Calculus I - Chapter 1 Solutions

(b) The slope appears to be 12.
Chapter 1 Second point msec

(3, 27) 19
(2.1, 11.261) 12.61
(2.01, 10.120601) 12.0601
Limits and Continuity (1, 3) 7
(1.9, 8.859) 11.41
(1.99, 9.880599) 11.9401
3. (a) The slope appears to be 0.
Second point msec
(1, 0.5403) −0.4597
1.1 A Brief Preview of Calculus (0.1, 0.995) −0.05
(0.01, 0.99995) −0.005
(-1, 0.5403) 0.4597
Second point msec (-0.1, 0.995) 0.05
(2, 5) 3 (-0.01, 0.99995) 0.005
(1.1, 2.21) 2.1
(1.01, 2.0201) 2.01
Second point msec
(0, 1) 1
(1, 0.5403) 0.9466
(0.9, 1.81) 1.9
(1.5, 0.0707) 0.9986
(0.99, 1.9801) 1.99
(1.57, 0.0008) 1
(2.5, -0.8011) 0.8621
Second point msec (2, -0.4161) 0.9695
(3, 10) 5 (1.6, -0.0292) 1
(2.1, 5.41) 4.1
1
4. (a) The slope appears to be 2
.
(2.01, 5.0401) 4.01
(1, 2) 3 Second point msec
(1.9, 4.61) 3.9 (1, 2) 0.4142
(1.99, 4.9601) 3.99 (0.1, 1.0488) 0.488
(0.01, 1.004988) 0.4988
(-1, 0) 1
Second point msec (-0.1, 0.9487) 0.513
(2, 10) 7 (-0.01, 0.99499) 0.501
(1.1, 3.331) 3.31
(b) The slope appears to be 0.25.
(1.01, 3.030301) 3.0301
Second point msec
(0, 2) 1
(2, 1.7321) 0.2679
(0.9, 2.729) 2.71
(2.9, 1.9748) 0.252
(0.99, 2.970299) 2.9701
(2.99, 1.9975) 0.25
(4, 2.2361) 0.2361
(3.1, 2.0248) 0.248
(3.01, 2.0025) 0.25
42
1.1. A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS 43
5. (a) The slope appears to be 1. 7. (a) For the x-values of our points here we use
Second point msec (approximations of) 0, 8 , 4 , 38 , and 2 .
(1, e) 1.718282
Left Right Length
(0.1, 1.1052) 1.051709
(0, 1) (0.393, 0.92) 0.400
(0.01, 1.0101) 1.005017
(0.393, 0.92) (0.785, 0.71) 0.449
(-1, 0.3679) 0.632121
(0.785, 0.71) (1.18, 0.383) 0.509
(-0.1, 0.9048) 0.951626
(1.18, 0.383) (1.571, 0) 0.548
(-0.01, 0.9901) 0.995017
Total 1.906
(b) For the x-values of our points here we use

Second point msec (approximations of) 0, 16 , 8 , 316 , 4 , 516 ,
(0, 1) 1.7183 3 7 
8
, 16
, and 2
.
(0.9, 2.4596) 2.587
(0.99, 2.6912) 2.71 Left Right Length
(2, 7.3891) 4.6708 (0, 1) (0.196, 0.98) 0.197
(1.1, 3.0042) 2.859 (0.196, 0.98) (0.393, 0.92) 0.204
(1.01, 2.7456) 2.73 (0.393, 0.92) (0.589, 0.83) 0.217
6. (a) The slope appears to be 1. (0.589, 0.83) (0.785, 0.71) 0.232

(0.785, 0.71) (0.982, 0.56) 0.248
Second point msec
(0.982, 0.56) (1.178, 0.38) 0.262
(0.1, -2.3026) 2.5584
(1.178, 0.38) (1.37, 0.195) 0.272
(0.9, -0.1054) 1.054
(1.37, 0.195) (1.571, 0) 0.277
(0.99, -0.01005034) 1.005034
Total 1.909
(2, 0.6931) 0.6931
(1.1, 0.09531) 0.9531 (c) Actual length approximately 1.9101.
(1.01, 0.00995) 0.995 8. (a) For the x-values of our points here we use
(approximations of) 0, 8 , 4 , 38 , and 2 .
Note that we used 0.1 rather than 0 as an
evaluation point because ln x is not defined at Left Right Length
0.
(0, 0) (0.393, 0.38) 0.548
(0.393, 0.38) (0.785, 0.71) 0.509
Second point msec (0.785, 0.71) (1.18, 0.924) 0.449
(1, 0) 0.6931 (1.18, 0.924) (1.57, 1) 0.400
(1.9, 0.6419) 0.512 Total 1.906
(1.99, 0.6881) 0.5
(3, 1.0986) 0.4055 
(approximations of) 0, 16 , 8 , 316 , 4 , 516 ,
(2.1, 0.7419) 0.488 3 7 
8
, 16
, and 2
.
(2.01, 0.6981) 0.5
44 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Left Right Length (b)

(0, 0) (0.196, 0.2) 0.277 Left Right Length
(0.196, 0.2) (0.39, 0.38) 0.272 (1, 1) (1.125, 0.89) 0.167
(0.39, 0.38) (0.589, 0.56) 0.262 (1.125, 0.89) (1.25, 0.8) 0.153
(0.589, 0.56) (0.785, 0.71) 0.248 (1.25, 0.8) (1.375, 0.73) 0.145
(0.785, 0.71) (0.982, 0.83) 0.232 (1.375, 0.73) (1.5, 0.67) 0.139
(0.982, 0.83) (1.18, 0.924) 0.217 (1.5, 0.67) (1.625, 0.62) 0.135
(1.18, 0.924) (1.374, 0.98) 0.204 (1.625, 0.62) (1.75, 0.57) 0.133
(1.374, 0.98) (1.571, 1) 0.197 (1.75, 0.57) (1.875, 0.53) 0.131
Total 1.909 (1.875, 0.53) (2, 0.5) 0.129
(c) Actual length approximately 1.9101. Total 1.132
(c) Actual length approximately 1.1321.
9. (a)
Left Right Length 11. (a)
(0.75, 1.323) (1.5, 1.581) 0.793 (-2, 5) (-1, 2) 3.162
(1.5, 1.581) (2.25, 1.803) 0.782 (-1, 2) (0, 1) 1.414
(2.25, 1.803) (3, 2) 0.776 (0, 1) (1, 2) 1.414
Total 3.167 (1, 2) (2, 5) 3.162
(b) Total 9.153
Left Right Length (b)

(0.375, 1.17) (0.75, 1.323) 0.404 (-2, 5) (-1.5, 3.25) 1.820
(0.75, 1.323) (1.125, 1.46) 0.399 (-1.5, 3.25) (-1, 2) 1.346
(1.125, 1.46) (1.5, 1.58) 0.395 (-1, 2) (-0.5, 1.25) 0.901
(1.5, 1.58) (1.88, 1.696) 0.392 (-0.5, 1.25) (0, 1) 0.559
(1.88, 1.696) (2.25, 1.80) 0.390 (0, 1) (0.5, 1.25) 0.559
(2.25, 1.80) (2.63, 1.904) 0.388 (0.5, 1.25) (1, 2) 0.901
(2.63, 1.904) (3, 2) 0.387 (1, 2) (1.5, 3.25) 1.346
Total 3.168 (1.5, 3.25) (2, 5) 1.820
(c) Actual length approximately 3.168. Total 9.253
(c) Actual length approximately 9.2936.
10. (a)
Left Right Length 12. (a)
(1.25, 0.8) (1.5, 0.67) 0.2833 (-1, 1) (-0.5, 1.0078
1.875)
(1.5, 0.67) (1.75, 0.571) 0.2675
(1.75, 0.571) (2, 0.5) 0.2600 (-0.5, 1.875) (0, 2) 0.5154
(0, 2) (0.5, 2.125) 0.5154
Total 1.1310
(0.5, 2.125) (1, 3) 1.0078
Total 3.0463
1.1. A BRIEF PREVIEW OF CALCULUS 45
(b) the width (0.125) and add them all to obtain

the approximation 1.3359375 for the area.
Left Right Length
(b) Using the same method as in (a), the width of
(-1, 1) (-0.75, 1.58) 0.630 the rectangles is now
(-0.75, 1.58) (-.5, 1.88) 0.388 2/32 = 0.0625, and the midpoints are
(-.5, 1.88) (-0.25, 1.98) 0.273
1  32
1
,  1  32
3
, ,  1  32
63
.
(-0.25, 1.98) (0, 2) 0.251
(0, 2) (0.25, 2.016) 0.251 The approximation is 1.333984375.
(0.25, 2.016) (0.5, 2.13) 0.273 (c) Using the same method as in (a), the width of
the rectangles is now
(0.5, 2.13) (0.75, 2.42) 0.388
2/64 = 0.03125, and the midpoints are
(0.75, 2.42) (1, 3) 0.630
Total 3.084 1  64
1
,  1  64
3
, ,  1  127
64
.
(c) Actual length approximately 3.0957. The approximation is 1.333496094.

The actual area is 4/3.
13. (a) The sum of the areas of the rectangles is 11/8
= 1.375. 15. The following is a graph with 4 rectangles:
(b) The sum of the areas of the rectangles is (a) Using the same method as in exercise 13, the
43/32 = 1.34375. width of the rectangles is now π/16, and the
midpoints are
 3 15
, , .
16 16 16
The approximation is 2.003216378.
(b) Using the same method as in exercise 13, the
width of the rectangles is now π/32, and the
midpoints are
 3 31
, , , .
32 32 32
14. (a) The width of the entire region (−1 ≤ x ≤ 1) is The approximation is 2.000803417.
2, so the width of each rectangle is 2/16 =
0.125. (c) Using the same method as in exercise 13, the
width of the rectangles is now π/64, and the
The left endpoints of the rectangles are midpoints are
1,  1  16
2
, ,  1  16
28
,  1  16
30
so the
 3 63
midpoints of the rectangles are , , .
64 64 64
1  16 ,  1  16 , ,  1  16 .
1 3 31
The heights of the rectangles are then given
by the function f(x) = 1 − x2 evaluated at The actual area is 2.
those midpoints. We multiply each height by
16. The following is a graph with 4 rectangles: (b)

Left Right Length
(0,1) (0.125, 0.9922) 0.1252
(0.125, 0.9922) (0.25, 0.9682) 0.1273
(0.25, 0.9682) (0.375, 0.927) 0.1316
(0.375, 0.927) (0.5, 0.866) 0.1391
(0.5, 0.866) (0.625, 0.7806) 0.1514
(0.625, 0.7806) (0.75, 0.6614) 0.1727
(0.75, 0.6614) (0.875, 0.4841) 0.2169
(a) Using the same method as in exercise 13, the (0.875, 0.4841) (1, 0) 0.5
width of the rectangles is 1/16, and the Total 1.5642
midpoints are
The exact length of the curve is equal to the
1 3 15
, , , . 1
16 16 16 (circumference of the circle)
4
2 (1) 
(b) Using the same method as in exercise 13, the   .
4 2
width of the rectangles is now 1/32, and the
midpoints are 18. The function represents a quarter of the circle in the
first quadrant, with the center as the origin and
1 3 31 radius 3.
, , , .
32 32 32
(a)
Left Right Length
(b) Using the same method as in exercise 13, the (0, 3) (0.75, 2.905) 0.756
width of the rectangles is now 1/64, and the
midpoints are (0.75, 2.905) (1.5, 2.598) 0.810
(1.5, 2.598) (2.25, 1.984) 0.969
1 3 63
, , , . (2.25, 1.984) (3, 0) 2.121
64 64 64
Total 4.656
(b)
The actual area is 1/4. Left Right Length
17. The function represents a quarter of the circle in the (0, 3) (0.375, 2.976) 0.376
first quadrant, with the center as the origin and
(0.375, 2.976) (0.75, 2.905) 0.382
radius 1.
(0.75, 2.905) (1.125, 2.781) 0.395
(a)
(1.125, 2.781) (1.5, 2.598) 0.417
Left Right Length (1.5, 2.598) (1.875, 2.342) 0.454
(0,1) (0.25, 0.9682) 0.2520 (1.875, 2.342) (2.25, 1.984) 0.518
(0.25, 0.9682) (0.5, 0.866) 0.2773 (2.25, 1.984) (2.625, 1.452) 0.651
(0.5, 0.866) (0.75, 0.661) 0.3200 (2.625, 1.452) (3, 0) 1.5
(0.75, 0.661) (1, 0) 0.7066 Total 4.693
Total 1.5559
The exact length of the curve is equal to the
1
(circumference of the circle)
4
2 (3) 3
  .
4 2
1.2. THE CONCEPT OF LIMIT 47
1.2 The Concept of Limit x f(x) x f(x)

-0.9 0.3103 -1.1 0.3548
-0.99 0.3311 -1.01 0.3355
 x2  1  -0.999 0.3331 -1.001 0.3336
The graph of y  
1.
 x  1  is as follows -0.9999 0.3334 -1.0001 0.3334
 
Notice that the table and the graph both suggest that,
as x gets closer and closer to -1 from the left as well
 x2  x 
as from the right  2
 x  x  2 
gets closer and closer
 
1
to . This can be verified using factorization as
3
follows:
x2  x x( x  1)
lim  lim
x  1 x 2 x2 x 1 ( x  2)
( x  1)
x f(x) x f(x) x 1
0.9 1.9 1.1 2.1  lim 
x 1 x  2 3
0.99 1.99 1.01 2.01
0.999 1.999 1.001 2.001  x2 
0.9999 1.9999 1.0001 2.0001 3. The graph of y   2  is as follows
 x 4
as x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left as well
 x2  1 
as from the right   gets closer and closer to
 x 1 
2. This can be verified using factorization as
follows:
x2  1 ( x  1) ( x  1)
lim  lim
x 1 x  1 x 1 ( x  1)
 lim ( x  1)  2 x f(x) x f(x)
x 1 1.9 0.2564 2.1 0.2439
1.99 0.2506 2.01 0.2494
 x2  x 
2. The graph of y   2  is as follows 1.999 0.2501 2.001 0.2499
 x x2 1.9999 0.25 2.0001 0.25
 x2 
as from the right  2  gets closer and closer to
 x 4
1
. This can be verified using factorization as
4
follows
x2 x2
lim  lim
x2 x2  4 x  2 ( x  2)( x  2)
1 1
 lim 
x  2 ( x  2) 4
 ( x  1)2  Notice that the table and the graph both suggest that,
The graph of y   2
 x  2 x  3 
4. is as follows as x gets closer and closer to 1 from the left as well
   3x  9 
as from the right  2  gets closer and
 x  5x  6 
closer to 3. This can be verified using factorization
as follows
3x  9 3( x  3)
lim  lim
x 3 x  5 x  6
2 x 3 ( x  3) ( x  2)
3
 lim 3
x 3 x  2
 2 x 
6. The graph of y   2  is as follows
 x  2x 
x f(x) x f(x)
0.9 -0.0256 1.1 0.0244
0.99 -0.0025 1.01 0.0025
0.999 -0.0003 1.001 0.0003
0.9999 -0.00003 1.0001 0.00003
 ( x  1) 2 
as from the right  2
 x  2 x  3  gets closer and
 
closer to 0. This can be verified using factorization
as follows x f(x) x f(x)
-1.9 -0.5263 -2.1 -0.4762
( x  1) 2 ( x  1) 2
lim  lim -1.99 -0.5025 -2.01 -0.4975
x 1 x 2  2 x  3 x 1 ( x  1)( x  3)
( x  1) -1.999 -0.5003 -2.001 -0.4998

 lim 0
x 1 ( x  3) -1.9999 -0.50001 -2.0001 -0.49998
2x 2x 1 1
lim  lim  lim  
 x2  1  x 2 x 2  2x x 2 x (x  2) x 2 x 2
5. The graph of y    is as follows
 x 1 
7. (a) f  2   3
(b) lim f (x )  2
x 2
(c) f  1 is undefined.
(d) lim f (x )  2
x 0
8. (a) False. f  2   3
(b) True. lim  f (x )  2

x 2
x f(x) x f(x)
(c) False. It does not exist because the limit to
2.9 3.3333 3.1 2.7273 the left is different than the limit to the right
2.99 3.0303 3.01 2.9703 Does not exist. lim f (x ) does not exist.
x 2
2.999 3.003 3.001 2.997
(d) True. lim f (x )  2
2.9999 3.0003 3.0001 2.9997 x 2
(d) lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  2

x 1 x 1
9. (a) lim f ( x)  2 (e) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  32  9

x 0 x 3 x 3
(b) lim f ( x)  2
x 0
(c) lim f ( x) Does not exist.

x 0
(d) lim f ( x)  2
x 2
(e) lim f ( x)  2
x 2
(f) lim f ( x)  2
x 2
(g) lim f ( x)  0 13. (a) lim f ( x)  lim x3  1  1

x 1
x 0 x 0
(h) lim f ( x)  1
x 3 (b) lim f ( x)  lim x  1  2
x 0 x 0
= −1
10. (a) lim f ( x)  1
x 1
(c) lim f ( x)  1
x 0
(b) lim f ( x)  1
x 1
(d) lim f ( x)  lim x3  1  2
x 1 x 1
(c) lim f ( x)  1
x 1
(e) lim f ( x)  lim x  1  2  0
(d) lim f ( x)  1 x 3 x 3
x 2
(e) lim f ( x)  3
x  2
(f) lim f ( x) does not exist.

x 2
(g) lim f ( x)  2.5

x 3
(h) lim f ( x)  1.5

x  3
11. (a) f 1  2

14. f(1.5) = 2.22, f(1.1) = 2.05,
(b) lim f (x )  1
x 1 f(1.01) = 2.01, f(1.001) = 2.00.
(c) lim f (x )  3 The values of f(x) seem to be approaching 2 as x
x 1
approaches 1 from the right.
(d) lim f (x ) does not exist.
x 1 f(0.5) = 1.71, f(0.9) = 1.95,
(e) f  2  0 f(0.99) = 1.99, f(0.999) = 2.00.

The values of f(x) seem to be approaching 2 as x
(f) lim f ( x) does not exist. approaches 1 from the left. Since the limits from the
x 2
left and right exist and are the same, the limit exists.
12. (a) lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  4

x  2 x 2 15. f(−1.5) = −0.4
(b) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  4 f(−1.1) = −0.4762

x 2 x 2
f(−1.01) = −0.4975
(c) lim f ( x)  4 f(−1.001) = −0.4998
x 2
The values of f(x) seem to be approaching −0.5 as x 22. The limit does not exist because the graph oscillates
approaches −1 from the left. wildly near x = 0.
f(−0.5) = −0.6667 23. By inspecting the graph, and using a sequence of

values (as in exercises 11 and 12), we see that the
f(−0.9) = −0.5263
limit is approximately 3/2.
f(−0.99) = −0.5025
24. The numerical evidence suggests that
f(−0.999) = −0.5003
x2 x2
lim  1 while lim 1
x  2 | x2| x 2 | x  2 |
The values of f(x) seem to be approaching −0.5 as x
approaches −1 from the right. Since the limits from x2
the left and right exist and are the same, the limit so lim does not exist. There is a break in the
x 2 | x  2 |
exists.
graph at x = 2.
16. By inspecting the graph, and using a sequence of
values (as in exercises 14 and 15), we see that the 25. The function approaches 1/2 from the left, and −1/2
limit is approximately 1. from the right. Since these are not equal, the limit
does not exist.
17. The numerical evidence suggests that the function 26. One possibility:
the function blows up at x = 1. From the graph we
see that the function has a vertical asymptote at x =
1.
18.
x y = f(x)
0.9 0.290960
0.6 0.062177
0.2 1.388 × 10−11
-0.2 1.388 × 10−11
27. One possibility:
-0.6 0.062177
-0.9 0.290960
By inspecting the graph and using a sequence of
values, we see that the limit is approximately 0.
19.
x y = f(x)
0.9 0.949122
0.99 0.994991
0.999 0.999500 28. One possibility:
1.001 1.000500
1.01 1.005000
1.1 1.049206
By inspecting the graph, and using a sequence of
values, we see that the limit is approximately 1.
20. The limit exists and equals 1.
21. The limit exists and equals 1.

For x < 0, as x increases, the value of function starts

increasing sharply as shown in table below.
x f(x)
29. One possibility: -0.0001 -99.0099
-0.00001 -9.9990
-0.000001 -1
-.0000001 -0.1
-.00000001 -0.01
-.0000000001 -0.000001
Notice that the table suggests that, as x gets closer
and closer to 0 from the left as well as from the right
 x 
 2  gets closer and closer to 0.
30. Numerical and graphical evidence show that the  x  0.000001 
x2  1 x 1  x 
limits lim and lim 2 do not exist (both Therefore lim f ( x)  lim  2 0
x 1 x  1 x 2 x  4 x 0 x 0  x  0.000001 
have vertical asymptotes). Our conjecture is that if 34. (a)

f ( x)
g(a) = 0 and f(a) ≠ 0, lim does not exist. x 1
x 1
x a g ( x) (1  x) x (1  x) x
0.1 2.59 −0.1 2.87
x 1 sin x −0.01
31. lim 2  0 and lim  0 . If the numerator 0.01 2.70 2.73
x 1 x  1 x  x
0.001 2.7169 −0.001 2.7196
f(a) = 0, and the denominator g(a) ≠ 0, then the limit
lim
f ( x)
0. lim(1  x)1/ x  2.7182818
x a g ( x) x 0
(b) We see that 1/x is increasing without bound

32. The first argument gives the correct value; the when x is approaches 0. While it is true that 1
second argument is not valid because it looks only at raised to any power is 1, numbers close to 1
certain values of x. raised to large enough powers may be very
far from 1.
33. From the values shown in table below, we can

conclude f(x) tends to infinity as x tends to 0. 35.
x f(x) x xsec x
0.1 9.9990 0.1 0.099
0.01 99.0099 0.01 0.010
0.001 500 0.001 0.001
For x > 0, as x decreases, the value of function starts lim xsec x  0

x 0
decreasing sharply as shown in table below.
For negative x the values of xsec x are usually not real
x f(x)
numbers, so lim xsec x  0 does not exist.
0.0001 99.0099 x 0
0.00001 9.9990
36. Possible answers:
0.000001 1
0.0000001 0.1 x2
f ( x) 
0.00000001 0.01 x
0.0000000001 0.000001
1 if x  0
g ( x)  
1 if x  0
time as the next price increase doesn’t come until

the next hour.
37. There are many possibilities. Here is a simple one 1.3 Computation of Limits
 x x0

f ( x)  3 x0 1. lim( x 2  3x  1)  02  3(0)  1  1
x x0 x 0

Applications
2. lim 3 2 x  1  3 2(2)  1  3 5 .
x 2

values (as in exercises 11 and 12), we see that the 3. lim cos1 ( x 2 )  cos 1 0  .
x 0 2
limit is approximately 1/2.
x 5 25 3
4. lim  
x 2 x2  4 22  4 8
x2  x  6
5. lim
x 3 x 3
( x  3)( x  2)
 lim
x 3 x 3
 lim( x  2)  3  2  5
x 3

values (as in exercises 11 and 12), we see that the x2  x  2
limit is approximately 1/2. 6. lim
x 1 x 2  3x  2
3. For 3 ≤ t ≤ 4, f(t) = 8, so lim f (t )  8 . ( x  1)( x  2)
t 3.5  lim
x 1 ( x  1)( x  2)
Also lim f (t )  8 . ( x  2) 3
t 4
 lim   3.
x 1 ( x  2) 1
On the other hand, for 4 ≤ t ≤ 5, f(t) = 10,
so lim f (t )  10 .
t 4 x2  x  2
7. lim
Hence lim f (t ) does not exist. x 2 x2  4
t 4
( x  2)( x  1)
 lim
x  2 ( x  2)( x  2)
x 1 2 1 3
 lim  
x 2 x2 22 4
x3  1
8. lim
x 1 x 2  2x  3
( x  1)( x 2  x  1)
 lim
x 1 ( x  3)( x  1)
x 2  x  1 12  1  1 3
4. The limit does not exist at t = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 hours.  lim  
In each case the limit from the left is two dollars less x 1 x3 1 3 4
than the limit from the right. We would be in a hurry
to move our car just before the hour to try to save
$2. Just after the hour, we can relax and take our
1.3. COMPUTATION OF LIMITS 53
sin x sin x
 lim sin x 2x (3  x  9)
9. lim  lim
x 0 tan x x 0 x 0 (3  x  9) (3  x  9)
cos x
 lim cos x  cos 0  1 2 x(3  x  9)

x 0  lim
x 0 x
 lim  2(3  x  9)  12
tan x x 0
10. lim
x 0 x
x 1
sin x 15. lim
 lim x 1 x 1
x 0 x cos x
 sin x  1  ( x  1)( x  1)
  lim  lim   1.  lim
 x 0 x  x 0 cos x  x 1 x 1
xe 2 x 1  lim( x  1)  1  1  2
11. lim x 1
x 0 x2  x
x3  64 ( x  4)( x 2  4 x  16)
x (e 2 x 1
) 16. lim  lim
x 4 x  4 x 4 ( x  4)
 lim
x 0 x( x  1)
 lim( x 2  4 x  16)
e2 x 1 e2(0) 1 x 4
 lim  e
x 0 x  1 0 1 = 42 + 4 × 4 + 16 = 48
x2  1 2 
12. lim x 2 csc2 x  lim 17. lim   2 
x 0 x 0 sin 2 x x 1  x  1 x  1 
 1  1   1 2 
  lim sin x  lim sin x   1  lim   
 x 0  x 0  x 1  x  1 ( x  1)( x  1) 
 x  x 
 x 1 2 
 lim   
x4 2 x 1  ( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1) ( x  1) 
13. lim
x 0 x  x 1 
 lim  
x 1  ( x  1) ( x  1) 
x4 2 x4 2
 lim    1  1
x 0 x  x4 2  lim  
x 1  x  1  2
x44
 lim
x 0 x( x  4  2)
18. Undefined. The limit from the right is 0, but the
x
 lim limit from the left does not exist.
x 0 x( x  4  2)
1 1  e2 x
 lim 19. lim
x 0 x42 x 0 1  ex
1 1 1
   (1  e x )(1  e x )
4 2 22 4  lim
x 0 1  ex
2x  lim(1  e x )  2
14. lim x 0
x 0 3  x9
sin(| x |) sin( x)
20. lim  lim 1
x 0 x x 0 x
sin(| x |) 1  3h  3h 2  h3  1
lim  lim
x 0 x h 0 h
sin( x) h(3  3h  h 2 )
 lim  lim
x 0 x h 0 h
 sin( x)
 lim  1  lim 3  3h  h 2  3
x 0 x h 0
Since the limit from the left does not equal the limit
sin x
from the right, we see that lim
sin(| x |)
does not 27. Consider f ( x)  and a polynomial p(x) = x2 −
x 0 x x
exist. 4 such that p(2) = 0.
sin x
Also lim 1.
21. lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  2(2)  4 x 0 x
x 2 x 2
Therefore by the theorem 3.4(viii),
lim f ( x)  lim x 2  22  4
x 2 x 2 lim f ( p( x))  L
x a
lim f ( x)  4
x 2 sin( x 2  4)
 lim  1.
x 2 x2  4
22. Undefined. The limit from the left is 2, but the limit
from the right is -2. tan x sin x
28. lim  lim
x 0 5x x  0 5 x cos x
23. lim f ( x)  lim  (2 x  1)  1 sin x 1 
x 1 x 1  lim  
x 0  5 x cos x 
= 2(−1) + 1 = −1
1 sin x  1 
lim f ( x)  lim  3  3   lim  lim 
x 1 x1 5  x 0 x  x 0 cos x 
1 1
Therefore lim f ( x) does not exist.  (1)(1) 
x 1 5 5
1 1   x 1 1 
24. lim f ( x)  3, 29. lim   2   lim  
x 1 
x 0 x x  x  x 0  x  x  1 
lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  1  3,
x 1 x 1  x   1 
 lim    lim    1
Therefore lim f ( x)  3 . x 0 x  x  1  x 0   x  1 
x 1
   
1 1 
30. lim   
(2  h)  4
2

h 0 h
h h 1 
25. lim
h 0 h
 h 1 1   h 1 1 h 1 1 
 lim   h 0  h h  1  h  1  1 
  lim
(4  4h  h )  4 2
 h h 1 
h 0
 lim  
h 0 h
 
4h  h h 1 1
 lim  
2
 lim  lim 4  h  4
h 0 h h 0
h 0 
 
h h 1 h 1 1 
 
 
1  1
(1  h)3  1  lim 
26. lim
h 0 h
h 0 
 
h 1 h 1 1  2
 
 x  2 8
3
tan 5x
31. lim 37. lim
x 0 x 0 sin 5x
x
sin 5x
 x  2  2  x  2 2  2  x  2   4 sin 5x
 lim  lim cos 5x  lim
x 0 x x  0 sin 5x x  0 cos 5x sin 5x
 lim  x  2   2  x  2   4   12
2
1
x 0    lim 1
x  0 cos 5x
1 1
32. lim 4 u

38. lim
sin  x 2 
u 4 4  u x 4 x 4
u 4
u 4  lim
sin  x 2   lim
1

1
 lim 4u  lim
u 4 4  u u 4 4u  4  u 
x 4
 x 2  x  2 x 4
 x 2  4
sin  x  2 
1 1
 lim 
u 4 4u 16 39. lim
x 4 x 4
1 t 1 2
33. lim
t 0 4t 2
 lim
sin  x 2   lim
1

1
1 t 2 1 1 t 2 1 1  t  1 2
x 4
 x 2  x 2  x 4
 x 2  4
 lim  
 
lim
t 0 4t 2 1  t 2  1 t 0 4t 2 1  t 2  1 x2
40. lim
x 0 sin 4x  sin  x
t 2 1 1
 lim  lim 
t 0
4t 2
1  t 12
 t 0

4 1 t 1 2
 8
 lim
x2 4 
  
x 0 sin 4x  sin  x 4 
1
4
4 t
34. lim
t 4
5 t 2 9 41.
 lim
4 t
  lim
5 t 2 9  4  t  5  t2 9  −0.1
x2 x2 sin(1/x)
0.0054
t 4
5  t 2  9 5  t 2  9 t 4 25  t 2  9 
−0.01 5 × 10−5
 lim
 4  t  5  t 9
2
  lim  4  t  5  t 9
2
 −0.001 −8 × 10−7
t 4 16  t 2 t 4  4  t  4  t  0.1 −0.005
 lim
5  t2 9   10  5 0.01
0.001
−5 × 10−5
8 × 10−7
t 4 4  t  8 4
Conjecture: lim x 2 sin(1/ x)  0 .
x x 0
35. lim
x  0 sin 4x
Let f(x) = −x , h(x) = x2.
2
 lim
x 4 1
  Then f ( x)  x 2 sin( 1x )  h( x)
x 0 sin 4x 4 4
lim( x 2 )  0, lim( x 2 )  0
sin 2x x 0 x 0
36. lim
x  0 sin 4x
Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem,
sin 2x 2x 4x lim x 2 sin( 1x )  0.
 lim   x 0
x 0
sin 4x 2x 4x
2x 2 1
  
4x 4 2
f (2  h)  f (2)
lim
h 0 h
(2  h) 2  2  (22  2)
 lim
h 0 h
4h  h 2
 lim
h 0 h
 lim 4  h  4.
h 0
34. Velocity is given by the limit

30. You cannot use the Squeeze Theorem as in exercise
29 because the secant function is not bounded f (0  h)  f (0)
between -1 and 1 like the sine function is. This is lim
h 0 h
difficult to investigate graphically because of the
h 22
2
infinitely many vertical asymptotes as x approaches  lim
0. h 0 h
 lim h  0.
h 0
31. Let f(x) = 0, h( x)  x . We see that
f ( x)  x cos2 (1/ x)  h( x) ,
f (0  h)  f (0)
lim 0  0, lim x  0 lim
h 0 h
x 0 x 0
(0  h)3  (0)3
Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem,  lim
h 0 h
lim x cos2 ( 1x )  0. h 3
x 0  lim
h 0 h
 lim h 2  0.
h 0

f (1  h)  f (1)
lim
h 0 h
(1  h)3  1
 lim 3
h 0 h
32. Saying that |f(x)| ≤ M for all x is the same as saying (see exercise 26).
−M ≤ f(x) ≤ M for all x.
This implies that 1  cos x 1 2
37. lim  
x 0  x 2 2
−Mx ≤ x f(x) ≤ Mx .
2 2 2
Since ±Mx2 → 0 as x → 0, the Squeeze Theorem

shows that lim x 2 f ( x)  0 . 1  cos 2 x sin 2 x
x 0
38. lim  lim
x 0 x2 x 0 x2
 sin x   sin x 
33. Velocity is given by the limit   lim   xlim   1.
 x 0 x   0 x 
39. lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  g (a) because g(x) is a

x a  x a
polynomial. Similarly,
lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  h(a).
x a  x a
40. Evaluate g(a) and h(a). If they are equal, the limit 2
 lim f ( x) 
exists and is this value. If they are not equal, the  2
  (2)   4
2
  x a
[ f ( x)]
limit does not exist. 45. lim
x a g ( x) lim g ( x) 3 3
x a
41. (a) lim( x  3x  1)

2
x 2
2 f ( x ) h( x )
46. lim
= 22 − 3(2) +1 (Theorem 3.2) x a f ( x )  h( x )
  lim h( x)
= −1
2 lim f ( x)
x2  xa xa
(b) lim
x 0 x 1
2 lim f ( x)  lim h( x)
x a x a
lim( x  2) 2(2)(0)
x 0  0
 (Theorem 3.1(iv)) 20
lim( x 2  1)
x 0
lim x  lim 2 47. lim p( p( p( p( x))))

x 0 x 0 x 0
 (Theorem 3.1(ii))
lim x 2  lim1  lim p( p( p( x 2  1)))
x 0 x 0
x 0

02
0 1
(Equations 3.1, 3.2, and 3.5) x 0
 
 lim p p ( x 2  1) 2  1 
 lim p( p( x 4  2 x 2 ))
x 0
= −2

 lim p ( x 4  2 x 2 )  1
x 0
2

42. (a) lim ( x  1)sin x  lim p( x8  4 x 6  4 x 4  1)
x 1 x 0
 lim ( x  1) lim sin x  lim( x8  4 x 6  4 x 4  1) 2  1

x 1 x 1 x 0
(Theorem 3.1). = (−1)2 − 1 = 0

Using Theorems 3.2 and 3.4 we get that this
is equal to (−1 + 1) sin(−1) = 0. 48. lim p(3  2 p( x  p( x)))
x 0
(b) By Theorem 3.1,
 lim p (3  2 p ( x  ( x 2  1)))
x 0
xe x (lim x) (lim e x )
x 1 x 1
lim  .  lim p (3  2 p ( x  x 2  1))
x 1 tan x lim tan x x 0
  
x 1
 lim p 3  2 ( x  x 2  1) 2  1
Using Theorem 3.2 and Theorem 3.4 we see x 0
that this equals

e
.  lim p  3  2( x  x  1)  2  2 2
x 0
tan1
 lim p  2( x  x  1)  1 2 2
x 0
lim [2 f ( x)  3g ( x)]
 lim  2( x  x  1)  1  1
43. 2 2 2
x a
x 0
 2 lim f ( x)  3 lim g ( x)
  2(0  0  1)  1  1  8
2 2 2
x a x a
= 2(2) − 3(−3) = 13
49. We can’t split the limit of a product into a product of
44. lim [3 f ( x) g ( x)] limits unless we know that both limits exist; the
x a
limit of the product of a term tending toward 0 and a
 3(lim f ( x)) (lim g ( x)) term with an unknown limit is not necessarily 0 but
x a x a
instead is unknown.
= 3(2)(−3) = −18
50. The limit of a quotient is not the quotient of the 61. lim[ f ( x)]3
x a
limits if the denominator is 0. The fraction 00 is
indeterminate, and can equal any finite value or be   lim f ( x)   lim f ( x)   lim f ( x) 
undefined.  xa   x a   x a 
= L · L · L = L3
51. One possibility is f ( x)  1x , g ( x)   1x .
lim[ f ( x)]4   lim f ( x)   lim[ f ( x)]3 
x a  xa   xa 
52. f(x) = x, g ( x)  1x . lim f ( x) g ( x)  1 , but lim g ( x) = L · L3 = L4
x 0 x 0
does not exist.
62. Since we have a starting place, and we have shown
that we can always get from one step to the next, the
53. Yes. If lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)] exists, then, it would also theorem must be true for any positive integer.
x a
be true that Given that lim f ( x)  L .
x a
lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  lim f ( x)
x a x a
Assume that lim[ f ( x)]k  Lk .
x a
exists. But by Theorem 3.1 (ii)
lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  lim f ( x) Now lim[ f ( x)]k 1  lim[ f ( x)]k f ( x)
x a x a
xa x a
 lim[[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  [ f ( x)]]  lim[ f ( x)]k lim f ( x)  Lk L  Lk 1.
xa x a x a
 lim g ( x)
xa
Therefore lim[ f ( x)]n  Ln for any positive integer
x a
so lim g ( x) would exist, but we are given that
x a n.
lim g ( x) does not exist.
x a
63. lim [ x]  2; lim [ x]  3
x 3 x 3
54. False. For example, let f(x) = 1/x. lim f ( x) does not Therefore lim[ x] does not exist.
x 0 x 3
exist, but lim 1
 lim x  0 .
x 0 f ( x ) x 0 64. (a) lim[ x] does not exist.
x 1
Approaches 0 from left, 1 from right.

55. lim (1  x)1/ x  e  2.71828
x 0
(b) lim [ x]  1 .
x 1.5
56. lim e1/ x does not exist. (c) lim [2 x] does not exist.
x 0 x 1.5

 x2
57. lim x 1 (d) lim x  [ x] does not exist.
x 0  x 1

58. lim xln x does not exist.
x 0
65. lim T ( x)  lim (0.14 x)  0  T (0).
x 0 x 0
59. When x is small and positive, 1/x is large and
positive, so tan−1(1/x) approaches π /2. But when x is lim T ( x)  0.14(10, 000)  1400
x 10,000
small and negative, 1/x is large and negative, so
lim T ( x)  1500  0.21(10, 000)  3600
tan−1(1/x) approaches −π /2. So the limit does not x 10,000
exist.
Therefore lim T ( x) does not exist.
x 10,000
60. lim ln | 1x | does not exist.
x0 A small change in income should result in a small
change in tax liability. This is true near x = 0 but is
not true near x = 10,000. As your income grows past
$10,000 your tax liability jumps enormously.
1.4. CONTINUITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 59
66. If lim T ( x)  0 , then a = 0. If lim exists, then 9. By sketching the graph, or numerically, one can see
x 0 x 20,000
that lim x ln x 2  0 . Thus, one can remove the
b must be 2400. These limits should exist so that $0 x 0
income corresponds to $0 tax, and so that the tax discontinuity at x = 0 by defining
function doesn’t have sudden jumps.
 x ln x 2
 if x  0
g ( x)  
1.4 Continuity and its 
0 if x  0
Consequences 3 3
10. Here f ( x)  2
 ,
ln x 2ln | x |
x 2  x  2 ( x  2) ( x  1)
1. f ( x)   which is defined for all real x whenever x ≠ 0, ±1. It
x2 ( x  2) has non-removable discontinuity at x = 1 and x = −1
Notice that the graph of f is a straight line, but with a and removable the discontinuity at x = 0. We can
hole in it at x = −2. So, f is continuous whenever x ≠ remove the discontinuity at x = 0 by defining
−2. f(x) has a removable discontinuity at x = −2. The  3
if x  0

g ( x)   ln x
2
discontinuity can be removed by redefining the
function as g(x) = x − 1. 
 0 if x  0
x 2  x  6 ( x  3) ( x  2) 11. f(x) has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 1.

2. f ( x)  
x 3 ( x  3)
sin x
Notice that the graph of f is a straight line, but with a 12. Continuous everywhere since lim  1 , and f(0)
x 0 x
hole in it at x = 3. So, f is continuous whenever x ≠
3. f(x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 3. The = 1.
discontinuity can be removed by redefining the 13. f(x) has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 1:
function g(x) = x + 2.
x 1 lim f ( x)  lim  (3 x  1)  4
3. f ( x)  has a removable discontinuity x 1 x 1
( x  1) ( x  1)
at x = 1 and a non-removable discontinuity at x = −1; lim f ( x)  lim  ( x 2  5 x)  4
x 1 x 1
the removable discontinuity is removed by
lim f ( x)  lim ( x 2  5 x)  6
x 1 x 1
1
g ( x)  . lim f ( x)  lim (3 x3 )  3
x 1 x 1 x 1
4. f(x) is discontinuous where the denominator is 0. 14. f(x) is undefined at x = 0, and therefore
The function is not defined at x = −2 and x = 1. (Not discontinuous there. If f(0) is defined to be 0, the
removable.) function is continuous everywhere.
5. No discontinuities.
15. f(1) is not defined and lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 1
6. f(x) is discontinuous where the denominator is 0.

The function is not defined at x  1  5 . (Not 16. Discontinuous because function is not defined at x =
removable.) 1.
x 2 sin x 17. f(0) is not defined and lim f ( x) does not exist.
x 0
7. f ( x)  has non-removable discontinuities
cos x
at x  2  k for any integer k. 18. The function is discontinuous at x = 0, as it is not
defined at x = 0.
8. Discontinuous wherever sin x = 0. That is x = kπ for
any integer k. (Not removable.) 19. lim f ( x)  lim ( x 2 )  4
x 2 x 2
lim f ( x)  lim (3 x  2)  4 Now

x  2 x 2
lim f ( x)  4; f (2)  3 lim T ( x)  lim (.30)( x)a
x 141,250 x 141,250
x 2
lim f ( x)  f (2) = (.30)(141,250) − 5685
x 2
= 36690.
20. Discontinuous because function is not defined at x = On the other hand,
2.
lim T ( x)  lim (.35)( x)  b
x 141,250 x 141,250
21. Continuous where x + 3 > 0, i.e. on (−3, ∞)
= (.35)(141,250) − b
= 49437.50 − b.
22. Continuous where x2 − 4 > 0, i.e. on (∞, −2) and (2,
∞). Hence
b = 49437.50 − 36690 = 12,747.50.
23. Continuous everywhere, i.e. on (−∞, ∞).
For T(x) to be continuous at x = 307,050
24. Continuous where x − 1 > 0, i.e. on (1, ∞). we must have

lim T ( x)  lim T ( x).
−1 x 307,050 x 307,050
25. sin (x + 2) is continuous on interval [-3, -1].
Now
26. ln(sin x) is continuous whenever sin x > 0, that is on lim T ( x)
the interval (2kπ, (2k + 1) π) for all integral values of x 307,050
k.  lim (.35)( x)  b
x 307,050
27. f(x) is continuous, on interval [-1, ∞) whenever = (.35)(307,050) − 12,747.5

x 2. = 94,720.
On the other hand,
28. f(x) is continuous on the intervals (−∞, −1) and (2,
∞) lim T ( x)
x 307,050
 lim (.386)( x)  c
29. lim  T ( x)  lim 
0.14 x x 307,050
x 10000 x 10000
= (.386)(307,050) − c
= 0.14(10,000) = 1400
= 118521.3 − c.
lim  T ( x)  lim  (c  0.21x)
x 10000 x 10000 Hence
= c + 0.21(10,000) c = 118,521.3 − 94720 = 23801.3.
= c + 2100
c + 2100 = 1400 32. lim T ( x)  lim 0.10 x
x 6,000 x 6,000
c = −700 = $600.
A small change in income should not result in a big
lim T ( x)  lim 0.15x  300
change in tax, so the tax function should be x 6,000 x 6,000
continuous.
= $600.
30. If lim T ( x)  0 , then a = 0. So T (6, 000)  $600  lim T ( x) , and T(x) is
x 0 x 6,000
continuous at x = 6, 000.
If lim T ( x) exists, then b must be 2400.
x 20,000
33. (a) The first two rows of the following table
31. For T(x) to be continuous at x = 141,250 we must (together with the Intermediate Value
have Theorem) show that f(x) has a root in [2, 3].
In the following rows, we use the midpoint of
lim T ( x)  lim T ( x) . the previous interval as our new x. When f(x)
x 141,250 x 141,250
is positive, we use the left half, and when f(x) 2.1875 −0.2825
is negative, we use the right half of the
interval. (Because the function goes from 2.21875 0.4758
negative to positive. If the function went The zero is in the interval (2.1875, 2.21875).
from positive to negative, the intervals would
be reversed.) (b) On repeated application of intermediate value
theorem, we get
x f(x)
x f(x)
2 −3
-1 1
3 2
0 -2
2.5 −0.75
-0.5 -0.125
2.75 0.5625
-0.75 0.5781
2.625 −0.109375
-0.625 0.2559
2.6875 0.223
-0.5625 0.0720
2.65625 0.557
-0.53125 -0.0249
The zero is in the interval [2.625, 2.65625].
The interval in which f(x) has a zero is
(b) On repeated application of intermediate value
[−0.5625, − 0.5] which is 321
that of the
theorem, we get
given interval.
x f(x)
35. The first two rows of the following table (together
-3 2 with the Intermediate Value Theorem) show that f(x)
-2 -3 has a root in [−2, −1]. In the following rows, we use
the midpoint of the previous interval as our new x.
-2.5 -0.75 When f(x) is positive, we use the right half, and
-2.75 0.5625 when f(x) is negative, we use the left half of the
-2.625 -0.109375 interval.
-2.6875 0.2227 x f(x)

-2.65625 0.0557 0 1
The interval in which f(x) has a zero is [-

2.65625, -2.625] which is 321
that of the 1 −0.46
given interval. 0.5 0.378
0.75 −0.018
34. (a) The first two rows of the following table
0.625 0.186
(together with the Intermediate Value
Theorem) show that f(x) has a root in [2, 3]. 0.6875 0.085
In the following rows, we use the midpoint of 0.71875 0.034
the previous interval as our new x. When f(x)
is positive, we use the left half, and when f(x) The zero is in the interval [0.71875, 0.75].
is negative, we use the right half of the 36. The first two rows of the following table (together
interval. (Because the function goes from with the Intermediate Value Theorem) show that f(x)
negative to positive. If the function went has a root in [−2, −1]. In the following rows, we use
from positive to negative, the intervals would the midpoint of the previous interval as our new x.
be reversed.) When f(x) is positive, we use the left half, and when
x f(x) f(x) is negative, we use the right half of the interval.
2 −2 x f(x)
3 13 −1 −0.6321
2.5 3.625 0 1
2.25 0.3906 −0.5 0.1065
2.125 −0.9043 −0.75 −0.2776
−0.625 −0.0897 This is equal to f(g(a)) since g is continuous at a.

Since f ( g (a))  lim f ( g ( x)) , f ○ g is continuous at
−0.5625 0.0073 x a
−0.59375 −0.0415 x = a.
The zero is in the interval (−0.59375, −0.5625).

43. lim f ( x)  lim (3x  3)  3
x 2 x 2
37. The function is continuous on the intervals 2
f(2) = 2 = 4
(−6.5, −2), (−2, 1), (1, 4) and (4, 7) Thus f(x) is not continuous from the right at x = 2.
44. Yes, f(x) is continuous from the right at x = 2,
38. The function is continuous on the intervals because
(−6, −2), (−2, 0), (0, 4) and (4, 7).
lim f ( x)  f (2)  3.
x 2
sin x
39. lim f ( x)  lim 2
x 0 x 0 x
45. A function is continuous from the left at x = a if
sin x lim f ( x)  f (a) .
 2 lim 2 x a
x 0 x
Hence a must equal 2 if f is continuous. (a) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  4
x 2 x 2
lim f ( x)  lim b cos x f(2) = 5
x 0 x  0
 b lim cos x  b, Thus f(x) is not continuous from the left at x
x 0 = 2.
so b and a must equal 2 if f is continuous.
(b) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  4
x 2 x 2
−1
40. We need ae + 1 = sin 0, so a = −1.
0
f(2) = 3
We need 22 − 2 + b = sin−1 1, so b  2  2 .. Thus f(x) is not continuous from the left at x
= 2.
41. First note that (c) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  4
x 2 x 2
lim f ( x)  lim ln( x  2)  x 2
x 3 x 3 f(2) = 4
 ln(3  2)  3  9.
2
Thus f(x) is continuous from the left at x = 2.
Also f(3) = 2e3b + 1, (d) f(x) is not continuous from the left at x = 2
3b 3b
because f(2) is undefined.
so if f is continuous, 2e + 1 must equal 9; that is e
= 4, so b 
ln 4
3
. Then note that f(0) = 2e(b)(0) + 1 = 3. 46. (a) Limit might exist if g(a) is also 0.
Also, (b) f(x) is definitely discontinuous because f(a)
does not exist.
lim f ( x)  lim a(tan 1 x  2)
x 0 x 0
47. lim xf ( x)  lim x lim f ( x)
= a(tan−1 0 + 2) x 0 x 0 x 0
= a(0 + 2) = 2a, = 0 f(0) = 0

so a must equal 3/2 if f is continuous.
48. The function
42. Corollary 4.1: Suppose that g is continuous at a and -1 x  0
f is continuous at g(a). Then, the composition f ○ g f ( x)  
is continuous at a.  1 0 x
Proof: Note that f is continuous at g(a), and is not continuous at x = 0, but xf(x) equals |x| and
lim g ( x)  g (a) Therefore, Theorem 4.3 tells us lim xf ( x)  0 .
x a x 0
that lim f ( g ( x))  f (lim g ( x)) .

x a x a
49. lim g ( x)  lim | f ( x) || lim f ( x) | 56. Theorem 4.2: Suppose that f and g are continuous at
x a x a x a
x = a. Then (ii) (f · g) is continuous at x = a and (iii)
= |f(a)| = g(a). (f/g) is continuous at x = a.
50. It is not true. The function f(x) from the solution to
exercise 64 is a counter-example. |f(x)| = 1 for all x, Proof: (ii) lim f ( x)·g ( x)  lim f ( x)·lim g ( x) by
x a x a x a
and so |f(x)| is continuous, but f(x) is not.
Theorem 3.1. This equals
51. Let b ≥ a. Then
f(a) · g(a) = (f · g)(a) since f and g are continuous at
limxb h( x)  lim xb (max at b f (t )) x = a.
= maxa≤t≤b (limt→b f(t))

(iii) lim f ( x) / g ( x)  lim f ( x) / lim g ( x) Theorem
= h(b) x a x a x a
3.1. This equals
since f is continuous. Thus, h is continuous for x ≥ a.
f(a)/g(a) = (f/g)(a) since f and g are continuous at x =
No, the property would not be true if f were not
a and g(a) ≠ 0.
assumed to be continuous. A counterexample is
1 if a  x  b 57. The function f(x) is discontinuous where the
f ( x)  
2 if b  x denominator is 0, that is, at x = 0, x = 1 and x = 2.
Then h(x) = 1 for a ≤ x < b, and h(x) = 2 for x ≥ b.

Thus, h is not continuous at x = b.
52. lim f ( g ( x))  lim(2 x)2  0 .

x 0 x 0
f (lim g ( x))  f (lim 2 x)  f (0)  4.

x 0 x 0
lim f ( g ( x))  f (lim g ( x)).
x 0 x 0
53. We already know f(x) ≠ 0 for a < x < b. 58. Using the method of bisections starting with interval
Suppose f(d) < 0 for some d, a < d < b. [−3, −2] yields
Then by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there is an x f(x)
e in the interval [c, d] such that f(e) = 0. But this e
−3 −177
would also be between a and b, which is impossible.
Thus, f(x) > 0 for all a < x < b. −2 5
−2.5 −47.16
54. The Intermediate Value Theorem does not apply −2.25 −14.17
because the function is not continuous over the
interval [−1, 2] (it is undefined at x = 0). The method −2.125 −3.14
of bisections converges to the discontinuity at x = 0. −2.0625 1.256
−2.09375 −0.858
55. Define a function g(x) = f(x) − x. As the function f is
continuous on the interval [a, b], g is also The root is in (−2.09375, −2.0625). The actual root
continuous on the interval [a, b]. is approximately −2.08136.
Also f(a) > a ⇒ g(a) = f(a) − a > 0 and f(b) < b ⇒ The other root, approximately 1.15538, is found
g(b) = f(b) − b < 0. similarly.
Hence by using corollary 4.2, there is at least one
number
c ∈ (a, b) such that g(c) = 0.
Therefore, f(c) − c = 0 or f(c) = c.
59. negative to positive. This stopping is instantaneous;

the police officer wanted to see me stop for long
enough to look both ways and determine if it was
safe to proceed.
63. Need g(30) = 100 and g(34) = 0.

We may take g(T) to be linear.
0  100
m  25
34  30
y = −25(x − 34)
The graph is discontinuous at x = 100. This is when g(T) = −25(T − 34)
the box starts moving.
60.
1.5 Limits Involving Infinity;
Asymptotes
1  2x
1. (a) lim  .
x 1 x2  1
1  2x
(b) lim  .
x 1 x2  1
(c) Does not exist.
The function s(t) has jump discontinuities every 1  2x

three months when the salary suddenly increases by
2. (a) lim  .
x 1 x2  1
$2000. In the function f(t), the $2000 increase occurs
gradually over the 3 month period, so f(t) is 1  2x
(b) lim   .
continuous. It might be easier to do calculations with x 1 x2  1
f(t) because it is continuous and because it is given
by a simpler formula. (c) Does not exist.
61. Let f(t) be her distance from home as a function of x4

time on Monday. Let g(t) be her distance from home 3. (a) lim  
as a function of time on Tuesday. Let t be given in
x  2 x2  4 x  4
minutes, with t = 0 corresponding to 7:13 a.m. Then x4
she leaves home at t = 0 and arrives at her (b) lim  
x  2 x  4x  4
2
destination at t = 410. Let h(t) = f(t) − g(t). If h(t) = 0
for some t, then the saleswoman was at exactly the x4
same place at the same time on both Monday and (c) lim  
x 2 x  4x  4
2
Tuesday. h(0) = f(0) − g(0) = −g(0) < 0 and h(410) =
f(410) − g(410) = f(410) > 0. By the Intermediate 1 x
4. (a) lim  
Value Theorem, there is a t in the interval [0, 410] x 1 ( x  1)2
such that h(t) = 0.
1 x
(b) lim  
62. My car was going forward as I approached the stop x 1 ( x  1)2
sign, rolled backward for a moment, then proceeded
forward again, so my car’s velocity was positive, 1 x
(c) lim 
then negative, then positive again. Because my car’s x 1 ( x  1) 2
velocity is continuous, the Intermediate Value
Theorem guarantees that the velocity must have x2  2 x  1
been 0 in between changing from positive to 5. lim   ,
x 2 x2  4
negative, and again 0 between changing from
1.5. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY; ASYMPTOTES 65
x2  2 x  1 x
lim     lim
x 2 x 4 2 x  x 4 1
x2
and hence 1
 lim
x2  2 x  1
x  4 1
lim does not exist. x2
x 2 x 42
1
 1
2/3
6. lim  ( x  2 x  3)
2
 . 1
x 1
As x approaches −1, x2 − 2x − 3 is small, so (x2 − 2x 2 x2  1

− 3)2/3 is small and positive, so (x2 − 2x − 3)−2/3 is 12. lim  0.
large and positive, so the limit is ∞.
x  4 x3  5 x  1
7. lim cot x  ,  x2  1 
x 0 13. lim ln  
x 
 x 3 
lim cot x   and
x 0   1  12 
lim cot x does not exist.  lim ln  1 x3 
x     2 
x 0  x x 
8. lim x sec2 x  ,   1  12 
x  2  lim ln  1 x3 
x     2 
 x x 
lim x sec2 x  
x  2  lim [ln x]  
x 
and
14. lim [ln( x sin x)]  lim (ln x)  
lim x sec2 x   . x 0 x 0
x 2
x 2  3x  2  2
1
9. lim 15. lim e x3
 lim 0
x  3 x 2
 4x 1 x 0 x  ex
x 2 (1  3x  2)
x2   x2 ( 1x  12 ) 
 lim  x 
x  x (3  
2 4 1)  ( x1)
 x2 (1 2 ) 
x x2 16. lim e ( x 2  2)
 lim e  x2 
x  x 
lim (1  3x  2)
1
x  x2
    1  1  
lim (3  4x  1) 3   x x2  
x  x2   2 
 1 2  
 lim e  x   1
x 
2x  x  1
2
10. lim
x  4 x 2  3x  1
17. lim cot 1 x  0.
x 
2 x 2  x  1  1/ x 2 
 lim  
x  4 x 2  3 x  1  1/ x 2
(Compare Example 5.8) We are looking for the
  angle that θ must approach as cot θ goes to ∞. Look
2  1/ x  1/ x 2
1 at the graph of cot θ. To define the inverse
 lim  . cotangent, you must pick one branch of this graph,
x  4  3 / x  1/ x 2 2
and the standard choice is the branch immediately to
the right of the y-axis. Then as cot θ goes to ∞, the
x angle goes to 0.
11. lim
x 
4  x2
 x2  1 
lim sec1 
 x  1 
18.
x 
 
 x 2 (1  12 )  x
lim
 lim sec 1  2 x  x  4  x2
x   x ( 1x  12 ) 
 x  x
 lim
 x  2
 1)
 lim sec 1 ( x)  x ( 42
x
x  2
1
 lim  0.
x  x( 4  1)
   12  x2
19. lim  sin  e    xlim (sin(e x ))
x
x 0      So there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
 lim (sin x)  0, (b) Vertical asymptotes at x = ±2.

x 0
f(x) → ∞ as x → 2− and x → −2+.
   12  f(x) → −∞ as x → 2+ and x → −2−.
lim  sin  e x

x 0    Horizontal asymptote at y = −1.
 lim (sin(e x ))
x 
24. (a) Since 4 + x2 is never 0, there are no vertical
 lim (sin x)  0
x 0 asymptotes. We have
and hence x
lim
x 
   12   4  x2
 lim  sin  e x    0. x
x 0     lim
x  x 4 1
x2
20. lim sin(tan 1 x)  lim (sin x)  1. 1
x  x
  lim
2 x  4 1
x2
1
21. lim e tan x  lim e x  1
x  2 x  1
and
 lim e x  0 , but
x  x
lim
x 
lim e tan x  lim e x 4  x2
  x 
x x
2  lim
 lim e x  ,
x  x 4 1
x2
x 
1
so the limit does not exist.  lim
x  4 1
x2
22. lim tan 1 (ln x)  lim tan 1 x 1

x 0 x    1,
1

 . so there are horizontal asymptotes at y = 1
2 and y = −1.
(b) The function is only defined in (−2, 2). Two
23. (a) 4 − x2 = 0 ⇒ 4 = x2 so we have vertical one-sided vertical asymptotes at x = ±2. f(x)
asymptotes at x = ±2. → ∞ as x → 2−, and f(x) → −∞ as x → −2+.
f(x) → ∞ as x → −2− No horizontal asymptotes.
f(x) → −∞ as x → −2+
f(x) → ∞ as x → 2− 25. The denominator factors:
f(x) → −∞ as x → 2+ x2 − 2x − 3 = (x − 3)(x + 1).

Since neither x = 3 nor x = −1 are zeros of the
Again, we have numerator, we see that f(x) has vertical asymptotes
at x = 3 and x = −1.
f(x) → −∞ as x → 3−, 29. Vertical asymptotes at x = ±2.

f(x) → ∞ as x → 3 , +
The slant asymptote is y = −x.
−
f(x) → ∞ as x → −1 , and 30. Vertical asymptote at x = 2.
f(x) → −∞ as x → −1 . +
The slant asymptote is y = x + 2.
We have
1 17
31. Vertical asymptotes at x  .
3x 2  1 2
lim
x x2  2 x  3
The slant asymptote is y = x − 1.
3  1/ x 2
 lim  3.
x  1  2 / x  3 / x 2
32. Vertical asymptote at x   3 2 .
So there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 3.
The slant asymptote is y = x.
26. Vertical asymptote at x = −2.
f(x) → ∞ as x → −2−. 80 x .3  60  x.3 
33. lim  
f(x) → −∞ as x → −2+ and x → −2−.
x 0 2 x .3  5  x.3 
Again, we have 80  60 x.3

 lim
1 x x 0 2  5 x.3
lim 0
x  x  x2
2

80
 40 mm
So there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. 2
80 x .3  60 60
lim   12 mm
27. The function is continuous for all x, so no vertical x  2 x .3  5 5
asymptotes. We have
lim 4 tan 1 x  1  4( lim tan 1 x)  1 34. Re-write the function as
x  x 
80  60 x0.3
= 4(π/2) − 1 f ( x) 
8  15 x0.3
= 2π − 1
to see that the size with no light is f(0) = 10 mm, and
and the size with infinite light is lim f ( x)  4 mm .
x 
lim 4 tan 1 x  1
x 
 4( lim tan 1 x)  1 80 x 0.3  60

x  35. f ( x) 
10 x 0.3  30
= 4(−π/2) − 1
= −2π −1, 36. g(x) = 4x−0.4 + 4
so there are horizontal asymptotes at y = 2π − 1 and  f ( x)  20 x0.4 16
y = −2π − 1. 4 x0.4  4
(20 x0.4 16) x0.4

Therefore, lim f ( x)  lim
28. The function ln x has a one-sided vertical asymptote x 0 x 0 (4 x0.4  4) x0.4
at x = 0, so f(x) = ln(1 − cos x) will have a vertical
20 16 x0.4
asymptote whenever  lim  20
 5 and
x 0 4 4 x0.4 4
1 − cos x = 0, i.e., whenever cos x = 1.
20 x0.4 16
lim f ( x)  lim 0.4 4
This happens when x = 2kπ for any integer k. Since x  x  4 x  4
1 − cos x ≥ 0 for all x, f(x) is defined at all points
except for these vertical asymptotes. Thus as f(x)
approaches any of these asymptotes (from either 37. As in Example 5.10, the terminal velocity is  32
k
.
side), it behaves like ln x approaching 0 from the When k = 0.00064, the terminal velocity is
right, so f(x) → −∞ as x approaches any of these
asymptotes from either side.
 32
 224 . When k = 0.00128, the terminal 44. lim (e x /3  x 4 )  .
.00064 x 
velocity is  32
.00128
 158 . ex 1
45. lim  1.
x 0 x
Solve 32
ak
 1
2
32
k
. Squaring both sides,
32 1 32 ln( x 2 )
  so a = 4. 46. lim  .
ak 4 k x 0 x2
38. Looking at the graph, we estimate the time to 90%

47. lim x1/(ln x)  e  2.71828
of terminal velocity is about 20 seconds. x 0
1
48. lim x x  0
x 0
49. We multiply by
4 x2  2 x  1  2 x
4 x2  2 x  1  2 x
to get:
The terminal velocity when k = 0.001 is 178.9, and
lim ( 4 x 2  2 x  1  2 x)
90% of terminal velocity is 161.0. From the graph x 
we see that it takes about 8.2s to reach 90% of 2 x  1 1/ x
terminal velocity.  lim 
x 
4x  2x  1  2x 1 / x
2
2  1/ x
 lim
x 
4  2 / x  1/ x 2  2
2 1
  .
4 2 2
50. lim ( 5 x 2  4 x  7  5 x 2  x  3)
x 
If we multiply by
39. When x is large, the value of the fraction is very 5x2  4 x  7  5x2  x  3
,
close to 12 . 5x2  4 x  7  5x2  x  3
we get
40. When x is large, the value of the fraction is very
close to 3. (5 x 2  4 x  7)  (5 x 2  x  3)
lim
x 
5 x 2  4 x  7  5 x 2  x  3)
41. When x is large, the value of the fraction is very 3x  4
 lim
close to 12 . x 
5x2  4 x  7  5x2  x  3
3  4x
42. When x is large and negative, the value of the  lim
x  5  4x  7
 5  1x  3
fraction is very close to 2. x2 x2
3 3 5
 
x3  4 x  5 2 5 10
43. lim  0.
x  e x /2
51. Suppose the degree of q is n. If we divide both p(x)
and q(x) by xn, then the new denominator will
approach a constant while the new numerator tends (b) As in part (a), we have
to ∞, so there is no horizontal asymptote.
lim pn ( x)  lim an x n
x  x 
52. If the degree of the polynomial in the denominator is
When the degree n is even, if an is positive,
larger, the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
the limit as x → −∞ is +∞, and if an is
negative, the limit as x → −∞ is −∞.
53. When we do long division, we get a remainder of x
+ 2, so the degree of p is one greater than the degree
300 300
of q. 67. h(0)    30 mm
1  9(.80 ) 10
54. If the horizontal asymptote is y = 2, the degrees of
300
the numerator and denominator must be the same. lim  300 mm
t 1  9(.8t )
55. The function q(x) = −2(x − 2)(x −3) satisfies the

given conditions. 68. Length at t = 0 is h(0) = 20 mm. Length eventually
is lim h(t )  50 mm .
t 
x2 9
56. The function q( x)   satisfies the given
2 2 Ft
conditions. 69. lim vN  lim 
t  t  m
57. The function g(x) = x2 + 3 satisfies the given Fct
lim vE  lim
conditions. t  t 
m c  F 2t 2
2 2
Fct
2  lim
58. The function g ( x)   tan 1 x  ( x  4) satisfies the t 
t m2c2
 F2
 t2
given conditions. Fc
 lim
t 
 F2
2 2
m c
59. True. t2
Fc
 c
60. False if b = 0; otherwise true. F2
61. False. 70. f(t) → 0 as t → 0 and t → ∞. This makes sense

because the drug will require some time to reach the
62. True muscles, and should wear off over time.
63. True. 71. We must restrict the domain to v0 ≥ 0 because the

formula makes sense only if the rocket is launched
64. False. For example, f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x. upward. To find ve, set 19.6R  v02  0 . Using R ≈
6,378,000 meters, we get v0  196R  11,180m / s .
65. g(x) = sin x, h(x) = x at a = 0 If the rocket is launched with initial velocity ≥ ve, it
will never return to earth; hence ve is called the
66. (a) lim pn ( x) escape velocity.
x 
 lim (an x n  an 1 x n 1   a0 )
x 
  a a0 
 lim  x n  an  n 1   
x 
  x x 
 lim an x n
x 
When the degree n is odd, if an is positive,

the limit as x → −∞ is −∞, and if an is
negative, the limit as x → −∞ is +∞.
4. We want |3x − 0| < ε

1.6 Formal Definition of the
⇔ 3|x| < ε
Limit
⇔ |x| = |x − 0| < ε/3
Take δ = ε/3.
1. lim x  1  3
x 10
x  10    x  1  3  0.1 5. We want |3x − 3| < ε
0.1  x  1  3  0.1 ⇔ 3|x − 1| < ε
2.9  x  1  3.1 ⇔ |x − 1| < ε/3

8.41  x  1  9.61 Take δ = ε/3.
9.41  x  10.61
6. We want |3x + 2 − 8| < ε
x  10      x  10  
10    x  10   ⇔ |3x − 6| < ε
10    9.41 or 10    10.61 ⇔ 3|x − 2| < ε
  0.59 or   0.61 thus ,   0.59 ⇔ |x − 2| < ε/3
Take δ = ε/3.
2. lim 4x  1  3
x 2
7. We want |3x + 2 − 5| < ε
⇔ |3x − 3| < ε
x 2   4x  1  3  0.1
⇔ 3|x − 1| < ε
0.1  4x  1  3  0.1
⇔ |x − 1| < ε/3
2.9  4x  1  3.1
Take δ = ε/3.
8.41  4x  1  9.61
7.41  4x  8.61
8. We want |3 − 4x − (−1)| < ε
1.8525  x  2.1525
⇔ | − 4x + 4| < ε
x 2     x  2  
⇔ 4| − x + 1| < ε
2   x  2 
2    1.8525 or 2    2.1525 ⇔ 4|x − 1| < ε
  0.1475 or   0.1525 thus ,   0.1475 ⇔ |x − 1| < ε/4
Take δ = ε/4.
3. lim 17  x  4 9. We want |3 − 4x − 7| < ε

x 1
⇔ |− 4x − 4| < ε
x 1    17  x  4  0.1 ⇔ 4|− x − 1| < ε
0.1  17  x  4  0.1 ⇔ 4|x + 1| < ε
3.9  17  x  4.1 ⇔ |x + 1| < ε/4

15.21  17  x  16.81 Take δ = ε/4.
16.81  x  17  15.21
x2  x  2
0.19  x  1.79 10. We want 3   .
x 1
x 1      x  1  
We have
1   x  1 
( x  2)( x 1)
1    0.19 or 1    1.79 x2  x  2
x 1
3  x 1
3
  0.81 or   0.79 thus ,   0.79
1.6. FORMAL DEFINITION OF THE LIMIT 71
= |x + 2 − 3| So as long as |x − a| < δ = ε/|m|, we will have |f(x) −

(ma + b)| < ε. This δ clearly does not depend on a.
= |x − 1|
This is due to the fact that f(x) is a linear function, so
Take δ = ε. the slope is constant, which means that the ratio of
the change in y to the change in x is constant.
x2  1
11. We want  (2)   . 17. Since the δ obtained in exercise 10 is different from
x 1
that of exercise 14, we see immediately that the
We have value of δ for lim( x 2  b) does depend on a. In this
x a
x2 1 ( x 1)( x 1) case the ratio of the change in y to the change in x
x 1
2  x 1
2
depends very much on the value of a. Near the
= |x −1 + 2| origin, the graph is not very steep at all, while away
from the origin the graph can become very steep
= |x + 1| indeed.
Take δ = ε.
18. (a) From the graph, we determine that we can
12. We want |x − 1 − 0| < ε.
2 take δ = 0.316, as shown below.
We have |x2 − 1| = |x − 1||x + 1|. We require that δ <
1, i.e., |x − 1| < 1 so 0 < x < 2 and |x + 1| < 3. Then
|x2 − 1| = |x − 1||x + 1| < 3|x − 1|.
Requiring this to be less than ε gives |x − 1| < ε/3, so
δ = min{1, ε/3}.
13. We want |x2 − x + 1 − 1| < ε.

We have |x2 − x| = |x||x − 1|. We require that δ < 1,
i.e., |x − 1| < 1 so 0 < x < 2 and |x| < 2.
Then (b) From the graph, we determine that we can
take δ = 0.223, as shown below.
|x − x| = |x||x − 1| <2|x − 1|.
2

δ = min{1, ε/2}.
14. We want |x2 − 1 − 3| < ε.

We have |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2|. We require that δ <
1, i.e., |x − 1| < 1 so 1 < x < 3 and |x + 2| < 5. Then
|x2 − 4| = |x −2||x + 2| < 5|x − 2|.
δ = min{1, ε/5}.
15. We want |x3 + 1 − 1| < ε, i.e., |x3| < ε. 19. (a) From the graph, we determine that we can
take δ = 0.45, as shown below.
Take   3  .
16. Let f(x) = mx + b. Since f(x) is continous, we know

that lim f ( x)  ma  b . So we want to find a δ
x a
which forces |mx + b − (ma + b)| < ε.
But
|mx + b − (ma + b)| = |mx − ma|
= |m||x − a|.
(b) From the graph, we determine that we can (b) From the graph, we determine that we can
take δ = 0.315, as shown below. take δ = 0.01, as shown below.
20. (a) From the graph, we determine that we can 22. For a function f(x) defined on some open interval (c,
take δ = 0.38, as shown below. a) we say
lim f ( x)  L
x a 
if, given any number ε > 0, there is another number

δ > 0 such that whenever x ∈ (c, a) and a − δ < x <
a, we have |f(x) − L| < ε.
For a function f(x) defined on some open interval (a,

c) we say
lim f ( x)  L
x a 
(b) From the graph, we determine that we can
take δ = 0.2, as shown below. if, given any number ε > 0, there is another number
δ > 0 such that whenever x ∈ (a, c) and a < x < a +
δ, we have |f(x) − L| < ε.
1 1 x
23. Note that 1  . As x → 1−, we see that 1 −
x x
x > 0 and x > 0 (we need not consider negative
values of x). Thus we need to solve the inequality
1 x
 0.1 :
x
1 x
 0.1
21. (a) From the graph, we determine that we can x
take δ = 0.02, as shown below. 1 − x < 0.1x
1 < 1.1x
1 2
x   x 1
1.1 100
0.909090 … < x 2
  x  1 | x  1|
100
Thus we take
δ1 = 1 − 0.909090 … = 0.090909 . . .. So take δ = 2/100.
Similarly, as x → 1+, we have x − 1 > 0 and x > 0.
Therefore we need 25. (a) We look at the graph of cot x as x → 0+ and
we find that we should take δ = 0.00794.
x 1
 0.1
x (b) We look at the graph of cot x as x → π− and
we find that we should take δ = 0.0098.
x − 1 < 0.1x
0.9x < 1 26. We want M such that if x > M,
1
x x2  2
0.9  1  0.1
x2  x  1
x < 1.111111 …
Thus we take We have
δ2 = 1.111111 … − 1 = 0.111111 . . ..
x2  2
In the definition of the limit we need to take the 1
smaller δ (δ1) to ensure that |f(x) − L| < ε on both x2  x  1
sides of a = 1.
x 2  2  ( x 2  x  1)
To prove that lim1/ x  1 , we take δ < 1/2, so that 
x 1 x2  x  1
1/2 < x < 3/2. Then x  3

1 x 1 x x  x 1
2
 1
x x3
2 
x2  x  1
= 2|1 − x|
= 2|x − 1| Now, as long as x > 3, we have
To get this to be less than ε, we take δ = min{1/2,
x3 2x
ε/2}. 
x  x 1
2
x x
2
24. (a) As x → 1+, x − 1 > 0 so we compute 2


x 1
2
 100
x 1 2
We want  0.1 . Since x → ∞, we can take x >
x 1
2 > 100(x − 1)
2
0, so we solve  0.1 to get x > 19, i.e., M = 19.
2 x 1
 x 1
100
ex  x
So take δ = 2/100. 27. We look at the graph of as x gets larger and
e x  x2
we find that we should take M = 7.
(b) As x → 1−, x − 1 < 0 so we compute
28. We have
2
 100
x 1
2 > −100(x − 1)
x2  3 1 x 2  3  ( x 2  1) 2 2
   |N|
4x  4 2
4 4 x2  4 ( x  3) 4
( 2 / N )4
4
4

4x  4 2
30. Let M > 0 be given and let   3/M .
1

x2  1 Then for any x such that |x − 7| < δ,
Since x → −∞, we may take x < −1 so that x2 − 1 >

3 3
1   |M |
0. We now need 2  0.1 . Solving for x gives ( x  7) 2
( 3/ M ) 2
x 1
| x |  11  3.3166 . So we can take N = −4.
31. Let ε > 0 be given and let M = ε−1/k.
29. We have Then if x > M,

3x 2  2 3 x 2  2  (3 x 2  3)
3 
x2  1 x2  1 1

1

xk
 
k
1/ k
5 

x2  1
5 Let ε > 0 be given and let N = −ε−1/2k.
 32.
x 1 2
Then if x < N,
5
We now need  0.1 .
x 1
2
1 1
 
 
2k 2k
Solving for x gives |x| > 7, i.e., N = −7. x  1/ 2 k
30. Let ε > 0 be given and assume ε ≤ 1/2.

33. We observe that lim f ( x)  2 and lim f ( x)  4 .
x 1 x 1
Let N  ( 1  2)1/ 2 . Then if x < N, For any x ∈ (1, 2), |f(x) − 2| = |x2 + 3 − 2| = |x2 + 1|
> 2.
1 1 So if ε ≤ 2, there is no δ > 0 to satisfy the definition
 3  (3) 
x 2
2
x 2
2
of limit.
1
 2
 34. We observe that lim f ( x)  1 and
( ( 1 
 2)1/ 2 )  2 x 0
lim f ( x)  2 . For any x ∈ (−1, 0), |f(x) − (−2)| =
x 0
28. Let ε > 0 be given and let M = ε−1/2 + 7. |x2 − 1 + 2| = |x2 + 1| > 1.
Then if x > M, So if ε ≤ 1, there is no δ > 0 to satisfy the definition

of limit.
1 1
 
( x  7) 2
( 1/ 2
 7  7)2 35. We observe that lim f ( x)  2 and lim f ( x)  4 .
x 1 x 1
For any x  (1, 2) ,

29. Let N < 0 be given and let   4 2 / N . |f(x) − 2| = | 5 − x2 − 2|
Then for any x such that |x + 3| < δ,  | 3  x2 |  | 3  ( 2)2 |  1.
So if ε ≤ 1, there is no δ > 0 to satisfy the definition

of limit.
36. We observe that lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  4 .  

x 2 x 2   
2 2
For any x ∈ (2, 3),
as desired. The proof for f(x) − g(x) is similar, noting
|f(x) − 1| = |x − 1| > 3.
2 that
So if ε ≤ 3, there is no δ > 0 to satisfy the definition |(f(x) − g(x)) − (L1 − L2)|

of limit.
= |(f(x) − L1) + (−1)(g(x) − L2)|
37. Let L  lim f ( x) . Given any ε > 0, we know there ≤ |f(x) − L1| + |g(x) − L2|.
x a
exists δ > 0 such that whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ, we
have 39. Let ε > 0 be given. Since lim f ( x)  L , there exists
x a
δ1 > 0 such that whenever

| f ( x)  L |  . 0 < |x − a| < δ1, we have
|c|
|f(x) − L| < ε.
Here, we can take ε/|c| instead of ε because there is In particular, we know that
such a δ for any ε, including ε/|c|. But now we have
L − ε < f(x).
|c · f(x) − c · L| = |c| · |f(x) − L|
Similarly, since lim h( x)  L , there exists δ2 > 0
x a
 such that whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ2, we have
 |c|   .
|c| |h(x) − L| < ε.
Therefore, lim c  f ( x)  c  L , as desired. In particular, we know that h(x) < L + ε.

x a
Let δ = min{δ1, δ2}.
Then whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have L − ε < f(x)
38. Let L1  lim f ( x) . Then, given any ε > 0, there
x a ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) < L + ε.
exists δ1 > 0 such that whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ1, we Therefore
have
|g(x) − L| < ε
 and so lim g ( x)  L as desired.
| f ( x)  L1 |  . x a
2
Similarly, let L2  lim g ( x) . Then, given any ε > 0, 40. Let ε > 0 be given. If x < a, there exists δ1 > 0 such
x a that if 0 < |x − a| < δ1, then |f(x) − L| < ε. Likewise, if
there exists δ2 > 0 such that whenever 0 < |x − a| < x > a, there exists δ2 > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ2,
δ2, we have then |f(x) − L| < ε. Let δ = min{δ1, δ2}. Then for any
x such that 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have |f(x) − L| < ε.

| g ( x)  L2 |  .
2 41. We want to find, for any given ε > 0, a δ > 0 such
that whenever 0 < |r − 2| < δ, we have |2r2 − 8| < ε.
Note that We see that
|(f(x) + g(x)) − (L1 + L2)| |2r2 − 8| = 2|r2 − 4| = 2|r − 2||r + 2|.
Since we want a radius close to 2, we may take |r −
= |(f(x) − L1) + (g(x) − L2)| 2| < 1 which implies |r + 2| < 5 and so |2r2 − 8| <
10|r − 2|
≤ |f(x) − L1| + |g(x) − L2|
whenever |r − 2| < 1. If we then take δ = min{1,
by the triangle inequality. So whenever δ = min{δ1, ε/10}, we see that whenever
δ2}, we have
0 < |r − 2| < δ, we have
|(f(x) + g(x)) − (L1 + L2)| 
|2r 2  8|  10    10   .
≤ |f(x) − L1| + |g(x) − L2| 10
42. We want to find, for any given ε > 0, a δ > 0 such to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
that whenever 0  | r  12 |   , we have
In the table below, the middle column contains
| 43  r 3  6 |   . We see that values calculated using
4 3  4 1 r 1 f ( x)  x( 4 x 2  1  2 x) , while the third column

r   r  r2   .
3 6 3 2 2 4 contains values calculated using the rewritten f(x).
Since we want a radius close to 1/2, we may take |r

− 1/2| < 1/2 so 0 < r < 1. Since the function r2 + r/2 x old f(x) new f(x)
+ 1/4 is increasing on the interval (0, 1), we see that
1 0.236068 0.236068
r 2  2r  14  1  12  14  7
4
10 0.249844 0.249844
100 0.249998 0.249998
whenever |r − 1/2| < 1/2. 1000 0.250000 0.250000
10000 0.250000 0.250000
 1 3 
If we then take   min  ,  , we have 100000 0.249999 0.250000
 2 7 
1000000 0.250060 0.250000
4 3  7 1 10000000 0.260770 0.250000
r   r
3 6 3 2 100000000 0.000000 0.250000
7 3
   . 1000000000 0.000000 0.250000
3 7
2. The limit is  14 .
1.7 Limits and Loss-of-
Significance Errors
1
1. The limit is 4
.
We can rewrite the function as
( 4 x 2  1  2 x)
x( 4 x 2  1  2 x)
( 4 x 2  1  2 x)
x

We can rewrite the function as ( 4 x  1  2 x)
2
f(x) =
to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
4 x2  1  2 x
x( 4 x 2  1  2 x) 
4 x2  1  2 x
x(4 x 2  1  4 x 2 )

4 x 2  1  2 x, x
x

4 x2  1  2 x
1.7. LIMITS AND LOSS-OF-SIGNIFICANCE ERRORS 77
3. The limit is 1. 4. The limit is 4.
We can rewrite the function as We can rewrite the function as
x4  x2 ( x4  8  x2 )
x ( x  4  x  2)  x2 ( x4  8  x2 )
x4  x2 ( x4  8  x2 )
x [( x  4)  ( x  2)]
 8x2
x4  x2 
( x4  8  x2 )
2 x

x4  x2 to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
to avoid loss-of-significance errors. 5. The limit is 1.

values calculated using
f ( x)  x ( x  4  x  2) , while the third column

contains values calculated using the rewritten f(x).
x old f(x) new f(x)

1 0.504017 0.504017
10 0.877708 0.877708
100 0.985341 0.985341
1000 0.998503 0.998503 We can multiply f(x) by
10000 0.999850 0.999850 x2  4  x2  2
100000 0.999985 0.999985 x2  4  x2  2
1000000 0.999998 0.999999
to rewrite the function as
10000000 1.000000 1.000000
x[ x 2  4  ( x 2  2)]
100000000 1.000000 1.000000
1000000000 1.000000 1.000000 x2  4  x2  2
2x
10000000000 1.000000 1.000000 
x2  4  x2  2
1E+11 0.999990 1.000000
1E+12 1.000008 1.000000 to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
1E+13 0.999862 1.000000
1E+14 0.987202 1.000000 values calculated using
1E+15 0.942432 1.000000
1E+16 0.000000 1.000000 f ( x)  ( x2  4  x2  2) , while the third column
1E+17 0.000000 1.000000 contains values calculated using the rewritten f(x).
x old f(x) new f(x) to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
1 0.504017 0.504017 In the table below, the middle column contains

1  cos 2 x
10 0.985341 0.985341 values calculated using f ( x)  , while the
12 x 2
100 0.999850 0.999850 third column contains values calculated using the
1000 0.999998 0.999999 rewritten f(x). Note that f(x) = f(−x) and so we get
the same values when x is negative (which allows us
10000 1.000000 1.000000
to conjecture the two-sided limit as x → 0).
100000 1.000000 1.000000
1000000 1.000008 1.000000
x old f(x) new f(x)
10000000 0.987202 1.000000 1 0.118012 0.118012
0.1 0.166112 0.166112
100000000 0.000000 1.000000
0.01 0.166661 0.166661
1000000000 0.000000 1.000000
0.001 0.166667 0.166667
6. The limit is 0. 0.0001 0.166667 0.166667
0.00001 0.166667 0.166667
0.000001 0.166663 0.166667
0.0000001 0.166533 0.166667
0.00000001 0.185037 0.166667
0.000000001 0 0.166667
1E-10 0 0.166667
1
8. The limit is 2
.
( x3  8  x3/2 )
x( x3  8  x3/2 )
( x3  8  x3/2 )
8x

( x3  8  x3/2 )
7. The limit is 1/6.

(1  cos x) (1  cos x)
x2 (1  cos x)
1  cos 2 x

x 2 (1  cos x)
sin 2 x

x 2 (1  cos x)
1  cos 2 x 1  cos 2 x
.
12 x 2 1  cos 2 x
sin 2 2 x

12 x 2 (1  cos 2 x)
1.7. LIMITS AND LOSS-OF-SIGNIFICANCE ERRORS 79
9. The limit is 1
2
. (1  cos x 4 ) (1  cos x 4 )
x8 (1  cos x 4 )
1  cos 2 x 4

x8 (1  cos x 4 )
sin 2 x 4

x8 (1  cos x 4 )
11. The limit is 2/3.
1  cos x3 1  cos x3
x6 1  cos x3
sin 2 ( x3 )

x 6 (1  cos x3 )
We can multiply f(x) by
f ( x)  1cos6 x , while the third column contains
3
1
x g ( x)
g ( x)
where
values calculated using the rewritten f(x). Note that
f(x) = f(−x) and so we get the same values when x is 2 1 1
negative (which allows us to conjecture the two- g ( x)  ( x 2  1) 3  ( x 2  1) 3 ( x 2  1) 3

sided limit as x → 0).  ( x 2  1) 3
2
x old f(x) new f(x) to rewrite the function as 2 x 4/3

g ( x)
1 0.459698 0.459698
0.1 0.500000 0.500000 to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
0.01 0.500044 0.500000 In the table below, the middle column contains
0.001 0.000000 0.500000
0.0001 0.000000 0.500000 f ( x)  x 4/3 ( 3 x 2  1  3 x 2  1) , while the third
column contains values calculated using the
1
rewritten f(x).
10. The limit is 2
.
x old f(x) new f(x)
1 1.259921 1.259921
10 0.666679 0.666679
100 0.666667 0.666667
1000 0.666667 0.666667
10000 0.666668 0.666667
100000 0.666532 0.666667
1000000 0.63 0.666667
10000000 2.154435 0.666667
100000000 0.000000 0.666667
1000000000 0.000000 0.666667
x2  x  2
12. The limit is 7/3. 13. lim
x 1 x 1
( x  2)( x  1)
 lim
x 1 x 1
 lim ( x  2)  3
x 1
x 2  x  2.01
lim does not exist, since when x is
x 1 x 1
close to 1, the numerator is close to −.01 (a small but
non-zero number) and the denominator is close to 0.
x2
We can multiply f(x) by 14. lim
x 2 x2  4
2 1 1 2
( x  4) 3  ( x  4) 3 ( x  3) 3  ( x  3) 3 x2 1
2 1 1 2  lim 
( x  4) 3  ( x  4) 3 ( x  3) 3  ( x  3) 3 x 2 ( x  2)( x  2) 4
to rewrite the function as x2
and lim 0.
7x 2/3 x 2 x 2  4.01
2 1 1 2
( x  4) 3  ( x  4) 3 ( x  3) 3  ( x  3) 3
15. f(1) = 0; g(1) = 0.00159265
f(10) = 0; g(10) = −0.0159259
In the table below, the middle column contains f(100) = 0; g(100) = −0.158593
values calculated using f(1000) = 0; g(1000) = −0.999761
f ( x)  x2/3 ( 3 x  4  3 x  3) , while the third 16. Answer depends upon CAS.

column contains values calculated using the
rewritten f(x). 17. (1.000003 − 1.000001) × 107 = 20
On a computer with a 6-digit mantissa, the
x old f(x) new f(x)
calculation would be
1 2.969897 1.259921
(1.00000 − 1.00000) × 107 = 0.
10 2.307850 2.307850
100 2.326111 2.326110 18. The answer with a six-digit mantissa is 0.
1000 2.332561 2.332561 The exact answer is 50.
10000 2.333256 2.333256
100000 2.333326 2.333326
1000000 2.333333 2.333333
Ch. 1 Review Exercises
10000000 2.333333 2.333333
1. The slope appears to be 2.
100000000 2.333332 2.333333
1000000000 2.33337 2.333333 Second point msec
10000000000 2.333327 2.333333 (3, 3) 3
1E+11 2.333253 2.333333 (2.1, 0.21) 2.1
1E+12 2.3 2.333333 (2.01, 0.0201) 2.01
1E+13 2.320794 2.333333 (1, −1) 1
1E+14 2.154435 2.333333 (1.9, −0.19) 1.9
1E+15 0.000000 2.333333 (1.99, −0.0199) 1.99
1E+16 0.000000 2.333333
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW EXERCISES 81
2. The slope appears to be 2. (b)
Second point msec Left Right Length

(−0.2, −0.3894) 1.9471 (0, 0) 
( 32 , 0.0980) 0.1387
(−0.1, −0.1987) 1.9867

( 32 , 0.0980) ( 232 , 0.1951) 0.1381
(−0.01, −0.02) 2
(0.2, 0.3894) 1.9471 ( 232 , 0.1951) ( 332 , 0.2903) 0.1368
(0.1, 0.1987) 1.9876
( 332 , 0.2903) ( 432 , 0.3827) 0.1348
(0.01, 0.02) 2
( 432 , 0.3827) ( 532 , 0.4714) 0.1323
3. (a) For the x-values of our points here we use
  3 , and  .
(approximations of) 0, 16 , 8 , 16 ( 532 , 0.4714) ( 632 , 0.5556) 0.1293
4
Left Right Length ( 632 , 0.5556) ( 732 , 0.6344) 0.1259
(0, 0) (0.2, 0.2) 0.276 ( 732 , 0.6344) ( 4 , 0.7071) 0.1222

(0.2, 0.2) (0.39, 0.38) 0.272
Total 1.0581
(0.39, 0.38) (0.59, 0.56) 0.262
(0.59, 0.56) (0.785, 0.71) 0.248
tan 1 x 2
Total 1.058 5. Let f ( x)  .
x2
  3  5 3 7 x f(x)
(approximations of) 0, 32 , 16 , 32 , 8 , 32 , 16 , 32 , and
0.1 0.999966669

4
.
0.01 0.999999997
Left Right Length 0.001 1.000000000
(0, 0) (0.1, 0.1) 0.139 0.0001 1.000000000
(0.1, 0.1) (0.2, 0.2) 0.138 0.00001 1.000000000
(0.2, 0.2) (0.29, 0.29) 0.137 0.000001 1.000000000
(0.29, 0.29) (0.39, 0.38) 0.135 Note that f(x) = f(−x), so the results for negative x
(0.39, 0.38) (0.49, 0.47) 0.132 will be the same as above. The limit appears to be 1.
(0.49, 0.47) (0.59, 0.56) 0.129 x2  1
6. lim  1.
(0.59, 0.56) (0.69, 0.63) 0.126 x 1 ln x 2
(0.69, 0.63) (0.785, 0.71) 0.122
x2
Total 1.058 7. Let f ( x)  .
| x2|
4. (a) x f(x)
Left Right Length −1.9 1
(0, 0) 
( 16 , 0.1951) 0.2768 −1.99 1
−1.999 1
 2 0.2716
( 16 , 0.1951) ( 16
, 0.3827) −2.1 −1
( 216 , 0.3827) ( 316 , 0.5556) 0.2616 −2.01 −1
−2.001 −1
( 316 , 0.5556) ( 4 , 0.7071) 0.2480
x2
Total 1.058 lim does not exist.
x 2 | x  2 |
8. lim (1  2 x)1/ x  e2  7.389 . x2  x  2

x 0 15. lim
x 2 x2  4
x ( x  2)( x  1)
 2  lim
9. Let f ( x)  1   . ( x  2)( x  2)
x2
 x
x 1 3
 lim  .
x f(x) x2 x  2 4
10 6.1917
100 7.2446 x2  1
16. lim
1000 7.3743 x 1 x2  x  2
10,000 7.3876 ( x  1)( x  1)
 lim
x 1 ( x  2)( x  1)
x
 2 x 1 2
lim 1    e2  7.4
x   x  lim  .
x 1 x2 3
10. lim x 2/ x  1 . x2  x
x  17. lim
x 0 x4  2 x2
11. (a) lim f ( x)  1 .
x 1 x( x  1)
 lim
x 0 x x2  2
(b) lim f ( x)  2 .
x 1
x 1
 lim
(c) lim f ( x) does not exist. x 0 x2  2
x 1
1
(d) lim f ( x)  0 . 
x 0 2
but
12. (a) lim f ( x)  1 .
x 1 x2  x
lim
(b) lim f ( x)  3 . x 0 x4  2 x2
x 1
x( x  1)
(c) lim f ( x) does not exist.  lim
x 1 x 0 ( x) x 2  2
(d) lim f ( x)  2 . x 1
x 2  lim
x 0 x2  2
x = −1, x = 1 1
13. 
2
14. One possible graph: Since the left and right limits are not equal,
x2  x
lim does not exist.
x 0
x4  2 x2
18. lim e cot x  lim e x  0

x 0 x 
but
lim e cot x  lim e x  
x 0 x 
Since the left and right limits are not equal,

lim e cot x does not exist.
x 0
19. lim(2  x)sin(1/ x)  x 

x 0 26. lim tan 1  2 
x 1  x  2x  1 
 lim 2sin(1/ x) ;
x 0
 x 
however, since lim sin(1/ x) does not exist, it  lim tan 1  
 ( x  1)
x 1 2
x 0 
follows that lim(2  x)sin(1/ x) also does not exist. 
x 0  lim tan 1 x 
x  2
sin x 2
20. lim  1. x2  4
x 0 x2 27. lim
x  3x 2  x  1
21. lim f ( x)  5 . x 2 (1  4 )
x2
x 2  lim
x  x 2 (3  1  1 )
x x2
22. lim f ( x)  lim (2 x  1)  3 1 4
1
x 1 x 1  lim x2

x  3  1x  1 3
lim f ( x)  lim ( x 2  1)  2 x2
x 1 x 1
lim f ( x) does not exist. 2x 1/ x

x 1 28. lim
x 
x  4 1/ x
2
23. Multiply the function by 2

 lim 2
2 1
x 
(1  2 x)  (1  2 x)  1
3 3
1  4 / x2
2 1
(1  2 x) 3  (1  2 x) 3  1
to get 29. Since lim tan 2 x   , it follows that
x  /2
lim e tan
2
1  2x 1
3 x
0.
lim x  /2
x 0 x
2 2
 lim 
lim e x  0 .
2
x 0
2 1 30.
(1  2 x)  (1  2 x)  1
3 3 3 x 
x 1
24. lim 31. lim ln 2 x  lim (ln 2  ln x)
x 1 10  x  3 x  x 
x 1 10  x  3  ln 2  lim ln x  
lim · x 
x 1 10  x  3 10  x  3
( x  1)( 10  x  3) 32. lim ln 3x  
lim x 0
x 1 10  x  9
( x  1)( 10  x  3)
lim 2x
x 1 1 x 33. lim
x  x  3x  5
2
(1  x)( 10  x  3)
lim
x 1 1 x  lim
2x
lim  ( 10  x  3)  6 x  x (1  3x 
2 5
)
x2
x 1
x
 lim 0
x  x(1  3x  5
)
25. lim cot( x )   2 x2
x 0
2x x2
34. lim 37. 0 1
x 2 x  3x  2
2
x 1
2
2x 2 x3
 lim  2 | x |  2| x|
x 2 ( x  2)( x  1)
x2  1
does not exist. Approaches −∞ from the left, and ∞ lim  2 | x | 0; lim 2 | x | 0
x 0 x 0
from the right.
By the Squeeze Theorem,
Let u  
1 2
, so that  6u . Then, 2 x3
35. lim  0.
3x x x 0 x2  1
lim (1  3 x) 2/ x
x 0 38. The first two rows of the following table show that
6u f(x) has a root in [1, 2]. In the following rows, we
 1
 lim 1   use the midpoint of the previous interval as our new
u   u x. When f(x) is positive, we use the left half, and
6
  1 
u when f(x) is negative, we use the right half of the
  lim 1     e 6 interval.
u   u  

x f(x)
and
1 −1
lim (1  3 x) 2/ x
2 5
x  0
6u 1.5 0.875
 1
 lim  1   1.25 −0.2969
u   u
6 1.375 0.22246
  1 
u
6
  lim 1    e 1.3125 −0.0515
u   u  
1.34375 0.0826
6
Thus, lim (1  3x) 2/ x
e . The zero is in the interval (1.3125, 1.34375).
x 0
x 1 x 1
2 x | x | 39. f ( x)   has a non-
36. lim
x 0 | 3x | 2 x x  2 x  3 ( x  3)( x  1)
2
removable discontinuity at x = −3 and a removable

2x  x discontinuity at x = 1.
 lim
x 0 3x  2 x
x x 1
 lim  1 40. f ( x)  is discontinuous at x = ±2. Not
x 0 x ( x  2)( x  2)
but removable.
2 x | x |
lim 41. lim f ( x)  lim sin x  0
x  0 | 3 x | 2 x x 0 x 0
2 x  ( x)
lim lim f ( x)  lim x 2  0
x  0 3 x  2 x x  0 x 0
lim
3x

3 lim f ( x)  lim x 2  4
x2 x2
x  0  5 x 5
lim f ( x)  lim (4 x  3)  5
Thus the limit does not exit. x  2 x2
f has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 2.

42. f(x) = x cot x has discontinuities wherever sin x is 50. Vertical asymptotes at x = 2 and x = −1. Long
zero, namely x = kπ for any integer k. The division reveals the slant asymptote
discontinuity at x = 0 is removable because
y = x + 1.
lim x cot x  1 . The other discontinuities are not
x 0
removable. 51. lim 2e1/ x   ,
x 0
x2 x2 so x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

43. f ( x)   continuous on
x  x  6 ( x  3)( x  2)
2
lim 2e1/ x  2, lim 2e1/ x  2 ,
(−∞, −2), (−2, 3) and (3, ∞). x  x 
so y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.
44. f(x) is continuous wherever 3x − 4 > 0 i.e., on the
interval ( 43 , ) .. 52. Horizontal asymptotes at y   32 .
45. f(x) = sin(1 + ex) is continuous on the interval (−∞, 53. f(x) has a vertical asymptote when ex = 2, that is, x =
∞). ln 2.
3
46. f(x) is continuous wherever x2 − 4 ≥ 0 i.e., on the lim 0
intervals (−∞, −2] and [2, ∞). x  e 2 x
3 3
lim 
x 1 x  e 2 x
2
47. f ( x)  has vertical asymptotes at x =
( x  2)( x  1) so y = 0 and y = −3/2 are horizontal asymptotes.
1 and x = 2.
x 1 54. Vertical asymptote at x = 2. No horizontal or slant
lim asymptotes.
x  x 2  3x  2
x(1  1x ) 1
 lim 2 55. The limit is 4 .
x  x (1  3  2 )
x 2
x
1 1
 lim x
0
x  x(1  3x  2 )
x2
So f(x) has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
48. Vertical asymptote at x = 4. Horizontal

asymptote at y = 0. (Removable discontinuuity at x =
−2.)
x2 x2 We can rewrite the function as

49. f ( x)   has vertical
x 2  1 ( x  1)( x  1)
1  cos x  1  cos x  1  cos x 
asymptotes at x = −1 and x = 1.   
2x 2
 2 x 2  1  cos x 
x2 1  cos 2 x sin 2 x
lim  
x  x 1 2
2 x 2 (1  cos x) 2 x 2 (1  cos x)
x2
 lim 2 to avoid loss-of-significance errors.
x  x (1  1 )
x2
1
 lim values calculated using f ( x)  1cos2 x , while the
x  1  12 2x
x third column contains values calculated using the
1 rewritten f(x). Note that f(x) = f(−x) and so we get
 1
1 the same values when x is negative (which allows us
to conjecture the two-sided limit as x → 0).
So f(x) has a horizontal asymptote at y = 1.
x old f(x) new f(x) We can rewrite the function as
1 0.229849 0.229849 ( x 2  1  x)
x( x 2  1  x)
0.1 0.249792 0.249792 ( x 2  1  x)
0.01 0.249998 0.249998 x

0.001 0.250000 0.250000 ( x 2  1  x)
0.0001 0.250000 0.250000
0.00001 0.250000 0.250000
0.000001 0.250022 0.250000
0.0000001 0.249800 0.250000
0.00000001 0.000000 0.250000
0.000000001 0.000000 0.250000
1
56. The limit is 2
.

Calculus I - Chapter 1 Solutions

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(b) The slope appears to be 12.

Chapter 1 Second point msec

6. (a) The slope appears to be 1. (0.589, 0.83) (0.785, 0.71) 0.232

Left Right Length (b)

Left Right Length (b)

(b) the width (0.125) and add them all to obtain

(c) Actual length approximately 3.0957. The approximation is 1.333496094.

16. The following is a graph with 4 rectangles: (b)

1.2 The Concept of Limit x f(x) x f(x)

( x  1) -1.999 -0.5003 -2.001 -0.4998

(c) f  1 is undefined.

(b) True. lim  f (x )  2

(d) lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  2

9. (a) lim f ( x)  2 (e) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  32  9

(c) lim f ( x) Does not exist.

(g) lim f ( x)  0 13. (a) lim f ( x)  lim x3  1  1

(f) lim f ( x) does not exist.

(g) lim f ( x)  2.5

(h) lim f ( x)  1.5

11. (a) f 1  2

(e) f  2  0 f(0.99) = 1.99, f(0.999) = 2.00.

12. (a) lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  4

(b) lim f ( x)  lim x 2  4 f(−1.1) = −0.4762

f(−0.5) = −0.6667 23. By inspecting the graph, and using a sequence of

20. The limit exists and equals 1.

21. The limit exists and equals 1.

For x < 0, as x increases, the value of function starts

have vertical asymptotes). Our conjecture is that if 34. (a)

(b) We see that 1/x is increasing without bound

33. From the values shown in table below, we can

0.1 9.9990 0.1 0.099

0.01 99.0099 0.01 0.010

0.001 500 0.001 0.001

For x > 0, as x decreases, the value of function starts lim xsec x  0

time as the next price increase doesn’t come until

2. By inspecting the graph, and using a sequence of

 lim cos x  cos 0  1 2 x(3  x  9)

34. Velocity is given by the limit

36. Velocity is given by the limit

Since ±Mx2 → 0 as x → 0, the Squeeze Theorem

39. lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  g (a) because g(x) is a

41. (a) lim( x  3x  1)

lim x  lim 2 47. lim p( p( p( p( x))))

 lim ( x  1) lim sin x  lim( x8  4 x 6  4 x 4  1) 2  1

(Theorem 3.1). = (−1)2 − 1 = 0

that this equals

Approaches 0 from left, 1 from right.

Approaches 2 from left, 3 from right.

Approaches 1 from left, 0 from right.

x 2  x  6 ( x  3) ( x  2) 11. f(x) has a non-removable discontinuity at x = 1.

6. f(x) is discontinuous where the denominator is 0.

lim f ( x)  lim (3 x  2)  4 Now

24. Continuous where x − 1 > 0, i.e. on (1, ∞). we must have

27. f(x) is continuous, on interval [-1, ∞) whenever = (.35)(307,050) − 12,747.5

-2.6875 0.2227 x f(x)

The interval in which f(x) has a zero is [-

−0.625 −0.0897 This is equal to f(g(a)) since g is continuous at a.

The zero is in the interval (−0.59375, −0.5625).

= a(0 + 2) = 2a, = 0 f(0) = 0

that lim f ( g ( x))  f (lim g ( x)) .

= maxa≤t≤b (limt→b f(t))

Then h(x) = 1 for a ≤ x < b, and h(x) = 2 for x ≥ b.