University of Technology, Jamaica

Faculty of Built Environment

Traversing

Presenter: Trecia Williams, Msc. (Distinction)

January 11, 2021

Principles of Surveying
➢ Reconnaissance and Planning

➢ Control

➢ Economy of Accuracy

➢ Consistency

➢ Independent Check

➢ Revision

➢ Safeguarding

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Control Principle of Surveying
➢ Every survey is dependent on the formation of a grid framework
upon which all details are linked. This is generally described as
“working from the whole to the part”.

➢ A network of lines are placed at strategic points on the subject of

survey such that they are interconnected and form shapes that
may be reproduced on survey plans, diagrams, and maps, and for
which computations may be carried out to determine a variety of
spatial information.

➢ Control Techniques:
1. Trilateration
2. Triangulation
3. Traversing
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Control Principle of Surveying
➢ Trilateration - Overlay of a small network of triangles over the
area being surveyed and linear measurements are taken on all
sides of the triangular network with one bearing taken for
orientation.

➢ Triangulation – An accurate control method used extensively

control survey of large areas, such as a country. Involves the
establishment of stations forming a framework of connecting
triangles where all angles in all triangles must be measured and at
least one length and bearing of a side of triangle for scaling and
orientation.

➢ Traversing – A traverse is a control method of surveying in which

the positions of a series of points are fixed by measurements of
distances and angles between them.
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Trilateration vs. Traversing
➢ In the trilateration control technique, the control network is
governed by the need to provide well conditioned triangles and
features are linked to the network via offsets and tielines.

➢ In traversing the positioning of the control lines are not limited in

this way.

➢ In traversing, the control network design is not restricted

triangular formation and features (details) are linked to the
control framework via radial offsets.

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Traverse Network with Radial Offsets

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Advantages of Traversing over Trilateration
➢ CONVENIENCE – Control stations may be more conveniently placed
without the constraint of having to form triangles as with other control
techniques. Also, traverse lines can be positioned as needed to
efficiently deal with the topography.

➢ ACCURACY – The position of the station can be more accurately

established and plotted. Distances and directions not directly measured
can be computed from coordinates to the same degree of accuracy as
the field measurements.

➢ CHECKING – Traversing offers a more rigorous checking regime.

➢ LESS FIELDWORK – Since less lines are necessary in the control

network and less measurements need to be recorded in the field. Then
the survey can be plotted and checked in less time.

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Purpose of Traversing

➢ To survey details – the relative positions of natural and cultural

features may be represented graphically or digitally when their
positions relative to a traverse network are known.

➢ Setting out – a control framework from which the positions of

construction works maybe set out based on information from a
design plan.

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Types of Traverse Networks

➢ Closed – provides a check on the validity and accuracy of field

measurements.
1. Loop (ring, closed ring)
2. Closed link, closed tied, closed connecting

➢ Open – accuracy not checked

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Closed Traverse Network
➢ A traverse closing back on its starting point forming a closed polygon with
all distances and internal angles measured.
➢ A traverse closing back on its starting point forming a closed polygon with
all distances and external angles measured.
➢ A traverse between two fixed coordinated points (known points), that is a
link/connecting traverse.
➢ These traverses are capable of being checked and adjusted to fit accurately
between the start and finish points.
➢ Suitable for many survey works where the check on accuracy is essential.
➢ Closed tied traverse (Link/connecting) is most suitable for network (roads,
railways) surveys.

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Open Traverse Network
➢ A traverse network that does not close on to a known fixed point.

➢ Cannot be properly checked or adjusted

➢ A traverse that should be avoided or converted to closed

link/connecting traverse.

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Measurements required in Traversing
➢ From the definition of traversing it is evident that the length and
angles between traverse stations are measured.

➢ A variety of length measurement methods are available depending

on the accuracies required and the purpose of the survey. These
methods may be:-
1. Direct Distance Measurement – Direct Taping/Chaining
2. Electro-magnetic distance measurement (EDM)
3. Optical Distance Measurement – Tacheometry
4. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

➢ Angular Measurement (observed for the purpose of determining

azimuths and bearings):-
1. Bearings measurement
2. Angles measurement between the lines
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Direct Taping
➢ It is a direct measurement procedure that involves the stretching of a
tape between two traverse stations to obtain a distance.

➢ Slope distances are typically recorded then reduced to a horizontal

distance.

➢ The correction for the reduction of slope distance to horizontal distance

is always negative, that is, the horizontal distance is always shorter than
the slope distance.

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Direct Taping
➢ Steel tapes provide direct measurement only when they are “fully
supported” along their length, that is, on flat ground.

➢ When only end supports are provided, the tape sags in the form of a
catenary and the measurement will be longer than actual distance.

➢ To calculate the correction, the tension (P) and the weight per unit length
(w) of the tape are required.

𝑤 2 𝐷3
➢ Correction:− , where D is the measured distance.
24𝑃2

➢ This correction is always negative.

➢ Catenary taping is used for precise distance

measurement.
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EDM: Electromagnetic distance
measurement
➢ EDM consists of an aiming head/receiver unit set at one end of the
line to be measured and pointed towards a reflective glass prism
set up at the other end.

➢ An electromagnetic beam is emitted from the aiming head,

projected towards the prism, reflected back and analyzed to
determine the distance.

➢ Today, theodolites (angular measurement) and EDMs (distance

measurement) are combined into one instrument called the total
station.

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EDM: Electromagnetic distance
measurement
➢ In EDM instruments the electromagnetic waves are propagated to
the reflector and again received by the instrument. The time taken
for the wave to travel 2 times the distance may be measured and
knowing the velocity of wave, the distance may be calculated.
➢ Distance = Velocity * time

➢ In EDM instruments the electromagnetic waves are propagated to

the reflector and again received by the instrument. The EDM
measures the phase difference between the outgoing and returning
signal at varying frequencies to compute the single distance. The
number of completed wave and incomplete wave is measured.
➢ 2D = nλ + ∆λ

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Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS)
➢ A collection of satellite constellations which orbits the globe and
continuously transmits signals (for use in navigation and
positioning application), which allow any one with a GNSS
receiver to receive the transmitted signal and then determine the
time and precise position of any point on the earth.

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Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS)
➢ Survey stations are often times defined in terms of coordinates.

➢ GNSS provides coordinated traverse station positions described in

northing, easting and elevation.

➢ This is achieved by a receiver querying the position of satellites in

space and computing its position on ground.

➢ From the coordinates of two traverse stations, the distance

between them can be computed.

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Optical Distance Measurement: Stadia
Tacheometry
➢ A method of measuring horizontal and vertical distances indirectly using
a level or a theodolite. The stadia hairs (upper and lower horizontal
hairs) are set so that a constant angle is subtended at the instrument by
distant points with which they coincide.

➢ When a staff at one end of a line is observed through a level at the other
end the difference in staff readings coinciding with the stadia hairs is S
(Upper Stadia Reading – Lower Stadia Reading)

➢ D (horizontal distance) = KS, where K is a multiplying constant. On

modern instruments, K equals 100.

➢ Tacheometry using a level can

be carried out over ground with little
rise or fall.

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Optical Distance Measurement: Stadia
Tacheometry
➢ The principle is based on the property of isosceles triangles, where the
ratio of distance of the base from apex and length of the base is always
constant.

𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3
➢ = = =K
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3

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Stadia Tacheometry

➢ If the ground is not level a theodolite is needed to measure

inclined sights (vertical angle) to the staff.

➢ H is the horizontal distance

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Angular Measurements
➢ Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently
depends on measurements of angles and directions. In surveying,
directions are given by bearings and azimuths.

➢ Horizontal angles - Basic measurement for determining bearing and

azimuths.

➢ Vertical angles - For trigonometric leveling, stadia measurement, For

reducing measured slope distances to horizontal.

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Angular Measurements
➢ Three basic requirements to determine an angle:
1. Reference/starting lines
2. Direction of turning
3. Value of the angle

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Horizontal Angular Measurements
➢ The horizontal angle is that subtended by two stations.

➢ The horizontal circle of the theodolite is graduated clockwise.

➢ The value of the clockwise angle is the 1st horizontal reading

subtracted from the 2nd.

➢ The same clockwise angle would be recorded if the alidade was

swung anticlockwise.

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Horizontal Angular Measurements

Interior Angles

Deflecting Angles

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Direction of a Line
➢ The direction of a line is the horizontal angle between it and a reference
line.
➢ The reference line may be north.

➢ True North: It is the north-south reference line that passes through the
earth’s geographic poles.

➢ Magnetic North: defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle that is

influenced by earth’s magnetic field only.

➢ An Assumed (Arbitrary) North: can be established by merely assigning

any arbitrary directions. For example, taking certain street line to be
true north.

➢ Grid North: Grid north is a navigational term referring to the direction

northwards along the grid lines of a map projection.
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Direction of a Line: Bearing
➢ Represent one system for designating directions of lines.
➢ A bearing is defined as the acute horizontal angle between a reference
line and the subject line.
➢ The angle is measured from either the north or south towards the east or
west, to give a reading smaller than 90˚.
➢ The bearing of a line is measured from the north or from the south
(whichever is closer), in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction
(whichever applies).
N

S
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Direction of a Line: Bearing

➢ Assume that a compass is setup successively at points A, B, C and D

and bearings read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD and DC.

➢ Bearings AB, BC and CD are called Forward bearings and BA, CB, DC
are Back bearings..

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Direction of a Line: Azimuth
➢ Azimuths are horizontal angles measured clockwise from a
reference meridian, that is, north.

➢ They can range from 0˚ to 360˚ and they do not require letters to
identify the quadrant.

➢ The forward direction of a line can be given by its Forwarding

Azimuth and its reverse direction by its Reverse Azimuth.

➢ Forward azimuths are converted to back azimuths, and vice versa,

by adding or subtracting 180˚.

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Direction of a Line: Azimuth

➢ Azimuths of OA = 70˚
➢ Azimuths of AO = 70˚ + 180˚=250˚ (back azimuths)
➢ Azimuths of OC = 235˚
➢ Azimuths of CO = 235˚ – 180˚ = 55˚ (back azimuths)

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Direction of a Line: Azimuth vs Bearing

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Angles to Bearing or Azimuth

350˚46’ ➢ If the computation is

proceeding in C.C.W
manner, add the interior
angle to the back azimuth
of the previous course.

➢ If the computation is
proceeding in C.W manner,
subtract the interior angle
from the back azimuth of
the previous course.

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Vertical Angles
➢ The theodolite (most times) gives the zenith angles for a pointing
and the vertical angle needs to be deduced.

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