive method for multi-element analysis of material helped in detecting some
heavy metals in the samples obtained locally from the markets during the research.

3.1 Market and Sample Selection

Various markets where the samples were obtained in the study were selected based on population
distribution in the region and level of consumption of fish in the region. Some of these regions are
Kisumu, Nairobi, Naivasha, among others. Fish samples during the research were of different species
namely common carp, mud-fish, tilapia obtained in various markets within Kenya where some of
these fish species are locally fished from our polluted water sources and some are imported from
other countries such as China and Uganda. The samples used in the study are as shown in the figures,
Tilapia, Mud-fish, and Common carp.

9
Figure 3.1: Tilapia (obtained from Kenya markets) Figure 3.2: Mud-fish (obtained from Kenya markets)

Figure 3.3: common carp (obtained from Kenya)

10
3.2 Sample preparation and Evaluation

The fish samples were first prepared before analysis with the EDXRF machine. The collected
samples were named tagged and placed separately to avoid confusion. All the fish samples were
carefully removed heads, scales, fins, tails, and intestines then their flesh was collected, and
then other parts properly disposed of. It was then cleaned by washing them in distilled water
to remove dust particles and other particles which may lead to sample contamination. The fish
sample was then dried separately in a furnace at a temperature of around 70−90 oc for 8 hours
then exposed to direct sunlight to completely remove the moisture. The dried sample was then
grounded singly using a pestle and mortar into a fine powder. The powder was then sieved on
a 2 mm sieve and weighed 10g of each sample (Koleleni et al., 2014).

3.3 Pellet preparation

Dry weight of 10g powder of each sample was mixed with the binder then put inside a steel
sleeve. The laboratory compressor was used to compress the samples into pellets. Figure 3.4
shows an image of laboratory compressor and figure 3.5 shows images of pellet press die used
to prepare pellets in figure 3.6.

Figure 3.7 shows an image of EDXRF machine which is a non-destructive elemental analysis of
materials (ZW Chen et al., 2008). The pellet samples are the best form for EDXRF analysis so
that the size of particles are maintained within the saturation depth of the x-rays (GP Thomas,
2013).

11
Figure 3.4: MP15 laboratory pellet compressor Figure 3.5: A set of 20 mm pellet press die

Figure 3.6: Sample pellets Figure 3.7: EDXRF Machine (For evaluating heavy metals in the fish samples)

12
Chapter 4

Expected Results

This research aimed at qualitatively and quantitatively assess heavy metal and fish samples
collected from various markets in Kenya. These results were built up based on various previous
literature. The level of concentration in fish depends on level of heavy metals concentration of
the surrounding environment such as water, plants, and sediments since some serve as food for
aquatic animals. The table below shows the results of the concentration of heavy metals in three
species which have mostly dominated the Kenyan market and are widely consumed by our
population. The table below shows the results of concentration of copper (Cu), lead (Pb),
chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) in three species of fish (tilapia,
catfish, and common carp) obtained from Masinga reservoir analyzed using Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer(AAS) (Nzeve, 2015). Concentration of mercury (Hg) in tilapia from Lake
Baringo using (AAS) (wanjiru, 2015).

Table 4.1: Values of Concentration of heavy metals in fish in ppm

Species Cu Zn Mn Cr Pb Hg Cd
Common carp 0.10- 20.50- 0.10- 0.05- 0.10- 0.05-
3.50 85.00 2.00 1.50 3.50 3.50
Mud-fish 0.20- 17.00- 0.05- 0.20- 0.25- 0.02-
2.50 61.00 1.80 1.70 2.00 3.50
Tilapia 0.10- 17.50- 0.00- 0.15- 0.00- 0.20- 1.05-
1.50 57.50 1.90 1.25 1.60 1.15 3.00
WHO limits 3.0 10.0 2.50 0.15 0.30 0.30 0.10

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4.1 Discussion

As from the study, levels of concentration of heavy metals in distinct types of fish are expected
to vary due to their eating habits. Common carp are expected to lead in concentration, since it
feeds on sea or aquatic plantations, insects, and worms. It is therefore known to stay at the
bottom of the water sources so that they can adaptively locate their prey (Yousafzai et al., 2012).
Common carp therefore stand a chance to accumulate more metals since they feed directly from
the bottom where intensive adsorption takes place since heavy metals are denser than water.
Mud-fish is generally known to feed on small fish in water, mollusks, and insects. They are also
found at the bottom of water since they live in mud, therefore their heavy metals concentration
is expected to be slightly lower than that in common carp and might be higher than in tilapia.
Tilapia is known to feed on plankton and algae which seems to make them accumulate heavy
metals in their flesh at a slow rate in comparison with other fish.

4.2 Conclusion

From the previous literature, some results show that some of these toxic metals from various
different regions in Kenya exceed the permissible standards set. This is a bad indicator unless
we change our day-to-day activities that contribute to the pollution of our environment, then
we will be continually putting our lives at risk. Most of these devastating results are majorly
caused by our activities such as letting direct raw sewage into water sources, dumping in water
sources, and using agricultural products such as pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides that are
carried to water sources by floods. Therefore, I recommend that all regulatory agencies in
Kenya should continuously monitor human activities that contribute to the pollution of the
environment. They should make sure all sewerage systems are properly directed and the
dumping of waste materials is taken to appropriate dumping sites. We can try alternative
farming practices such as using organic manure and even practice some biological pest control

14
activities. Despite all the health risks brought about by fish consumption, fish serves as a source
of protein in our bodies and source of some metals which add micronutrients in our body if in
trace concentration such as Cu, Zn, Al etc. More research on heavy metals accumulation in fish
is needed to prevent health risks induced by heavy metals.

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8
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