Chapter 1: Life Processes

Cells: Cells are very small building blocks of life. All living things are composed of cells.

Unicellular: Organisms that contain single cell are unicellular organisms.

Multicellular: Organisms that contain many different types of cells. They are specialized and
can carry out particular functions in animals or plants.

Tissues: Group of specific cells that can carry out particular functions.

Organs: Group of specific tissues that can carry out particular functions.

Eight life processes common to most living things:

Process Details
1 Require nutrition they make their own food or depend on others
2 Excrete remove toxic waste materials from the body
3 Move muscle movement in animals or growth movement in plants
4 Grow and develop increase in size and mass or in cell numbers
5 Respire get energy from food
6 Respond to stimuli sensitive to changes in the surroundings
7 Reproduce produce offspring
8 Control to control internal conditions and maintain a steady state inside the body

Cell structure: All cells have some common parts organelles like nucleus, cytoplasm, cell
membrane, ribosome and mitochondria.

1. Nucleus: It is the largest

organelle in the cell. In few
cells, nucleus is absent such
as xylem vessel in a stem
which are usually dead and
red blood cells that don’t live
for long. It controls the
reactions and activities of the
cell. It contains
chromosomes which carry
genes.
2. Cell membrane: This is a thin layer like a skin surrounding the cell. It forms a boundary
around the cell. It is selectively permeable as it only allow few substances to pass through and
controls substances going in and out of the cell.

3. Cytoplasm: It is a jelly like substance that makes up a cell. It is a complex material consisting
of many different structures called organelles. The cell reactions take place here.

4. Mitochondria: These are organelles found in the cytoplasm. They carry out some of the
reactions and release energy from respiration for cell’s use.

5. Ribosome: Ribosomes are tiny structures available in the cytoplasm. They act as the site for
protein synthesis.

Additional Plant cell features (not found in animal cells):

1. Cell wall: It is a layer of non-living material found outside the cell membrane. It is mainly
made of a carbohydrate called cellulose which is a tough material that keeps the cells in shape.
That is why plant cells have fairly fixed shape. It also gives the plant firm support to withstand
the internal pressure. It is freely permeable, has large holes, which allows water and dissolved
substances to go through it.

2. Vacuoles: These are large empty spaces, which are filled with watery liquid called cell sap.
They are often found in mature plant cells. They store dissolved sugars, mineral ions and other
solutes. Plant cells have large, permanent vacuoles but animal cells may have temporary, small
vacuoles.

3. Chloroplast: It is a green organelle found in the plant cytoplasm. It contains a green pigment
called chlorophyll that traps light energy to make food and help in the process of photosynthesis.

Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalyst. They are made of proteins. The chemical reactions
occurring in a cell are called metabolic reactions and the process is called metabolism.

All enzymes have active sites to carry out their function. The specific substrate must attach to
the specific enzyme’s active site to speed up the reaction rate. The substrate fits into the active
site like a key in a lock which allows the products to form more easily. The functions of enzymes
are:
• Speed up the reaction rate in cells without being used up
• Each enzyme catalyses a different reaction
• Intracellular enzymes catalyse reactions inside cells
• Extracellular enzymes are secreted out of the cells
Factors affecting enzymes: Enzymes work well in their optimum temperature. In humans,
enzymes work best in 37°C. If the temperature is increased, their rate of reaction increases as
they gain more kinetic energy and more frequent collisions between enzyme and substrate
molecules occur but if the temperature rises beyond their range, the enzyme becomes denatured
as the active site of the enzyme is damaged.

Some enzymes can live in high temperatures and work well in different pH. But most enzymes
work best at a neutral pH - 7. But some enzymes are specific to acidic or alkaline conditions.
Changing the pH changes the shape of the active site of the enzyme and they become denatured
or inactive.

Practical - Effect of temperature on the action of an enzyme

Procedure

1. Set up water baths at various temperatures (e.g. 0°C, 20°C, 40°C, 60°C and 80°C).
2. Add starch solution to 5 test tubes.
3. Add amylase solution to another 5 test tubes.
4. Place one starch and one amylase test tube into each water bath for 5 minutes - to allow
the enzyme and substrate to reach the desired temperature.
5. Place 1 drop of iodine into each sample on a spotting tile.
6. Add the amylase to the starch in the 0°C water bath.
7. Start the timer.
8. Every minute remove a sample of the starch-amylase solution and add it to a drop of iodine
on the spotting tile.
9. Repeat step 8 until the iodine no longer changes colour - meaning that there is no starch
present, in other words the amylase has broken all starch down.
10. Repeat steps 6-9 for each of the temperatures.
11. Record results.
12. Draw a graph to show the time taken for starch to be digested at different temperatures.
Results

At the optimum temperature the amylase will break down starch very quickly.

At low temperatures the amylase will break starch down slowly due to reduced kinetic energy.

At high temperatures the amylase will break starch down slowly or not at all due
to denaturation of the enzyme’s active site.
 Core practical - Investigating the effect of pH on enzyme activity

Method

1. Set up a water bath and adjust the temperature to keep the water at about 35°C.
2. Now put two drops of iodine solution into each spot of a spotting tile.
3. Add 2 cm3 of amylase enzyme solution to a test tube.
4. Place 2 cm3 of starch solution into the same tube.
5. Finally add 1 cm3 of buffer solution to the tube. This will keep the pH constant.
6. Mix the solution in the test tube and place it into the water bath.
7. Use a pipette to remove a few drops of solution every 20 seconds from the test tube and put
them into a different well of the spotting tile.
8. Repeat until the iodine solution stops turning blue-black.
9. Record the time this takes. pH of Time taken before
10. Repeat with different pH solutions. solution iodine did not
change colour (s)

Note: this practical uses the temperature of 35°C. This is close 5 240
to body temperature. Warmer temperatures may denature the
6 120
enzymes and the reaction will take longer at lower
temperatures.
7 60
Risks
8 140
 Iodine solution is an irritant. If it touches skin it should be
washed off.
 Goggles should be worn at all times.
Results

Conclusions

The enzyme amylase breaks down starch into glucose. If the enzyme is working effectively, this
will happen quickly. At pH 7 it took the shortest time before the iodine no longer changed
colour. This shows that the starch was broken down more quickly at this pH. The optimum pH
for amylase is therefore pH 7.
Respiration: Respiration is a process through which cells get their energy from food. There are
2 types of respiration. These are aerobic and anaerobic respiration:

Aerobic respiration occurs in presence of oxygen to release huge amount of energy. The
equation is:

Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water ( + energy )

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ energy )

ATP (Adenosine tri-phosphate) is an important molecule found in all living things. Think of it as
the “energy currency” of the cell. If a cell needs to spend energy to accomplish a task, the ATP
molecule splits off one of its three phosphates, becoming ADP (Adenosine di-phosphate) +
phosphate. The energy holding that phosphate molecule is now released and available to do work
for the cell.

When the cell has extra energy (gained from breaking down food that has been consumed or, in
the case of plants, made via photosynthesis), it stores that energy by reattaching a free phosphate
molecule to ADP, turning it back into ATP. The ATP molecule is just like a rechargeable
battery. When it’s fully charged, it’s ATP. When it’s run down, it’s ADP. However, the battery
doesn’t get thrown away when its run down–it just gets charged up again.

ATP   ADP + P + energy

Anaerobic respiration occurs in absence of oxygen. Here, glucose is not completely broken
down and less energy is released. During this time, it produces lactic acid that cramps the
muscle. In this situation, the person suffers from oxygen debt, and requires a lot of oxygen to
fulfil the debt.

Glucose  Lactic acid (+ some energy)

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 (+ some energy)

Anaerobic respiration can be useful in commercial process for making beer and wine by using
yeasts.
Glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide
Investigating the evolution (production) of carbon dioxide in respiring organisms

 A tube is connected from the air (inlet pipe) into a flask of sodium hydroxide
 This flask is connected by a tube to a flask of hydrogen carbonate (indicator A)
 Indicator A flask is connected by a tube to a flask of respiring organisms (in this
diagram, worms)
 The flask of respiring organisms is connected by a tube to a flask of hydrogen carbonate
(indicator B)
 Finally, this flask is connected by a tube to the air as an exit pipe

Investigating production of carbon dioxide in respiring organisms

 As air enters the first flask, the carbon dioxide in the air will be absorbed by the sodium
hydroxide, causing the hydrogen carbonate (indicator A flask) to turn red (low levels of
carbon dioxide)
 The flask of respiring organisms will respire aerobically, producing carbon dioxide as
a waste product, causing the hydrogen carbonate (indicator B flask) to turn yellow (high
levels of carbon dioxide)
 This shows that living organisms produce carbon dioxide in respiration

Investigating the evolution (production) of heat in respiring seeds

 Two thermos flasks are set up, one

with germinating seeds, another
with boiled seeds (the control)
 Thermometers wrapped in cotton
wool (prevents heat from escaping)
are added
 The initial temperature is recorded
 The seeds are left for a few days
 The final temperature is recorded
 Results:

 As the germinating seeds are alive, they will be respiring aerobically, producing energy
in the form of heat, causing the temperature of thermo flask to rise
 As the boiled seeds have died, they will not be respiring aerobically, therefore no
energy is produced, causing the temperature to remain the same.

Movements of materials in and out of cells:

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a high to low concentration. It does not need
energy from respiration. It happens because of kinetic energy in the particles.

The rate of diffusion of a substance is greater at -

 Higher temperature, as particles get more kinetic energy

 A steep concentration gradient
 A large surface area to volume ratio

Active transport is the movement of particles against a concentration gradient, using energy
from respiration. It is the movement of molecules from low concentration to high concentration.

Active transport takes place in human intestine (glucose in the gut is absorbed into cells lining
the intestine), and in plant roots (taking minerals from the soil).

Osmosis is a kind of diffusion. It is the net movement of water from dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution across the partially permeable cell membrane.

Demonstration of osmosis:

When visking tube filled with Sucrose solution is

placed in beaker of Water, Sucrose molecules will
remain trapped as they are too large to diffuse
through the small pores on the tube, whilst water
can move in and out of tube via osmosis as they
are small enough to diffuse through the small pore.
As Sucrose solution in visking tube has a higher
solute concentration relative to the water in the
beaker, a strong concentration gradient is
established, therefore allowing water molecules to
diffuse (down the water potential gradient) through
the partially permeable membrane into the visking
tube until a balance is met
As a result, the inflow of water via osmosis will result in the size of visking tube to increase.
Our body have different
systems to deal with
different problems. These
systems are described in
brief in the diagram shown.
But later in this book, these
systems are elaborately
described.

Cell differentiation:
Process involving the
development of newly
formed cells into more
specialised and distinct cells
as they mature.

Importance of cell
differentiation:

All specialised cells and

organs constructed from
them have developed as a
result of cell differentiation.

Undifferentiated cells
receive signals which
stimulate the expression of
genes for cell to undergo
change in metabolism and
shape, enabling them to
carry out specialised
functions - forming a
specialised cell.

Therefore, this allows

organism to develop cells necessary to grow and develop as specialised cells can undertake
specific functions.

For example, stem cells can differentiate into nerve cells to carry electrical impulses, hence
allowing muscle movement.
Stem cells:

Many tissues in the human body contain a small number of undifferentiated cells. These are
called stem cells and their function is to divide and produce new differentiated cells within the
tissue for growth and repair by mitosis.

Adult stem cells from bone marrow are quite useful in medicine as they can be directed to
differentiate into several different cell types (unlike adult stem cells from other tissues which can
only differentiate into related cell types).

Stem cells are also found in great numbers in embryonic tissue as there is a large amount of
development and differentiation going on during foetal development.

Scientists can clone these embryonic stem cells and direct them to differentiate into almost any
cell type.

Using Stem Cells in Medicine