Lymphocytes

Overview
Lymphocytes are one of several different types of white blood cells. Each type of white blood
cell has a specific function, and they all work together to fight illness and disease.
White blood cells are an important part of your immune system. They help your body fight
antigens, which are bacteria, viruses, and other toxins that make you sick. If your doctor says you
have a weakened immune system, that means there aren’t enough white blood cells in your
bloodstream.

Lymphocytes and how they work

Your bone marrow constantly produces cells that will become lymphocytes. Some will enter
your bloodstream, but most will move through your lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is
the group of tissues and organs, like the spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes, that protect your body
from infection.
About 25 percent of the new lymphocytes remain in the bone marrow and become B cells. The
other 75 percent travel to your thymus and become T cells.
There are different kinds of B cells and T cells. These include:
effector cells that are activated by antigens to fight an active infection
memory cells that have been in your body long enough to recognize and “remember” past
infections and go into action quickly if you become re-infected with an antigen
B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes work together to fight infection.

The roles of B cells and T cells

B lymphocytes recognize antigens and become plasma cells that produce antibodies to fight
them.
There are three types of T lymphocytes, and each plays its own role. These include:
 cytotoxic T cells
 helper T cells
 regulatory T cells
Cytotoxic T cells, often called killer T cells, destroy cells in your body that have been infected
with an antigen, cancer cells, and foreign cells like transplanted organs. Helper T cells direct the
immune response of B cells and other T cells.
Regulatory T cells suppress your immune system to keep its response in check. In addition to
preventing autoimmune disease, they also prevent other white blood cells from fighting real or
perceived antigens. Perceived antigens include substances like allergens and normal flora
bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. Allergens are things that cause an allergic reaction, which
could include pollen, molds, or pet dander.

What causes a low lymphocyte count?

A low lymphocyte count, called lymphocytopenia, usually occurs because:
 your body isn’t producing enough lymphocytes
 lymphocytes are being destroyed
 lymphocytes are trapped in your spleen or lymph nodes
Lymphocytopenia can point to a number of conditions and diseases. Some, like the flu or mild
infections, aren’t serious for most people. But a low lymphocyte count puts you at greater risk of
infection.

What causes a high lymphocyte count?

Lymphocytosis, or a high lymphocyte count, is common if you’ve had an infection. High
lymphocyte levels that persist may point to a more serious illness or disease, such as:
 viral infections, including measles, mumps, and mononucleosis
 adenovirus
 hepatitis
 influenza
 tuberculosis
 toxoplasmosis
 cytomegalovirus
 brucellosis
 vasculitis
 acute lymphocytic leukemia
 chronic lymphocytic leukemia
 HIV and AIDS
Explain the functions of the platelets from the presentation.
Functions of the platelets
1. Role in hemostasis
- One major function of platelets is to contribute to hemostasis: the process of stopping
bleeding at the site of interrupted endothelium. They gather at the site and, unless the
interruption is physically too large, they plug the hole. First, platelets attach to
substances outside the interrupted endothelium: adhesion. Second, they change shape,
turn on receptors and secrete chemical messengers: activation. Third, they connect to
each other through receptor bridges: aggregation. Formation of this platelet plug
(primary hemostasis) is associated with activation of the coagulation cascade, with
resultant fibrin deposition and linking (secondary hemostasis). These processes may
overlap: the spectrum is from a predominantly platelet plug, or "white clot" to a
predominantly fibrin, or "red clot" or the more typical mixture. Some would add the
subsequent retraction and platelet inhibition as fourth and fifth steps to the completion
of the process and still others would add a sixth step, wound repair. Platelets also
participate in both innate and adaptive intravascular immune responses. The platelet
cell membrane has receptors for collagen. Following the rupture of the blood vessel
wall, the platelets are exposed and they adhere to the collagen in the surrounding
connective tissue.

2. Role in clot formation

- Platelets play a major role in blood clotting. Normally, when one of your blood
vessels is injured, you start to bleed. Your platelets will clot (clump together) to plug
the hole in the blood vessel and stop the bleeding.

3. Role in clot retraction

- The role of platelets in fibrin clot formation is long established. At sites of injury the
activation of the tissue factor- (extrinsic) and contact- (intrinsic) dependent
coagulation pathways leads to the activation of factor X, and through subsequent
processing of prothrombin to thrombin, lead to the conversion of plasma fibrinogen to
fibrin (Figure 1). Activated platelets provide phospholipids released in the form of
microparticles that act along with calcium as cofactors for the actions of factor X. The
exposure of amino phospholipids such as phosphatidylserine on the surface of
activated platelets provides a surface for the assembly of the prothrombinase
complex, and thereby thrombin may be produced in the vicinity of a platelet thrombus
as it forms, ensuring the incorporation fibrin for thrombus stabilization. Through
activation of protease activated receptors on the platelet surface, thrombin also acts as
a powerful platelet agonist.
- Platelets generate force to contract the fibrin matrix and draw the edges of the wound
together. The retraction is driven by the interaction between the fibrin outside the
cells and the actin - myosin cytoskeleton of the platelets, which is mediated by
integrin αIIbβ3.
4. Role in repair of injured blood vessels
- When blood vessels are damaged, vessels and nearby platelets are stimulated to
release a substance called prothrombin activator, which in turn activates the
conversion of prothrombin, a plasma protein, into an enzyme called thrombin. This
reaction requires calcium ions. Thrombin facilitates the conversion of a soluble
plasma protein called fibrinogen into long, insoluble fibers or threads of the protein,
fibrin. Fibrin threads wind around the platelet plug at the damaged area of the blood
vessel, forming an interlocking network of fibers and a framework for the clot. This
net of fibers traps and helps hold platelets, blood cells, and other molecules tight to
the site of injury, functioning as the initial clot. This temporary fibrin clot can form in
less than a minute and slows blood flow before platelets attach.
- Next, platelets in the clot begin to shrink, tightening the clot and drawing together the
vessel walls to initiate the process of wound healing. Usually, the whole process of
clot formation and tightening takes less than a half hour.

5. Role on defense mechanism

- Platelets have many of the attributes of innate immune function including Toll-like
receptors. They also contain a wide range of anti-microbial peptides in storage
granules. Platelets play an important role in bacterial infections, both in disease
progress and in defense mechanisms depending on circumstances. Similar
mechanisms are used in defense against fungi. Platelets are also involved in viral
diseases, either in protecting from the immune system or in killing viruses that
activate platelets. Finally, platelets have a role in defense against parasitic diseases, in
particular malaria, that should not be ignored, and may aggravate some of the worst
aspects. Platelets also have receptors for IgE and are implicated via parasitic disorders
in development and problems of allergy.

6. Transport of storage function

7.
 Research on the specific Terminology used for the cell components when
referring to muscle histology – a muscular cell.

Muscle Cell Definition

A muscle cell, known technically as a myocyte, is a specialized animal cell which can shorten its
length using a series of motor proteins specially arranged within the cell. While several
associated proteins help, actin and myosin form thick and thin filaments which slide past each
other to contract small units of a muscle cell. These units are called sarcomeres, and many of
them run end-to-end within a larger fiber called a myofibril. A single muscle cell contains many
nuclei, which are pressed against the cell membrane. A muscle cell is a long cell compared to
other forms of cells, and many muscle cells connect together to form the long fibers found in
muscle tissue.

Structure of a Muscle Cell

As seen in the image below, a muscle cell is a compact bundle of many myofibrils. Each
myofibril is made of many sarcomeres bundled together and attached end-to-end. A specialized
form of the endoplasmic reticulum, known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum, extends in and around
these myofibril bundles. The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR for short) concentrates a chemical
needed for the muscle cells to contract, and is activated by signals from nerve cells. The signals
travel through the transverse tubules (T tubules in the picture below) after being received from a
nerve and activates the SR. Mitochondria are densely packed throughout muscle cells, to provide
a constant flow of ATP. The entire cell is covered in a specialized cell membrane known as the
sarcolemma. The sarcolemma has special opening which allow nerve impulses to be passed into
transverse tubules.

There are 3 types of muscle cells in the human body; cardiac, skeletal, and smooth.

Cardiac muscle cell Rectangular in shape

Single nucleus
Contain many mitochondria
Communicate via intercalated discs
- Present in myocardium (cardiac muscle)

Skeletal muscle cell Cylindrical

Striated
Multinucleated
Contain many mitochondria
- Present in skeletal muscles
 Smooth muscle cell Spindle shaped
Single central nucleus
Arranged in sheets
- Present in muscular layers of the vessels, and within internal organs

Skeletal Muscle cells

 Skeletal muscle cells are long, cylindrical, multi-nucleated and striated. Each nucleus
regulates the metabolic requirements of the sarcoplasm around it. Skeletal muscle cells
have high energy requirements, so they contain many mitochondria in order to generate
sufficient ATP. The sarcoplasm consists of myofibrils, which in turn are made up of thick
and thin myofilaments. These cells form the muscle that we use to move and produce
contraction due to the sliding of myosin heads over the actin filaments. This process is
regulated by factors like calcium, troponin, tropmyosin and T-tubules.
Cardiac muscle cells
 Cardiomyocytes are short and narrow, and fairly rectangular in shape. They contain
a single nucleus, similar cell organelles as skeletal muscle cells, and many sarcosomes,
which provide the required energy for contraction. Cardiomyocytes are structurally
connected by intercalated discs which have gap junctions for diffusion and
communication. They allow the transmission of contractile force between cells as
electrical depolarization propagates from cell to cell, which facilitates a uniformal
contracting force. As these cardiac cells cannot divide, satellite cells are responsible for
replacing the damaged ones.
Smooth muscle cells
 Smooth muscle cells are elastic, not striated, spindle-shaped and contain a single central
nucleus. Smooth muscle cells are arranged together in sheets and this organisation means
that they can contract simultaneously. They have poorly developed sarcoplasmic
reticulum’s and do not contain T-tubules, due to the restricted size of the cells. However,
they do contain other normal cell organelles such as sarcosomes but in lower
numbers. Smooth muscle cells are responsible for involuntary contractions and they also
contain gap junctions for the spread of depolarization.
Splenomegaly there’s a reduction of the platelets, but when the spleen is
removed, by a process called splenectomy, the platelets increase.