Biology 81: Integrated Biology

The Reproductive System

Hormones' Role in Human Reproduction

Regulation of hormones in both men

and women allow for human
reproduction to occur
Reproductive Hormones to Know:
1. GnRH = gonadotropin releasing
hormones. It is released by the
hypothalamus to regulate the
pituitary gland

2. Gonadotropins = LH and FSH

LH = luteinizing hormone, released
by the pituitary gland
FSH = follicle stimulating hormone,
released by the pituitary gland
Gonadotropins:

3. Estrogen/Testosterone
Male Stuff
Reproductive Hormones: Male
 Sertoli vs Leydig Cells

Sertoli cells are used to support sperm cells in differentiation

Leydig cells produce testosterone
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the creation of
sperm, and begins at puberty.

In human males, this process is

continuous (unless there are
changes to hormone levels)

After meiosis II, the 4 haploid

daughter cells are known as
spermatids.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatids do not have the “tails”
usually seen on sperm. That is
because spermatids later differentiate
into sperm cells.

Cell differentiation is when a cell

becomes a more specialized cell
type.

For human males, this differentiation

occurs in the Sertoli cells.
Spermatogenesis
In humans, this whole process
takes about 74 days.
Reproductive Hormones: Male
Note that these hormones work via
negative feedback.

Ex: Testosterone
Gonadotropins:
This means that if the body has
too much testosterone, the
hypothalamus will stop
stimulating testosterone
production.
Reproductive Hormones: Male

Frequent steroid drug users

can cause issues with
fertility and testes size. This
is because the steroids taken
are very similar, but not the
same as testosterone.
 Reproductive Anatomy: Male
The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis
 External Anatomy: The Penis
The human penis is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile
tissue.

During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the
arteries, causing an erection
 Reproductive Anatomy: Male
The male’s internal organs are the gonads, which produce sperm and
hormones, and accessory glands
 Internal Anatomy: Gonads
The male gonads, or testes, consist of
highly coiled tubes surrounded by
connective tissue

These tubes are called “seminiferous

tubules”, and is where sperm is
created

(So this is where Leydig and Sertoli

cells are)
 Internal Anatomy: Gonads
Production of normal sperm cannot
occur at the body temperatures of
most mammals

Thus, the testes of many mammals

are held outside the abdominal cavity
in the scrotum, where the temperature
is lower
 Accessories
Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets of
accessory glands
 Accessories
The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the total volume of
semen
 Accessories
The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation that
neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the urethra
 Making Sperm
Males do not start producing sperm until puberty

Puberty is triggered in both males and females when GnRH levels rise

No one knows what triggers puberty to begin

Most men produce millions of sperm each day

However, 1 sperm takes about 74 days to mature

1 ejaculation contains usually 2 – 5 mL of semen, with 1 mL containing

about 50 million sperm
 What Happens to Sperm?
Once sperm is made and ready to exit, sperm pass into the coiled
tubules of the epididymis
 What Happens to Sperm?
During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through the muscular vas
deferens and the ejaculatory duct, and then exit the penis through the
urethra
Changes in Male Fertility
The Experiment
Changes in Male Fertility
Male Contraception
Getting your tubes tied
means that the vas deferens
is cut.

Sperm production will still

occur, but because the sperm
can’t exit the testes, they
will eventually die/dissolve
and get reabsorbed into the
body
 Male Contraception Pills?
Why is there no good male contraceptive pill?
There is no normal state where sperm production stops entirely with
low doses of hormones.

Very high doses of hormones would stop sperm production, but there
would be many severe consequences to other parts of the body.

Newest drug under

development = DMAU

Rapidly suppresses
testosterone production to
same levels as men who had
their tubes tied.
Female Stuff
Women are Born with All of Their Eggs
Women are Born with All of Their Eggs
 Reproductive Hormones: Female
Note that, once again, the
hormones are regulated by a
negative feedback loop

Gonadotropins:
Reproductive Anatomy: Female
 External Anatomy
The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva, which consists of the labia
majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris

The vagina, labia minora, and clitoris are rich with blood vessels; the
clitoris has many nerve endings
 Internal Anatomy
The internal anatomy consists of:

The vagina

The cervix

The uterus/endometrial lining

The fallopian tubes

Fimbrae

And the ovaries

Reproductive Anatomy: The Ovary
An ovary is filled with follicles that contain oocytes (eggs).
 Reproductive Anatomy: Ovaries
Each follicle consists of a partially developed egg (stopped at
meiosis I), called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells

Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum (stopped at

meiosis II) by the process of oogenesis
Ovarian Cycle
 Follicular Phase (~Day 1 – 14)
Main hormones: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

FSH stimulates growth of 15 – 20 eggs, each in its own follicle

One follicle becomes dominant and continues to mature (oocyte goes

through most of meiosis II to become an ovum) .

This follicle suppresses development of all other follicles by secreting

the hormone estrogen.
 Ovulation (~Day 15)
Gradually, estrogen levels in the body rise due
to the developing follicle.

When the amount of estrogen in the body

reaches a specific level, it triggers the pituitary
gland to release a surge of the hormone
luteinizing hormone (LH)

This surge of LH triggers ovulation, which

expels an egg cell from the follicle
 Best Markers of Ovulation
Aside from changes in hormonal levels, there are many
physiological markers of ovulation.

- Body basal temperature rises

- Increased cervical mucus, often associated with increased

cervical mucus discharge
 Other Markers of Ovulation
There are other tests for ovulation, but these are still under review

- Salivary ferning

- Changes in skin temperature

- Salt concentration of vaginal fluid

 Luteal Phase (~Day 15 – 26)
The remaining follicular tissue grows within the ovary, forming a mass
called the corpus luteum

The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone

Estrogen and progesterone tells the uterus to become prepared for
implantation
The uterus lining thickens and has increased blood flow

If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates

 Menstruation (~Day 27 – 28)
Once the corpus luteum degenerates, the lining of the uterus is shed
and the hormone balance is reset to the beginning of the follicular
phase
Markers for the Ovarian Cycle
 Female Surgical Contraception
As with male contraception, the tubes (in this case, fallopian
tubes) can be cut and tied to prevent sperm from reach the egg
Intrauterine Contraception
There are 3 types of IUDs
(intrauterine device):

1. Copper IUDs work because

copper acts as a spermicide
(COVID?)

2. Inert IUDs work because the

uterus recognizes a foreign
object is inside and makes
the environment hostile

3. Hormonal IUDs
 Female Contraception
When a follicle matures, the follicle produces estrogen to prevent other follicles
from developing.

With estrogen contraception, estrogen is given before the development of a

mature follicle. This prevent formation of mature follicles.
 Menopause
Menopause is defined as having no menstrual periods for over a year

Menopausal transition is caused by the natural depletion of eggs

Since there aren’t any follicles to release estrogen, there is an increase in FSH
and LH
Menopause
Can You Fix Menopause?
Making a Baby Stuff
 Internal Anatomy
The vagina is a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm
during copulation and serves as the birth canal
 Where Sperm + Egg Meet
Sperm is deposited into the vagina
The sperm then go up to meet the egg through peristaltic movement and
by “swimming”
The Female Anatomy Revisited
 The Traveling Egg
The egg gets ejected from the ovaries.
Fimbrae sweep along the surface of the ovary and wave the egg into the
fallopian tube aka the uterine tube
 The Traveling Egg
The egg usually meets the sperm in the fallopian tube and gets fertilized
to become the zygote.

Cilia in the fallopian tube convey the egg to the uterus, also called the
womb
 The Traveling Egg
The uterus lining, the endometrium, has many blood vessels. If the egg
is fertilized, the egg will implant itself into the uterus lining

The uterus narrows at the cervix, then opens into the vagina
 When Implantation Goes Wrong
Ectopic pregnancy – fertilized egg implants in the fallopian tube

Abdominal pregnancy – fertilized egg is not correctly swept into the

fallopian tube, and implants at the abdominal wall

In both cases, the mortality rate for both the mother and the baby are
higher than with a normal pregnancy

The estimated mortality rate for the baby is 45 – 90%, and is higher for
abdominal pregnancies than ectopic pregnancies
 Reproduction Notes In Animals
Humans share many traits in reproduction with other animals.

However, some animals have unique methods or regulation of

reproduction
 Reproductive Cycles
Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at
the midpoint of a female cycle. In humans,
ovulation occurs on average every 5 weeks.

Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles

related to changing seasons

Reproductive cycles are controlled by

hormones and environmental cues

Because seasonal temperature is often an

important cue in reproduction, climate
change can decrease reproductive success
 Hermaphorditism
For many animals, finding a partner
for sexual reproduction may be
challenging

One solution is hermaphroditism, in

which each individual has male and
female reproductive systems

Two hermaphrodites can mate, and

some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize

Ex: garden snails

 Sex Reversal
Individuals of some species undergo
sex reversals

Some species exhibit male to female

reversal (for example, certain oysters),
while others exhibit female to male
reversal (for example, a coral reef
fish)

Ex: clown fish (the biologically

accurate “Finding Nemo” story would
be very different)
 Fertilization
The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of egg and sperm, play an
important part in sexual reproduction

All fertilization requires critical timing (to match ovulation), often

mediated by environmental cues, pheromones, and/or courtship
behavior
 Environmental Impact on Fertilization
For many sea creatures, fertilization and hatching only occur in the
absence of light.

Unfortunately, levels of artificial light at night (ALAN) are

increasing across the board, especially in coral reefs along coastlines

Even small amounts of ALAN prevent fertilization and/or hatching

External Fertilization

In external fertilization, eggs shed by

the female are fertilized by sperm in
the external environment
Internal Fertilization
In internal fertilization, sperm are
deposited in or near the female
reproductive tract, and fertilization
occurs within the tract

Internal fertilization requires

behavioral interactions and compatible
copulatory organs
Internal vs External Fertilization
Internal External

Note:
Gametes = sperm and eggs
 Carrying the Offspring
Is most organisms, the female carries and gives birth to the offspring.

In few organisms, the opposite is true.

Example: the seahorse

Questions?
 Attendance Question
The surge of which hormone triggers ovulation?

A. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

B. Lutenizing hormone (LH)
C. Estrogen
D. Testosterone