MS&E 302 Lecture W# 3:

STRAIN

Strains Ø As a solid is deformed, points in that body are displaced.

Ø Displacement of points may result from rigid-body
translation, rotation, and deformation.
Ø Deformation of solid may be made up of dilatation, change
ØDisplacement field in volume, or distortion, change in shape.
Ø Translation and rotation are treated in branch of mechanics
ØCalculation of strains called dynamics.
ØPrincipal strains and strain invariants

1 2

Engineering strain
plastic One Dimensional Strain
microplastic
Material
anelastic
Response
elastic ∆l A ' B '− AB
x
dx x ex = =
l AB
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 A B ∂u
dx + dx − dx
∂x ∂u
= =
u dx ∂x
∂u
u + d x;
Increasing strain ∂x
A'
B' Normal strains
P
METAL FORMING

Increasing reversibility ∂u ∂u ∂v ∂w
dx + ex = , ey = , ez=
TENSILE TEST

MECHANICAL

∂x
dx ; ∂x ∂y ∂z
ALLOYING
DRAWING
DAMPING

FATIGUE

WIRE

3 4

Angular distortion of an element Relative Displacements associated with rotations

Pure shear without rotation Ø Displacement of points along the line AD is
parallel to x axis, but component of displacement Pure rotation without shear Ø Rotation of a line initially in the x direction
y
C' increases in proportion to the distance along y − ∂udy C' ∂v
D' axis. ∂y y
w =
D DD′ ∂u D ∂x
u C e xy = = Ø Rotation of a line initially in the y direction
e xy
Thus, DA ∂y D' u C

BB′ ∂v ∂u
B'
e yx = = w=−
e yx
v
x AB ∂x v B'
∂v
∂y
∂x
dx Ø The average rotation of an element in the
Shear displacements are positive when they rotate
A B a line from one positive axis toward another ∂Bu
x-y plane
1 ∂v ∂u
w21 = ( − )
A x
w=
positive axis.
∂y 2 ∂x ∂ y
Ø By similar methods the rest of  ∂u ∂u ∂u   1 ∂u ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w 
 ( − ) ( − )
∂z   0
components of displacement
 e xx e xy e x z   ∂x ∂y Ø By similar 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂z ∂x 
tensor can be methods the rest of  w xx wxy wx z  
   ∂v ∂v ∂v     1 ∂v ∂u 1 ∂v ∂ w 
eij = e yx e yy e yz  =  components of wij = w yx w yy w y z =  2 ( ∂x − ∂y ) ( − )
∂z 
0
2 ∂z ∂y 
 e z x e zy e zz   ∂x ∂y rotation tensor
 w zx wzy wzz   
   ∂w ∂w ∂w can be  1 ∂w ∂u 1 ∂w ∂v 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   2 ( ∂x − ∂z ) 2 ( ∂y − ∂z) 0 
 5  6

1
 General displacement equations
y y
y
y a
γ = = tan θ
e ij = ε ij + wij =
θ
+
h
a

x x θ
A A
A x
h
 ∂u 1 ∂u ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w 
 ( + ) ( + )
 ∂x 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂z ∂x 
ε xx ε xy ε xz  Represent The x
   1 ∂v ∂u ∂v 1 ∂v ∂w  Strain Component. A
ε ij = ε ε yy v yz  ==  ( + ) ( + )
2 ∂ z ∂y 
yx
ε ε zy ε zz   2 ∂x ∂y ∂y
Ø The shear strain γ is ∂u ∂v
 zx
 1 ∂w ∂u 1 ∂w ∂ v ∂w  ∂u ∂v ∂w γ xy = +
 ( + ) ( + )  total angular change εx = ; εy = ; εz= ; ∂ y ∂x
 2 ∂x ∂z 2 ∂y ∂z ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z
from a right angle. ∂w ∂u
 1 ∂u ∂v 1 ∂u ∂w  γ xz = +
 0 ( − ) ( − ) ∂x ∂z
2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂z ∂x ∂ u ∂v
 w xx w xy w xz    Rigid body
   1 ∂v ∂u 1 ∂v ∂w  γ xy = + ∂w ∂w
wij = w yx w yy w yz  =  ( − − )
rotation about
∂y ∂x γ yz = +
2 ∂z ∂y 
) 0 (
2 ∂x ∂y point A. ∂y ∂y
 w zx wzy wzz  
 1 ∂w ∂u 1 ∂w ∂v


 2 ( ∂x − ∂z ) 2 ( ∂y − ∂z) 0 
 

Displacement equations u i = ε x j + wij x j

ij 7 8

Z,3
Example: Normal strain on an
K oblique plane is given by
Strain Transformation εx ε
x’, 1’
ε yx ε xy
εy ε xz
Ø Strain tensor is a second-rank tensor, it has all of the ε yz
ε zy ε zx L y, 2
properties that have been described earlier for stress, can be εz
written directly by substituting ε for σ and γ/2 for τ. ε '1'1' = a1' 1 a1' ε1 11 +a1' 1a1 ' 2ε 12 + a1' 1 a1' 3ε 13
J + a1' 2a1 ' 1ε 21 + a1' 2a1 ' 2 ε 22 + a1' 2 a1' 3 ε 23
Ø Transformation strain tensor from x1, x2, x3, system of axis to x, 1
+ a1' 3a1 '1 ε 31 + a1' 3a1 ' 2 ε 32 + a 1' 3 a1 '3 ε 33
the x'1, x'2, x'3 axis is given by
ε '1' 1' = a12'1ε 1'1
+ a12'2ε 22
+ a12' 3 ε 33

+ 2a1' 1a1 ' 2 ε 12 + 2a 1' 1 a1' 3 ε13 + 2a1' 2a1 '3 ε 23

ε 'k l = a k i a l j ε i j
ε '1' 1' = a12'1ε 1' 1
+ a12'2 ε 22
+ a12' 3 ε 33
+ a1'1 a1 ' 2 γ 12 + a1' 1 a1 ' 3 γ13 + a1' 2 a 1' 3 γ 23
9 Compare the above with Eq.2 -18 in text book 10

Calculation of the principal strain Ø Direction of principal strain are obtained from
below equation analogous to principal stress equations
Ø Calculation for principal strain is analogous to the principal

}
stress equations + ε l − ε xxl − ε xym − ε xz n = 0 2l ( εxx − ε ) + γ xy m + γ xz n = 0
− ε yxl + εm − ε yym − ε yz n = 0 γ yxl + 2 m( ε yy − ε ) + γ yz n = 0
ε − I1 ε +I2 ε − I3 = 0
3 2

− εzxl − εzy m + εn − ε zz n = 0 γzxl + γ zym + 2n( γzz − γ ) = 0

where I1 = ε x + ε y + ε z
1
I 2 = ε x ε y + ε y ε z + ε x ε z − ( ε 2xy + ε2xz + ε 2yz ) Ø The equation for principal shearing strain can be obtained
4 analogous to the principal shearing stress equations
1 1
I 3 = εx εy εz + ε xyε yz εxz − ( εx ε 2yz + ε y ε xz + ε z ε xy)
2 2

4 4 γ 1 = ( ε 2 − ε3 )
γ max = γ 2 = ( ε1 − ε 3 )
γ 3 = ( ε 1 − ε2 )
11 12

2
 Volume Strain Strain Deviator
Ø The part of strain tensor which is involved in shape change
∆z ∆z × ( 1+ ε zz ) rather than volume change is called the strain deviator.
Ø To obtain deviatoric strain, εm is subtracted from each of the
∆x ∆y
∆ x × ( 1 + ε xx ) ∆y × (1 + ε yy ) normal strain components.
∆V ε x − ε m ε xy ε xz 
∆= = (1 + ε xx )(1 + ε yy )( 1 + ε zz ) −1  
V ε 'ij =  ε yx ε y −ε m ε yz 
Forsmall strains ∆ = ε xx + ε yy + ε zz  ε zx ε zy ε z − ε m 

Which is equal to1st Invariant of the strain tensor
Ø When εi,j are principal strains, strain deviators are ε’ 11= ε11-
The mean strain or hydrostatic component of strain εm , ε’ 22= ε22-εm , and ε’ 33= ε33-εm , this represent elongation or
ε xx + ε yy + ε zz contraction along the principal axes that change the shape at
ε kk ∆
εm = = = constant volume.
3 3 3
13 14

Mohr’s Circle of Strain Typical Strain Gage Rosettes

εc
Rectangular y
Ø Various equations developed for stress can be used for strain y εb c
c x’ a b
by changing the variables as follows. εa
b
45o

σ xx , σ yy ,σ zz → ε xx , ε yy , ε zz 45o
O
ε xy ε yz ε zx a
x ε ac x
τ xy , τ yz , τ zx → , , Ø Determination of principal strain for Rectangular
a c
2 2 2 strain gage using Mohr’s circle construction. b

The center of the circle εa +εc

O=
Ø Rules for Working with Mohr’s Circle for strain is same as for 2

}
stress. ε x' = εx cos 2 θ + εy sin 2 θ + γx y sin θ cos θ εa + ε c εa − ε c 1
εb = + cos2(45) + γac sin2(45)
εx +ε y εx − ε y 2 2 2
1
εx ' = + cos2θ + γ xy s i n 2θ , 1 ε + εc
2 2 2 γ = εb − a
2 ac 2

15 16

Typical Strain Gage Rosettes Example 1:

ε1 b Following results were received from a strain rosette composed of three wire
Delta γ/2 a resistance gages making angles of 0o , 60 o and θ =120o with the x axis..
θ c D
y α
a ε 0 =+ 100 (10-5 ), ε 60 = -65 (10 -5 ) , ε 120= +75 (10 -5 ) .
b c β
C α
β b
P ε Solution: Applying the Eqs. For shearing and principal strains
ε2 2θ εx+ ε y εx − ε y 1
ε1 ε x' = + cos2θ + γxy sin2θ
X’
60o 60o c x O X’’
x 2 2 2
a ε2 c A 100 + ε y 100 − ε y 1

}
−65 = + cos120 + γ xy sin120, y
B b a 2 2 2
x’ b c
100 + ε y 100 − εy 1
εa x’ 75 = + cos240 + γ xy sin240,
Ø Lay off arbitrary X’X’ and draw three vertical lines aa, 2 2 2
bb, cc through the values of εa , εb , εc. εb εc

}
X’ 60o 60o
100 + ε y 100 − ε y 3 x
−65 =
2
−
4
+
4
γ xy εy =− 26 a
Ø From any point on the bb draw DA with angle α. Same way 100 + ε y 100 − ε y 3 γ xy =− 161.67
75 = − − γ xy
form DC. 2 4 4

}
ε x+ ε y 1 
± ( εx −ε y ) + γ 
2 1/2
ε1, ε 2 = 37 ± 102.5,
2
Ø From a circle through A, C, and D. Determine O by intersection of perpendicular bisector to ε1, ε2 =
2 2  xy
CD and AD. εmax = 139.5,
100 − 26 1  2 1/2
(100 −( 2−6 ) ) + ( −161.67 ) 
2
ε1 , ε2 = ± εmin = − 65.5
Ø Values of principals strain are determined by intersection of th e circle with the new 2 2  xy

axis through O. 2 θ is the angle between ε1 and gage a. γ x ' y ' = (εx − εy ) s i n 2θ − γ xycos2θ
γ max = ± 205
17 
} 18
2 1/2
γ m a x = ±  ( ε x − ε y ) + γ x y  = (ε 1− ε
2
)

2

3
 Hydrostatic and Deviator Component of Stress Hydrostatic and Deviator Component of Stress
Ø Total stress tensor can be divided into a hydrostatic or mean stress tensor, and a Ø The deviator stress tensor involves shear stresses.
deviator stress tensor. § For example referring σ’i,j to system of principal axis,
§ Hydrostatic or mean stress tensor σm involves only pure tension or compression, which
produces only elastic volume changes and does not cause plastic deformation. 2 σ1 − σ 2 − σ 3 σ1 − σ 2 + σ1 − σ 3
σ' 1 = =
§ Deviator stress tensor represents the shear stresses in the total stress state, it is important 3 3
in causing plastic deformation. 2 σ1 − σ 2 + σ1 − σ 3 2
= = ( τ3 + τ 2 )
3 2 3
σ xx + σ yy + σzz σ1 + σ2 + σ3
σm = =
3 3 Ø Since σi,j is a second rank tensor, it has principal axes. Principal values of stress
deviator are the roots of cubic equation.
Ø To obtain deviatoric stress, σm is subtracted from each of the normal stress
components. σ '3 − J1 σ '2 + J2 σ ' − J3 = 0
 2σ x − σ y − σ z  Where
 σ xy σ xz  J 1 = ( σ x − σ m ) + ( σy − σm ) + ( σ z − σm )
σ xz   
3
 σ x −σ m σ xy

=  σ yx
  2σ y − σ x −σ  J 2 = σ2xy + σ2xz + σ2yz − σ' x σ' y − σ' y σ'z − σ'x σ'z
σ y −σ m σ yz  = 
z
σ 'i j σ yx σ yz  Eq. A
3
 σ zx
 σ zy σ z − σ m   
2σ z σ y σ x 
− − The third invariant J3 is the determinant of Eq. A in previous page.
 σ zx σ zy 
 3 
19 20

σx σx
εx = σ xy γ
Elastic Stress-Strain Relations E
Ø Elastic Deformation ε z = ε y = − νε x
σ xy
§ Fully recoverable σx
§ “Time-independent” (i.e., instantaneous, for instance, the propagation of waves) = −ν
E σ xy
Ø Linear Elasticity (small strains) γ σ xy
ε xy = =
§ Stresses and strains obey Hooke’s Law 2 2G
σx
§ There are only two independent constants: (E,ν), (E,G), (K,G), (λ,G), etc.
E = Young’s Modulus
E : Young’s Modulus G, µ: Shear Modulus ν = Poisson’s Ratio y- and z-directions
ν: Poisson’s Ratio K: Bulk Modulus ε yy = ε zz = 0 constrained so that
λ: Lamé’s constant there are no strains in
σh K = Bulk Modulus those directions
§ Normal stresses affect all normal strains (but not the shear str ains), and shear σ xx , ε xx
stresses only affect shear strains with same indices (i.e., τxy=2Gεxy ) and do not ∆V σ h
=
affect normal strains. V K σ yy = σ zz = λε xx
σh
21 22

Elastic Stress-Strain Relations (Hooke’s Law) Elastic Stress-Strain Relations

Str
ain Ø Shear stress acting on the unit cube produce shear strain
Str In x direction In y direction In z direction
ess
σ xy σ yz σ zx
σx σx
γ xy = γ yz = γ zx =
σx εy = −ν εz = −ν G G G
σx εx = E E
E
σy σy σy Ø Relationships among the elastic constants
σy εx = −ν
E
εy =
E
εz = −ν
E
∆ = εxx + ε yy + ε zz ∆V σ h G =µ =
E
σz σz σz =
σz εx = −ν εy = −ν εz = V K 2(1 + ν )
E E E
σ1 + σ 2 + σ3 E 3( 1 − 2ν ) K
σm = G=

}
K= 2( 1+ ν )
εx =
1
[
σ − ν( σy + σ z )
E x
] 3 3(1 − 2ν )
1 − 2ν 2ν G
1 − 2ν ∆= 3σm E λ=
ε y = [σ y − ν( σ x + σ z )] K=
1
εx + εy + εz = (σx + σ y + σz ) E 9 −3 E / G 1 − 2ν
E E
νE
λ=
εz =
1
E
[
σ z − ν( σ x + σ y ) ] 23 (1 + ν)(1 − 2 ν) 24

4
 Calculation of Stress From Elastic Strain Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Elasticity
Ø Hooke’s Law (constitutive equations for isotropic linear elasticity) (index notation)
Ø If the stresses are known and you want to calculate the strains
σ11 = ( λ + 2G )ε 11 + 2G( ε 22 + ε 33 )
σ 22 = ( λ + 2G )ε 22 + 2G( ε 33 + ε 11 ) ν 0 if i ≠ j
ε ij =
1
σ ij − σ kk δ ij δ ij =  (Kroenecke r δ )
σ 33 = ( λ + 2G )ε 33 + 2G ( ε11 + ε 22 ) 2G E 1 if i = j
Ø If the strains are known and you want to calculate the stresses
σ12 = 2Gε 12 ; σ13 = 2G ε13 ; σ 23 = 2G ε 23
σ ij = 2Gε ij + λε kk δij νE
λ=
νE (1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
λ=
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
σ11 = ( λ + 2G )ε11 + 2G ( ε 22 + ε33 )
σ 22 = ( λ + 2G )ε 22 + 2G ( ε 33 + ε 11 )
σ 33 = ( λ + 2G )ε 33 + 2G( ε11 + ε 22 )
25 26

Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Elasticity Strain Energy or Elastic Work

Ø A bar of length a area A is subjected to a uniaxial tensile
(index notation) force, Fx, which causes an incremental change in length,
dx. The incremental work, dW is x
Ø For the case of plane stress (σ3 =0) , Equations relating to stress to strains
A
dWel Fx dx
dWel = Fx dx dw = = = σx dε x
E xA A x
σ1 = (ε + νε 2 ) dx
1 −ν 2 1
Since σ x = E ε x ∫ dw = ∫ E ε x dε x F
E
σ2 = (ε + νε 1 ) Ø Stored elastic energy per unit volume in a body is
1 −ν 2 2
σx e x E e x
2
Ø For the case of plane strain (ε3=0) , Equations relating to stress to strains w= =
2 2

1 1
ε3 = 0 = (σ 3− ν σ
( 1 + σ 2 )) w =
2
( ε x σ x + ε y σ y + ε z σ z + γ xy τ xy +γ yz τyz +γ zx τzx )
E
σ 3 =ν (σ1 + σ 2 ) 1
w = ( ε 1 σ 1 + ε 2σ 2 + ε 3 σ 3 )
2
27 28

Strain Energy or Elastic Work

Ø Substituting following equations in to energy equation

εx =
1
E x
[
σ − ν (σ y + σ z )] σ σ
γ xy = xy γ yz = yz γ zx =
σ zx

[ ]
1 G G G
ε y = σ y − ν (σx + σz )
E
εz =
1
[
σ − ν ( σx + σ y )
E z
]

1 ν
w= ( σ + σ 2y +σz ) − ( σ x σ y + σy σ z + σ z σx )
2 2

2E x E
1 2
+ ( τxy + τyz + τzx)
2 2

2G

29