University of Technology, Jamaica

Faculty of Built Environment

Traversing

Presenter: Trecia Williams, Msc. (Distinction)

January 25, 2021

Errors in field procedures
➢ Errors can arise from any of the two measurements in traversing.

➢ Linear Measurements –errors that may affect direct measurement

techniques were examined in linear surveys.

➢ Angular Measurements – The are two main sources of errors in

measuring angles in a traverse.
1. Observational errors
2. Instrumental errors

➢ Field procedures are therefore adopted to minimise or eliminate

these sources of errors.

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Errors in field procedures: Angular
Observational Errors
➢ Lateral refraction, haze and wind can prevent the line of sight from
being truly straight even when the target appears to be properly
bisected. It is important to keep the line of sight at least 1m above
ground on hot sunny days and on windy and hazy days it might be
necessary to suspend any attempt at accurate readings.

➢ If the target is not truly vertically above the station mark or is too
large, accurate bisection will not be possible and wrong directions
will be recorded. Always try to observe to the station mark itself,
if this is not possible then an accurately plumbed target such as a
chaining arrow or plumb-bob string will be best.

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Errors in field procedures: Angular
Observational Errors

➢ Errors can arise in misreading and booking the observations, so

always double check that the readings are what appears on the
instrument and what is recorded in the field book.

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Errors in field procedures: Angular
Instrumental Errors
➢ Always observe on both faces of the theodolite when measuring
angles.

➢ Ensure that the plate bubble remains in its central/equilibrium

position (levelled) when the instrument is rotated through 360º.

➢ Ensure the tripod is stable.

➢ The theodolite must be properly centred over the station mark.

➢ The focus of the telescope has to be adjusted for the target to be

bisected as accurate as possible.

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Errors in field procedures: Angular
Instrumental Errors
➢ When sighting a target, the tangent screws (slow motion screws)
have to be adjusted to intersect the target exactly or errors will be
present in measured angles.

➢ Effect of parallax must be eliminated at the start of observations.

1. Parallax can be detected by moving the eye to different part of the eyepiece
when viewing the target – if different parts of the target appear against the
cross hairs the telescope has not been properly focused and parallax is
present.

2. To remove parallax, focus the cross hairs on a page of the field book. Remove
the field book from in front the object lens, and focus on the target.

3. Observe the target while moving the eye up and down and if the target does
not appear to move relative to the cross hairs then parallax has been removed.

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Errors in field procedures: Angular
Instrumental Errors
➢ Horizontal angles must be measured using different parts of the circle. i.e.
Change zeroes

➢ If the horizontal circle is moved between observations the reduced angles

will be in error. This can occur for any or all of the following reasons:

1. Theodolite improperly attached to the tripod.

2. Forgetting to clamp the lower plate.

3. Forgetting to clamp the upper plate.

4. Operating the lower plate slow motion screw instead of the upper plate slow
motion screw.

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Field Checks on Closed Traverses
In order to locate errors before leaving the site it is advisable to
perform the following field checks:

➢ Summation of angles: The angles should first be reduced and their

sum should be (2n-4)90° for internal angles and (2n+4)90° for
external angles, where n is the number of angles/sides in the
traverse. Small differences are expected due to observational
errors and the allowable is usually given. If the difference between
the sum of the observed angles and the expected sum is larger than
what is allowed you will have to try and locate the incorrect
angle/s and re-observe those before departing the site.

➢ In the case of azimuth surveys or compass surveys a comparison

with the final observed bearing and the true bearing must be made
to detect any gross errors.
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Field Checks on Closed Traverses
➢ In order to identify gross angular errors, it is advisable to take
observation/s to other visible traverse stations in the control
network.

➢ Linear errors are identified by measuring the traverse legs in both

directions, and these errors tend to show up during the calculation
stage.

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Field Checks on Link Traverses
➢ In the case of closed connecting/link traverse field checks are done
by observing to other visible traverse stations or by observing to
any prominent point/s that are visible from more than one traverse
station along the route.

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Other Field Problems
➢ Some problems arises in the field that are unavoidable, and
suitable methods to over come them must be found. Examples
of some of these problems are:-
1. Unavoidable short traverse legs – Observe to a distant point
that is on the same line as the traverse leg i.e. Set the traverse
station on a line that is co-linear with a far point, and use the
distant point as the target when observing the angle to the
station.
2. Checking isolated points – Utilize the intersection technique,
i.e. coordinate the isolated point from two different
coordinated points.
3. Centring errors and its accumulation – This usually critical in
precise work, and are normally eliminated by executing a three
tripod traverse (forced centring) with interchangeable but
compatible theodolite and target tribrach.

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